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Soares RP, Fontes IC, Dutra-Rêgo F, Rugani JN, Moreira POL, da Matta VLR, Flores GVA, Pacheco CMS, de Andrade AJ, da Costa-Ribeiro MCV, Shaw JJ, Laurenti MD. Unveiling the Enigmatic nature of six neglected Amazonian Leishmania (Viannia) species using the hamster model: Virulence, Histopathology and prospection of LRV1. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2024; 18:e0012333. [PMID: 39121159 PMCID: PMC11315283 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0012333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 06/28/2024] [Indexed: 08/11/2024] Open
Abstract
American tegumentary leishmaniasis (ATL) is highly endemic in the Amazon basin and occurs in all South American countries, except Chile and Uruguay. Most Brazilian ATL cases are due to Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis, however other neglected Amazonian species are being increasingly reported. They belong to the subgenus L. (Viannia) and information on suitable models to understand immunopathology are scarce. Here, we explored the use of the golden hamster Mesocricetus auratus and its macrophages as a model for L. (Viannia) species. We also studied the interaction of parasite glycoconjugates (LPGs and GIPLs) in murine macrophages. The following strains were used: L. (V.) braziliensis (MHOM/BR/2001/BA788), L. (V.) guyanensis (MHOM/BR/85/M9945), L. (V.) shawi (MHOM/BR/96/M15789), L. (V.) lindenbergi (MHOM/BR/98/M15733) and L. (V.) naiffi (MDAS/BR/79/M5533). In vivo infections were initiated by injecting parasites into the footpad and were followed up at 20- and 40-days PI. Parasites were mixed with salivary gland extract (SGE) from wild-captured Nyssomyia neivai prior to in vivo infections. Animals were euthanized for histopathological evaluation of the footpads, spleen, and liver. The parasite burden was evaluated in the skin and draining lymph nodes. In vitro infections used resident peritoneal macrophages and THP-1 monocytes infected with all species using a MOI (1:10). For biochemical studies, glycoconjugates (LPGs and GIPLs) were extracted, purified, and biochemically characterized using fluorophore-assisted carbohydrate electrophoresis (FACE). They were functionally evaluated after incubation with macrophages from C57BL/6 mice and knockouts (TLR2-/- and TLR4-/-) for nitric oxide (NO) and cytokine/chemokine production. All species, except L. (V.) guyanensis, failed to generate evident macroscopic lesions 40 days PI. The L. (V.) guyanensis lesions were swollen but did not ulcerate and microscopically were characterized by an intense inflammatory exudate. Despite the fact the other species did not produce visible skin lesions there was no or mild pro-inflammatory infiltration at the inoculation site and parasites survived in the hamster skin/lymph nodes and even visceralized. Although none of the species caused severe disease in the hamster, they differentially infected peritoneal macrophages in vitro. LPGs and GIPLs were able to differentially trigger NO and cytokine production via TLR2/TLR4 and TLR4, respectively. The presence of a sidechain in L. (V.) lainsoni LPG (type II) may be responsible for its higher proinflammatory activity. After Principal Component analyses using all phenotypic features, the clustering of L. (V.) lainsoni was separated from all the other L. (Viannia) species. We conclude that M. auratus was a suitable in vivo model for at least four dermotropic L. (Viannia) species. However, in vitro studies using peritoneal cells are a suitable alternative for understanding interactions of the six L. (Viannia) species used here. LRV1 presence was found in L. (V.) guyanensis and L. (V.) shawi with no apparent correlation with virulence in vitro and in vivo. Finally, parasite glycoconjugates were able to functionally trigger various innate immune responses in murine macrophages via TLRs consistent with their inflammatory profile in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Pedro Soares
- Grupo Biotecnologia Aplicada ao Estudo de Patógenos (BAP), Instituto René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Laboratório de Patologia das Moléstias Infecciosas, Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Igor Campos Fontes
- Grupo Biotecnologia Aplicada ao Estudo de Patógenos (BAP), Instituto René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Felipe Dutra-Rêgo
- Grupo Biotecnologia Aplicada ao Estudo de Patógenos (BAP), Instituto René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Jeronimo Nunes Rugani
- Grupo Biotecnologia Aplicada ao Estudo de Patógenos (BAP), Instituto René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Paulo Otávio L. Moreira
- Grupo Biotecnologia Aplicada ao Estudo de Patógenos (BAP), Instituto René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Vânia Lúcia Ribeiro da Matta
- Laboratório de Patologia das Moléstias Infecciosas, Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Gabriela Venícia Araujo Flores
- Laboratório de Patologia das Moléstias Infecciosas, Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Carmen Maria Sandoval Pacheco
- Laboratório de Patologia das Moléstias Infecciosas, Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Andrey José de Andrade
- Laboratório de Parasitologia Molecular, Departamento de Patologia Básica, Setor de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Magda Clara Vieira da Costa-Ribeiro
- Laboratório de Parasitologia Molecular, Departamento de Patologia Básica, Setor de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Jeffrey Jon Shaw
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Márcia Dalastra Laurenti
- Laboratório de Patologia das Moléstias Infecciosas, Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Vomáčková Kykalová B, Sassù F, Dutra-Rêgo F, Soares RP, Volf P, Loza Telleria E. Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) derived from Leishmania and bacteria increase gene expression of antimicrobial peptides and gut surface proteins in sand flies. Int J Parasitol 2024; 54:485-495. [PMID: 38626865 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2024.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/30/2024]
Abstract
The interaction between pathogens and vectors' physiology can impact parasite transmission. Studying this interaction at the molecular level can help in developing control strategies. We study leishmaniases, diseases caused by Leishmania parasites transmitted by sand fly vectors, posing a significant global public health concern. Lipophosphoglycan (LPG), the major surface glycoconjugate of Leishmania, has been described to have several roles throughout the parasite's life cycle, both in the insect and vertebrate hosts. In addition, the sand fly midgut possesses a rich microbiota expressing lipopolysaccharides (LPS). However, the effect of LPG and LPS on the gene expression of sand fly midgut proteins or immunity effectors has not yet been documented. We experimentally fed Lutzomyia longipalpis and Phlebotomus papatasi sand flies with blood containing purified LPG from Leishmania infantum, Leishmania major, or LPS from Escherichia coli. The effect on the expression of genes encoding gut proteins galectin and mucin, digestive enzymes trypsin and chymotrypsin, and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) attacin and defensins was assessed by quantitative PCR (qPCR). The gene expression of a mucin-like protein in L. longipalpis was increased by L. infantum LPG and E. coli LPS. The gene expression of a galectin was increased in L. longipalpis by L. major LPG, and in P. papatasi by E. coli LPS. Nevertheless, the gene expression of trypsins and chymotrypsins did not significantly change. On the other hand, both L. infantum and L. major LPG significantly enhanced expression of the AMP attacin in both sand fly species and defensin in L. longipalpis. In addition, E. coli LPS increased the expression of attacin and defensin in L. longipalpis. Our study showed that Leishmania LPG and E. coli LPS differentially modulate the expression of sand fly genes involved in gut maintenance and defence. This suggests that the glycoconjugates from microbiota or Leishmania may increase the vector's immune response and the gene expression of a gut coating protein in a permissive vector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbora Vomáčková Kykalová
- Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Parasitology, Viničná 7, 128 44, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Fabiana Sassù
- Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Parasitology, Viničná 7, 128 44, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Felipe Dutra-Rêgo
- Biotechnology Applied to Pathogens (BAP), Instituto René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Av. Augusto de Lima, 1715, CEP: 30190-009, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Pedro Soares
- Biotechnology Applied to Pathogens (BAP), Instituto René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Av. Augusto de Lima, 1715, CEP: 30190-009, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Petr Volf
- Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Parasitology, Viničná 7, 128 44, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Erich Loza Telleria
- Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Parasitology, Viničná 7, 128 44, Prague, Czech Republic.
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Silvestrini MMA, Alessio GD, Frias BED, Sales Júnior PA, Araújo MSS, Silvestrini CMA, Brito Alvim de Melo GE, Martins-Filho OA, Teixeira-Carvalho A, Martins HR. New insights into Trypanosoma cruzi genetic diversity, and its influence on parasite biology and clinical outcomes. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1342431. [PMID: 38655255 PMCID: PMC11035809 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1342431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, remains a serious public health problem worldwide. The parasite was subdivided into six distinct genetic groups, called "discrete typing units" (DTUs), from TcI to TcVI. Several studies have indicated that the heterogeneity of T. cruzi species directly affects the diversity of clinical manifestations of Chagas disease, control, diagnosis performance, and susceptibility to treatment. Thus, this review aims to describe how T. cruzi genetic diversity influences the biology of the parasite and/or clinical parameters in humans. Regarding the geographic dispersion of T. cruzi, evident differences were observed in the distribution of DTUs in distinct areas. For example, TcII is the main DTU detected in Brazilian patients from the central and southeastern regions, where there are also registers of TcVI as a secondary T. cruzi DTU. An important aspect observed in previous studies is that the genetic variability of T. cruzi can impact parasite infectivity, reproduction, and differentiation in the vectors. It has been proposed that T. cruzi DTU influences the host immune response and affects disease progression. Genetic aspects of the parasite play an important role in determining which host tissues will be infected, thus heavily influencing Chagas disease's pathogenesis. Several teams have investigated the correlation between T. cruzi DTU and the reactivation of Chagas disease. In agreement with these data, it is reasonable to suppose that the immunological condition of the patient, whether or not associated with the reactivation of the T. cruzi infection and the parasite strain, may have an important role in the pathogenesis of Chagas disease. In this context, understanding the genetics of T. cruzi and its biological and clinical implications will provide new knowledge that may contribute to additional strategies in the diagnosis and clinical outcome follow-up of patients with Chagas disease, in addition to the reactivation of immunocompromised patients infected with T. cruzi.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Glaucia Diniz Alessio
- Integrated Biomarker Research Group, René Rachou Institute, Fiocruz Minas, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Bruna Estefânia Diniz Frias
- Integrated Biomarker Research Group, René Rachou Institute, Fiocruz Minas, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Policarpo Ademar Sales Júnior
- Integrated Biomarker Research Group, René Rachou Institute, Fiocruz Minas, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Márcio Sobreira Silva Araújo
- Integrated Biomarker Research Group, René Rachou Institute, Fiocruz Minas, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | | | - Olindo Assis Martins-Filho
- Integrated Biomarker Research Group, René Rachou Institute, Fiocruz Minas, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Andréa Teixeira-Carvalho
- Integrated Biomarker Research Group, René Rachou Institute, Fiocruz Minas, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Helen Rodrigues Martins
- Department of Pharmacy, Federal University of the Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys, Diamantina, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Puasri P, Dechkhajorn W, Dekumyoy P, Yoonuan T, Ampawong S, Reamtong O, Boonyuen U, Benjathummarak S, Maneerat Y. Regulation of immune response against third-stage Gnathostoma spinigerum larvae by human genes. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1218965. [PMID: 37600806 PMCID: PMC10436992 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1218965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Gnathostomiasis is an important zoonosis in tropical areas that is mainly caused by third-stage Gnathostoma spinigerum larvae (G. spinigerum L3). Objectives This study aimed to prove whether G. spinigerum L3 produces extracellular vesicles (EVs) and investigate human gene profiles related to the immune response against the larvae. Methods We created an immune cell model using normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) co-cultured with the larvae for 1 and 3 days, respectively. The PBMCs were harvested for transcriptome sequencing analysis. The EV ultrastructure was examined in the larvae and the cultured medium. Results Extracellular vesicle-like particles were observed under the larval teguments and in the pellets in the medium. RNA-seq analysis revealed that 2,847 and 3,118 genes were significantly expressed on days 1 and 3 after culture, respectively. The downregulated genes on day 1 after culture were involved in pro-inflammatory cytokines, the complement system and apoptosis, whereas those on day 3 were involved in T cell-dependent B cell activation and wound healing. Significantly upregulated genes related to cell proliferation, activation and development, as well as cytotoxicity, were observed on day 1, and genes regulating T cell maturation, granulocyte function, nuclear factor-κB and toll-like receptor pathways were predominantly observed on day 3 after culture. Conclusion G. spinigerum L3 produces EV-like particles and releases them into the excretory-secretory products. Overall, genotypic findings during our 3-day observation revealed that most significant gene expressions were related to T and B cell signalling, driving T helper 2 cells related to chronic infection, immune evasion of the larvae, and the pathogenesis of gnathostomiasis. Further in-depth studies are necessary to clarify gene functions in the pathogenesis and immune evasion mechanisms of the infective larvae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pattarasuda Puasri
- Department of Tropical Pathology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Wilanee Dechkhajorn
- Department of Tropical Pathology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Paron Dekumyoy
- Department of Helminthology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Tippayarat Yoonuan
- Department of Helminthology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Sumate Ampawong
- Department of Tropical Pathology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Onrapak Reamtong
- Department of Molecular Tropical Medicine and Genetics, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Usa Boonyuen
- Department of Molecular Tropical Medicine and Genetics, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Surachet Benjathummarak
- Center of Excellence for Antibody Research (CEAR), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Yaowapa Maneerat
- Department of Tropical Pathology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
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Jayaraman A, Srinivasan S, Uppuluri KB, Kar Mahapatra S. Unwinding the mechanism of macrophage repolarization potential of Oceanimonas sp. BPMS22-derived protein protease inhibitor through Toll-like receptor 4 against experimental visceral leishmaniasis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1120888. [PMID: 37033485 PMCID: PMC10073655 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1120888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The Oceanimonas sp. BPMS22-derived protein protease inhibitor (PPI) has been proven to shift macrophages towards an inflammatory state and reduce Leishmania donovani infection in vitro and in vivo. The current study explored and validated the mechanistic aspects of the PPI and Toll-like receptor (TLR) interaction. The PPI exhibited the upregulation of TLR2, TLR4, and TLR6 during treatment which was proven to orchestrate parasite clearance effectively. An in silico study confirmed the high interaction with TLR4 and PPI. Immune blotting confirmed the significant upregulation of TLR4 in macrophages irrespective of L. donovani infection. Pharmacological inhibition and immune blot study confirmed the involvement of the PPI in TLR4-mediated phosphorylation of p38 MAPK and dephosphorylation of ERK1/2, repolarizing to pro-inflammatory macrophage state against experimental visceral leishmaniasis. In addition, in TLR4 knockdown condition, PPI treatment failed to diminish M2 phenotypical markers (CD68, Fizz1, Ym1, CD206, and MSR-2) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-10, and TGF-β). Simultaneously, the PPI failed to upregulate the M1 phenotypical markers and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12, and IFN-γ) (p < 0.001) during the TLR4 knockdown condition. In the absence of TLR4, the PPI also failed to reduce the parasite load and T-cell proliferation and impaired the delayed-type hypersensitivity response. The absence of pro-inflammatory cytokines was observed during a co-culture study with PPI-treated macrophages (in the TLR4 knockdown condition) with day 10 T-cell obtained from L. donovani-infected mice. This study supports the immunotherapeutic potential of the PPI as it interacted with TLR4 and promoted macrophage repolarization (M2-M1) to restrict the L. donovani parasite burden and helps in the mounting immune response against experimental visceral leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adithyan Jayaraman
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed to be University, Thanjavur, India
| | - Sujatha Srinivasan
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed to be University, Thanjavur, India
| | - Kiran Babu Uppuluri
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed to be University, Thanjavur, India
- *Correspondence: Santanu Kar Mahapatra, ; Kiran Babu Uppuluri,
| | - Santanu Kar Mahapatra
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed to be University, Thanjavur, India
- Department of Paramedical and Allied Health Sciences, Midnapore City College, Midnapore, India
- *Correspondence: Santanu Kar Mahapatra, ; Kiran Babu Uppuluri,
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Pessoa NL, Diniz LMO, Andrade ADS, Kroon EG, Bentes AA, Campos MA. Children with sickle cell disease and severe COVID-19 presenting single nucleotide polymorphisms in innate immune response genes - A case report. EJHAEM 2022; 3:199-202. [PMID: 35464153 PMCID: PMC9015419 DOI: 10.1002/jha2.325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Here we report three clinical cases of children with sickle cell disease (SCD) and severe COVID-19 who evolved with complications during hospitalization or after discharge. They present single nucleotide polymorphisms in tlr-7 and tirap genes, identified from 37 patients under 16 years old hospitalized from September 2020 to May 2021 in the Hospital João Paulo II, Belo Horizonte, Brazil. They presented significant complications of SCD as acute chest syndrome, splenic sequestration, and pain crisis during hospitalization or up to 2 months after SARS-CoV-2 infection. They all required transfusion of concentrated red blood cells and hospitalization in a reference hospital to care for children with SCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natália Lima Pessoa
- Laboratório de VírusDepartamento de MicrobiologiaInstituto de Ciências BiológicasUniversidade Federal de Minas GeraisBelo HorizonteBrazil
- Imunologia de Doenças Virais, Instituto René RachouFundação Oswaldo CruzBelo HorizonteBrazil
| | - Lilian Martins Oliveira Diniz
- Departamento de Pediatria, Faculdade de MedicinaUniversidade Federal de Minas GeraisBelo HorizonteBrazil
- Hospital João Paulo IIFundação Hospitalar do Estado de Minas GeraisBelo HorizonteBrazil
| | | | - Erna Geessien Kroon
- Laboratório de VírusDepartamento de MicrobiologiaInstituto de Ciências BiológicasUniversidade Federal de Minas GeraisBelo HorizonteBrazil
| | - Aline Almeida Bentes
- Departamento de Pediatria, Faculdade de MedicinaUniversidade Federal de Minas GeraisBelo HorizonteBrazil
- Hospital João Paulo IIFundação Hospitalar do Estado de Minas GeraisBelo HorizonteBrazil
| | - Marco Antônio Campos
- Imunologia de Doenças Virais, Instituto René RachouFundação Oswaldo CruzBelo HorizonteBrazil
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Kardani K, Bolhassani A, Namvar A. An overview of in silico vaccine design against different pathogens and cancer. Expert Rev Vaccines 2020; 19:699-726. [PMID: 32648830 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2020.1794832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Due to overcome the hardness of the vaccine design, computational vaccinology is emerging widely. Prediction of T cell and B cell epitopes, antigen processing analysis, antigenicity analysis, population coverage, conservancy analysis, allergenicity assessment, toxicity prediction, and protein-peptide docking are important steps in the process of designing and developing potent vaccines against various viruses and cancers. In order to perform all of the analyses, several bioinformatics tools and online web servers have been developed. Scientists must take the decision to apply more suitable and precise servers for each part based on their accuracy. AREAS COVERED In this review, a wide-range list of different bioinformatics tools and online web servers has been provided. Moreover, some studies were proposed to show the importance of various bioinformatics tools for predicting and developing efficient vaccines against different pathogens including viruses, bacteria, parasites, and fungi as well as cancer. EXPERT OPINION Immunoinformatics is the best way to find potential vaccine candidates against different pathogens. Thus, the selection of the most accurate tools is necessary to predict and develop potent preventive and therapeutic vaccines. To further evaluation of the computational and in silico vaccine design, in vitro/in vivo analyses are required to develop vaccine candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimia Kardani
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences , Tehran, Iran.,Department of Hepatitis and AIDS, Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran, Iran
| | - Azam Bolhassani
- Department of Hepatitis and AIDS, Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Namvar
- Iranian Comprehensive Hemophilia Care Center , Tehran, Iran
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Vieira TDS, Rugani JN, Nogueira PM, Torrecilhas AC, Gontijo CMF, Descoteaux A, Soares RP. Intraspecies Polymorphisms in the Lipophosphoglycan of L. braziliensis Differentially Modulate Macrophage Activation via TLR4. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 9:240. [PMID: 31355149 PMCID: PMC6636203 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipophosphoglycan (LPG) is the major Leishmania surface glycoconjugate having importance during the host-parasite interface. Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis displays a spectrum of clinical forms including: typical cutaneous leishmaniasis (TL), mucocutaneous (ML), and atypical lesions (AL). Those variations in the immunopathology may be a result of intraspecies polymorphisms in the parasite's virulence factors. In this context, we evaluated the role of LPG of strains originated from patients with different clinical manifestations and the sandfly vector. Six isolates of L. braziliensis were used: M2903, RR051 and RR418 (TL), RR410 (AL), M15991 (ML), and M8401 (vector). LPGs were extracted and purified by hydrophobic interaction. Peritoneal macrophages from C57BL/6 and respective knock-outs (TLR2−/− and TLR-4−/−) were primed with IFN-γ and exposed to different LPGs for nitric oxide (NO) and cytokine production (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12, and TNF-α). LPGs differentially activated the production of NO and cytokines via TLR4. In order to ascertain if such functional variations were related to intraspecies polymorphisms in the LPG, the purified glycoconjugates were subjected to western blot with specific LPG antibodies (CA7AE and LT22). Based on antibody reactivity preliminary variations in the repeat units were detected. To confirm these findings, LPGs were depolymerized for purification of repeat units. After thin layer chromatography, intraspecies polymorphisms were confirmed especially in the type and/size of sugars branching-off the repeat units motif. In conclusion, different isolates of L. braziliensis from different clinical forms and hosts possess polymorphisms in their LPGs that functionally affected macrophage responses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Albert Descoteaux
- INRS-Institut Armand-Frappier, Université du Québec, Laval, QC, Canada
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Lima JB, Araújo-Santos T, Lázaro-Souza M, Carneiro AB, Ibraim IC, Jesus-Santos FH, Luz NF, Pontes SDM, Entringer PF, Descoteaux A, Bozza PT, Soares RP, Borges VM. Leishmania infantum lipophosphoglycan induced-Prostaglandin E 2 production in association with PPAR-γ expression via activation of Toll like receptors-1 and 2. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14321. [PMID: 29084985 PMCID: PMC5662570 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14229-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Accepted: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Lipophosphoglycan (LPG) is a key virulence factor expressed on the surfaces of Leishmania promastigotes. Although LPG is known to activate macrophages, the underlying mechanisms resulting in the production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) via signaling pathways remain unknown. Here, the inflammatory response arising from stimulation by Leishmania infantum LPG and/or its lipid and glycan motifs was evaluated with regard to PGE2 induction. Intact LPG, but not its glycan and lipid moieties, induced a range of proinflammatory responses, including PGE2 and nitric oxide (NO) release, increased lipid droplet formation, and iNOS and COX2 expression. LPG also induced ERK-1/2 and JNK phosphorylation in macrophages, in addition to the release of PGE2, MCP-1, IL-6, TNF-α and IL-12p70, but not IL-10. Pharmacological inhibition of ERK1/2 and PKC affected PGE2 and cytokine production. Moreover, treatment with rosiglitazone, an agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ), also modulated the release of PGE2 and other proinflammatory mediators. Finally, we determined that LPG-induced PPAR-γ signaling occurred via TLR1/2. Taken together, these results reinforce the role played by L. infantum-derived LPG in the proinflammatory response seen in Leishmania infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonilson Berlink Lima
- Gonçalo Moniz Institut, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ-BA), 40296-710, Salvador, BA, Brazil.,Center of Biological Sciences and Health, Federal University of Western Bahia (UFOB), 47808-021, Barreiras, BA, Brazil
| | - Théo Araújo-Santos
- Gonçalo Moniz Institut, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ-BA), 40296-710, Salvador, BA, Brazil.,Center of Biological Sciences and Health, Federal University of Western Bahia (UFOB), 47808-021, Barreiras, BA, Brazil
| | - Milena Lázaro-Souza
- Gonçalo Moniz Institut, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ-BA), 40296-710, Salvador, BA, Brazil.,Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), 40110-170, Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - Alan Brito Carneiro
- Laboratory of Immunopharmacology, Oswaldo Cruz Institut, FIOCRUZ-RJ, 21040-900, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Izabela Coimbra Ibraim
- René Rachou Institut, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ-MG), 30190-002, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Flávio Henrique Jesus-Santos
- Gonçalo Moniz Institut, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ-BA), 40296-710, Salvador, BA, Brazil.,Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), 40110-170, Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - Nívea Farias Luz
- Gonçalo Moniz Institut, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ-BA), 40296-710, Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - Sara de Moura Pontes
- Gonçalo Moniz Institut, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ-BA), 40296-710, Salvador, BA, Brazil.,Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), 40110-170, Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - Petter Franco Entringer
- Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), NUPEM, Campus Macaé, 27933-378, Macaé, RJ, Brazil
| | - Albert Descoteaux
- Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut Armand-Frappier, H7V 1B7, Laval, Canada
| | - Patrícia Torres Bozza
- Laboratory of Immunopharmacology, Oswaldo Cruz Institut, FIOCRUZ-RJ, 21040-900, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Pedro Soares
- René Rachou Institut, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ-MG), 30190-002, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
| | - Valéria Matos Borges
- Gonçalo Moniz Institut, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ-BA), 40296-710, Salvador, BA, Brazil. .,Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), 40110-170, Salvador, BA, Brazil.
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11
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Goktas EF, Bulut C, Goktas MT, Ozer EK, Karaca RO, Kinikli S, Demiroz AP, Bozkurt A. Investigation of 1377C/T polymorphism of the Toll-like receptor 3 among patients with chronic hepatitis B. Can J Microbiol 2016; 62:617-22. [PMID: 27314608 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2016-0129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The immunopathogenesis of chronic hepatitis B (CHB) has not been clarified yet. Toll-like receptors (TLR) are a receptor family that initiates immunity with exogenous-endogenous ligands and plays a role in the pathogenesis of infections. In this study, we aimed to investigate the frequency of TLR 3 1377C/T (rs3775290) polymorphism and its role in patients with CHB. We included 50 healthy individuals as control group and 73 active and 43 inactive hepatitis B patients. All DNA samples were isolated from blood samples. For the detection of TLR 3 1377C/T single-nucleotide polymorphism, restriction fragment length polymorphism was used. A statistically significant difference was determined in Hepatitis B virus (HBV) DNA levels of CHB patients with the CC, CT, and TT genotypes (p = 0.013). The highest levels of HBV DNA were detected in individuals with TT genotypes. Additionally, the frequency of CC genotype was higher in the active CHB patients compared with that of the inactive CHB patients (p = 0.044). No statistically significant difference in TLR 3 1377C/T polymorphism was detected between healthy controls and the hepatitis B patients (p = 0.342). In conclusion, HBV DNA level was higher in the individuals with TT genotype, and CC genotype was more frequent in the active CHB patients. These results suggest a possible association between CHB and TLR 3 gene (1377C/T) polymorphism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emine Firat Goktas
- a Kecioren Training and Research Hospital, Clinic of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Cemal Bulut
- b Ankara Training and Research Hospital, Department of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Mustafa Tugrul Goktas
- c Yıldırım Beyazit University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Pharmacology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Erdem Kamil Ozer
- d Selcuk University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Pharmacology, Konya, Turkey
| | - Ragip Ozgur Karaca
- e Hacettepe University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Pharmacology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Sami Kinikli
- b Ankara Training and Research Hospital, Department of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Ali Pekcan Demiroz
- b Ankara Training and Research Hospital, Department of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Atilla Bozkurt
- f BAU International University Batumi, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Pharmacology, Batumi, Georgia
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12
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Cardoso MS, Reis-Cunha JL, Bartholomeu DC. Evasion of the Immune Response by Trypanosoma cruzi during Acute Infection. Front Immunol 2016; 6:659. [PMID: 26834737 PMCID: PMC4716143 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2015] [Accepted: 12/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiologic agent of Chagas disease, a neglected tropical disease that affects millions of people mainly in Latin America. To establish a life-long infection, T. cruzi must subvert the vertebrate host's immune system, using strategies that can be traced to the parasite's life cycle. Once inside the vertebrate host, metacyclic trypomastigotes rapidly invade a wide variety of nucleated host cells in a membrane-bound compartment known as the parasitophorous vacuole, which fuses to lysosomes, originating the phagolysosome. In this compartment, the parasite relies on a complex network of antioxidant enzymes to shield itself from lysosomal oxygen and nitrogen reactive species. Lysosomal acidification of the parasitophorous vacuole is an important factor that allows trypomastigote escape from the extremely oxidative environment of the phagolysosome to the cytoplasm, where it differentiates into amastigote forms. In the cytosol of infected macrophages, oxidative stress instead of being detrimental to the parasite, favors amastigote burden, which then differentiates into bloodstream trypomastigotes. Trypomastigotes released in the bloodstream upon the rupture of the host cell membrane express surface molecules, such as calreticulin and GP160 proteins, which disrupt initial and key components of the complement pathway, while others such as glycosylphosphatidylinositol-mucins stimulate immunoregulatory receptors, delaying the progression of a protective immune response. After an immunologically silent entry at the early phase of infection, T. cruzi elicits polyclonal B cell activation, hypergammaglobulinemia, and unspecific anti-T. cruzi antibodies, which are inefficient in controlling the infection. Additionally, the coexpression of several related, but not identical, epitopes derived from trypomastigote surface proteins delays the generation of T. cruzi-specific neutralizing antibodies. Later in the infection, the establishment of an anti-T. cruzi CD8(+) immune response focused on the parasite's immunodominant epitopes controls parasitemia and tissue infection, but fails to completely eliminate the parasite. This outcome is not detrimental to the parasite, as it reduces host mortality and maintains the parasite infectivity toward the insect vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana S Cardoso
- Laboratório de Imunologia e Genômica de Parasitos, Departamento de Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais , Belo Horizonte , Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - João Luís Reis-Cunha
- Laboratório de Imunologia e Genômica de Parasitos, Departamento de Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais , Belo Horizonte , Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Daniella C Bartholomeu
- Laboratório de Imunologia e Genômica de Parasitos, Departamento de Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais , Belo Horizonte , Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Nogueira PM, Ribeiro K, Silveira ACO, Campos JH, Martins-Filho OA, Bela SR, Campos MA, Pessoa NL, Colli W, Alves MJM, Soares RP, Torrecilhas AC. Vesicles from different Trypanosoma cruzi strains trigger differential innate and chronic immune responses. J Extracell Vesicles 2015; 4:28734. [PMID: 26613751 PMCID: PMC4662668 DOI: 10.3402/jev.v4.28734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Revised: 10/27/2015] [Accepted: 11/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypomastigote forms of Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas Disease, shed extracellular vesicles (EVs) enriched with glycoproteins of the gp85/trans-sialidase (TS) superfamily and other α-galactosyl (α-Gal)-containing glycoconjugates, such as mucins. Here, purified vesicles from T. cruzi strains (Y, Colombiana, CL-14 and YuYu) were quantified according to size, intensity and concentration. Qualitative analysis revealed differences in their protein and α-galactosyl contents. Later, those polymorphisms were evaluated in the modulation of immune responses (innate and in the chronic phase) in C57BL/6 mice. EVs isolated from YuYu and CL-14 strains induced in macrophages higher levels of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6) and nitric oxide via TLR2. In general, no differences were observed in MAPKs activation (p38, JNK and ERK 1/2) after EVs stimulation. In splenic cells derived from chronically infected mice, a different modulation pattern was observed, where Colombiana (followed by Y strain) EVs were more proinflammatory. This modulation was independent of the T. cruzi strain used in the mice infection. To test the functional importance of this modulation, the expression of intracellular cytokines after in vitro exposure was evaluated using EVs from YuYu and Colombiana strains. Both EVs induced cytokine production with the appearance of IL-10 in the chronically infected mice. A high frequency of IL-10 in CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes was observed. A mixed profile of cytokine induction was observed in B cells with the production of TNF-α and IL-10. Finally, dendritic cells produced TNF-α after stimulation with EVs. Polymorphisms in the vesicles surface may be determinant in the immunopathologic events not only in the early steps of infection but also in the chronic phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula M Nogueira
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.,Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Kleber Ribeiro
- Laboratório de Imunologia Celular e Bioquímica de Fungos e Protozoários, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Campus Diadema, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Amanda C O Silveira
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - João H Campos
- Laboratório de Imunologia Celular e Bioquímica de Fungos e Protozoários, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Campus Diadema, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Samantha R Bela
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Marco A Campos
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Natalia L Pessoa
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Walter Colli
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria J M Alves
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo P Soares
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.,Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Ana Claudia Torrecilhas
- Laboratório de Imunologia Celular e Bioquímica de Fungos e Protozoários, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Campus Diadema, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil;
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Costa-Pereira C, Moreira ML, Soares RP, Marteleto BH, Ribeiro VM, França-Dias MH, Cardoso LM, Viana KF, Giunchetti RC, Martins-Filho OA, Araújo MSS. One-year timeline kinetics of cytokine-mediated cellular immunity in dogs vaccinated against visceral leishmaniasis. BMC Vet Res 2015; 11:92. [PMID: 25880646 PMCID: PMC4405846 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-015-0397-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The main control strategy for visceral leishmaniasis in Brazil has been based on the elimination of seropositive dogs, although this is not widely accepted. In this context, the use of a long-lasting protective vaccine against canine visceral leishmaniasis (CVL) has been highly expected. The aim of this work was to determine the timeline kinetics of the cytokine microenvironment derived from circulating leukocytes as supportive immunological biomarkers triggered by Leishmune® vaccine. Cross-sectional kinetic analysis of cellular immunity cytokines was carried out at three times (1, 6 and 12 months) after primovaccination with Leishmune®. In vitro short-term whole blood cultures were stimulated with Leishmania infantum soluble antigen (SLAg). The secreted cytokine signatures and their major sources were determined. RESULTS At six months after vaccination, Leishmune® induced an increase in IL-8, IFN-γ, IL-17a and TNF-α levels and a decrease in IL-10. Cytokine signature analysis revealed a shift in the microenvironment towards a pro-inflammatory profile mediated by IL-8 and IFN-γ. Both, CD4(+) (↑TNF-α(+) and ↑IFN-γ (+)) and CD8(+) (↑IL-17a and ↓IL-4) T-cells contributed to the acquired immune responses observed after stimulation with SLAg. CONCLUSIONS The changes observed in the cytokine profile suggested that Leishmune® was able to induce an effective response at six months after primovaccination. After one year, it returned to baseline suggesting the need of additional boosting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiane Costa-Pereira
- Laboratório de Biomarcadores de Diagnóstico e Monitoração, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou/FIOCRUZ - MG, Av. Augusto de Lima, 1715, 30190-002, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
| | - Marcela L Moreira
- Laboratório de Biomarcadores de Diagnóstico e Monitoração, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou/FIOCRUZ - MG, Av. Augusto de Lima, 1715, 30190-002, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
| | - Rodrigo P Soares
- Laboratório de Biomarcadores de Diagnóstico e Monitoração, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou/FIOCRUZ - MG, Av. Augusto de Lima, 1715, 30190-002, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
| | - Bruno H Marteleto
- Laboratório de Biomarcadores de Diagnóstico e Monitoração, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou/FIOCRUZ - MG, Av. Augusto de Lima, 1715, 30190-002, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
| | - Vitor M Ribeiro
- Clínica Veterinária Santo Agostinho, Avenida Amazonas, 2218, 30180-00, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
| | - Michelle H França-Dias
- Laboratório de Biomarcadores de Diagnóstico e Monitoração, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou/FIOCRUZ - MG, Av. Augusto de Lima, 1715, 30190-002, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
| | - Ludmila M Cardoso
- Laboratório de Biomarcadores de Diagnóstico e Monitoração, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou/FIOCRUZ - MG, Av. Augusto de Lima, 1715, 30190-002, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
| | - Kelvinson F Viana
- Laboratório de Biologia das Interações Celulares, Departamento de Morfologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627, 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
| | - Rodolfo C Giunchetti
- Laboratório de Biologia das Interações Celulares, Departamento de Morfologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627, 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
| | - Olindo A Martins-Filho
- Laboratório de Biomarcadores de Diagnóstico e Monitoração, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou/FIOCRUZ - MG, Av. Augusto de Lima, 1715, 30190-002, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
| | - Márcio S S Araújo
- Laboratório de Biomarcadores de Diagnóstico e Monitoração, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou/FIOCRUZ - MG, Av. Augusto de Lima, 1715, 30190-002, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
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Differential modulation of macrophage response elicited by glycoinositolphospholipids and lipophosphoglycan from Leishmania (Viannia) shawi. Parasitol Int 2015; 64:32-5. [PMID: 25619843 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2015.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2014] [Revised: 12/26/2014] [Accepted: 01/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In this work, some aspects of the glycobiology of Leishmania shawi were examined, as it is a causative agent of cutaneous leishmaniasis in the New World. Additionally, the interaction of L. shawi's main glycoconjugates [lipophosphoglycan (LPG) and glycoinositolphospholipids (GIPLs)] with macrophages was evaluated in vitro. L. shawi LPG was devoid of side-chains in its repeat units, whereas monosaccharide analysis showed that GIPLs were suggestive of mannose-rich (type I or hybrid). In order to evaluate the biological roles of those molecules, BALB/c resident peritoneal macrophages were incubated with these glycoconjugates for 24h, and the levels of nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-12p70 and IL-10, were determined. In general, the GIPLs exhibited a greater proinflammatory role than the LPGs did. However, for the first time, the GIPLs from this species were able to trigger the production of IL-10, an anti-inflammatory cytokine. In conclusion, L. shawi glycoconjugates were able to interact with the innate immune compartment. These data reinforce the role of parasite glycoconjugates during parasite and host cell interactions.
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Abstract
Parasite virulence, or the damage a parasite does to its host, is measured in terms of both host costs (reductions in host growth, reproduction and survival) and parasite benefits (increased transmission and parasite numbers) in the literature. Much work has shown that ecological and genetic factors can be strong selective forces in virulence evolution. This review uses kin selection theory to explore how variations in host ecological parameters impact the genetic relatedness of parasite populations and thus virulence. We provide a broad overview of virulence and population genetics studies and then draw connections to existing knowledge about natural parasite populations. The impact of host movement (transporting parasites) and host resistance (filtering parasites) on the genetic structure and virulence of parasite populations is explored, and empirical studies of these factors using Plasmodium and trematode systems are proposed.
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17
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Xu MJ, Zhou DH, Nisbet AJ, Huang SY, Fan YF, Zhu XQ. Characterization of mouse brain microRNAs after infection with cyst-forming Toxoplasma gondii. Parasit Vectors 2013; 6:154. [PMID: 23718711 PMCID: PMC3668261 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-6-154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2013] [Accepted: 05/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The obligate intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii can interfere with host cell signaling pathways, alter host defense systems and cell cycle control, and establish a chronic infection in the central nervous system. T. gondii infection may alter the expression profile of host microRNAs (miRNAs) which have key regulatory functions at the post-transcriptional level. Methods Using high-throughput sequencing and real-time quantitative PCR technology, we compared the miRNA expression profiles of uninfected mouse brains with brains from mice at 14 days and 21 days after infection with cyst-forming T. gondii (Type II). Results A total of 51.30 million raw reads were obtained from all samples and 495 (14d infected mouse sample), 511 (14d sham-infected control), 504 (21d infected mouse sample) and 514 (21d sham-infected control) miRNA candidates identified. Among these, 414 miRNAs were consistent across all the studied groups, 17 were specific to the 14d infected group and 32 were specific to the 21d infected group. In addition, 9 miRNAs were common to both the 14d- and 21d-infected groups. Enrichment analysis for the targets of these miRNAs showed a high percentage of “protein tag” functions. Immune related targets including chemokines, cytokines, growth factors and interleukins were also found. Conclusions These results not only showed that the miRNA expression of the host can be changed by the invasion of cyst-forming T. gondii, but also indicated that the host attempts to respond using two tactics: marking proteins with “protein tags” and adaptation of immune related systems.
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Two biochemically distinct lipophosphoglycans from Leishmania braziliensis and Leishmania infantum trigger different innate immune responses in murine macrophages. Parasit Vectors 2013; 6:54. [PMID: 23497381 PMCID: PMC3606350 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-6-54] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 02/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The dominant, cell surface lipophosphoglycan (LPG) of Leishmania is a multifunctional molecule involved in the interaction with vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. Although the role of LPG on infection has been extensively studied, it is not known if LPG interspecies variations contribute to the different immunopathologies of leishmaniases. To investigate the issue of interspecies polymorphisms, two Leishmania species from the New World that express structural variations of side chains of LPG repeat units were examined. In this context, the procyclic form of L. braziliensis LPG (strain M2903), is devoid of side chains, while the L. infantum LPG (strain BH46) has up to three glucoses residues in the repeat units. Methods Mice peritoneal macrophages from Balb/c, C57BL/6 and knock-out (TLR2 −/−, TLR4 −/−) were primed with IFN-γ and stimulated with purified LPG from both species. Nitric oxide and cytokine production, MAPKs (ERK, p38 and JNK) and NF-kB activation were evaluated. Results Macrophages stimulated with L. braziliensis LPG, had a higher TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and NO production than those stimulated with that of L. infantum. Furthermore, the LPGs from the two species resulted in differential kinetics of signaling via MAPK activation. L. infantum LPG exhibited a gradual activation profile, whereas L. braziliensis LPG showed a sharp but transient activation. L. braziliensis LPG was able to activate NF-kB. Conclusion These data suggest that two biochemically distinct LPGs were able to differentially modulate macrophage functions.
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Soares RP, Torrecilhas AC, Assis RR, Rocha MN, Moura e Castro FA, Freitas GF, Murta SM, Santos SL, Marques AF, Almeida IC, Romanha AJ. Intraspecies variation in Trypanosoma cruzi GPI-mucins: biological activities and differential expression of α-galactosyl residues. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2012; 87:87-96. [PMID: 22764297 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2012.12-0015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored mucins of Trypanosoma cruzi trypomastigotes play an important immunomodulatory role during the course of Chagas disease. Here, some biological activities of tGPI-mucins from four T. cruzi isolates, including benznidazole-susceptible (BZS-Y), benznidazole-resistant (BZR-Y), CL, and Colombiana, were evaluated. GPI-mucins were able to differentially trigger the production of interleukin-12 and nitric oxide in BALB/c macrophages and modulate LLC-MK2 cell invasion. The significance of these variations was assessed after analysis of the terminal α-galactosyl residues. Enzymatic treatment with α-galactosidase indicated a differential expression of O-linked α-galactosyl residues among the strains, with higher expression of this sugar in BZS-Y and BZR-Y T. cruzi populations followed by Colombiana and CL. Unweighted pair group method analysis of the carbohydrate anchor profile and biological parameters allowed the clustering of two groups. One group includes Y and CL strains (T. cruzi II and VI), and the other group is represented by Colombiana strain (T. cruzi I).
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo P Soares
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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Olive C. Pattern recognition receptors: sentinels in innate immunity and targets of new vaccine adjuvants. Expert Rev Vaccines 2012; 11:237-56. [PMID: 22309671 DOI: 10.1586/erv.11.189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The innate immune system plays an essential role in the host's first line of defense against microbial invasion, and involves the recognition of distinct pathogen-associated molecular patterns by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Activation of PRRs triggers cell signaling leading to the production of proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines and Type 1 interferons, and the induction of antimicrobial and inflammatory responses. These innate responses are also responsible for instructing the development of an appropriate pathogen-specific adaptive immune response. In this review, the focus is on different classes of PRRs that have been identified, including Toll-like receptors, nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors, and the retinoic acid-inducible gene-I-like receptors, and their importance in host defense against infection. The role of PRR cooperation in generating optimal immune responses required for protective immunity and the potential of targeting PRRs in the development of a new generation of vaccine adjuvants is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colleen Olive
- The Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Locked Bag 2000, Royal Brisbane Hospital, Herston, Brisbane, Queensland 4006, Australia.
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21
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Junqueira C, Guerrero AT, Galvão-Filho B, Andrade WA, Salgado APC, Cunha TM, Ropert C, Campos MA, Penido MLO, Mendonça-Previato L, Previato JO, Ritter G, Cunha FQ, Gazzinelli RT. Trypanosoma cruzi adjuvants potentiate T cell-mediated immunity induced by a NY-ESO-1 based antitumor vaccine. PLoS One 2012; 7:e36245. [PMID: 22567144 PMCID: PMC3342165 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunological adjuvants that induce T cell-mediate immunity (TCMI) with the least side effects are needed for the development of human vaccines. Glycoinositolphospholipids (GIPL) and CpGs oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG ODNs) derived from the protozoa parasite Trypanosoma cruzi induce potent pro-inflammatory reaction through activation of Toll-Like Receptor (TLR)4 and TLR9, respectively. Here, using mouse models, we tested the T. cruzi derived TLR agonists as immunological adjuvants in an antitumor vaccine. For comparison, we used well-established TLR agonists, such as the bacterial derived monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL), lipopeptide (Pam3Cys), and CpG ODN. All tested TLR agonists were comparable to induce antibody responses, whereas significant differences were noticed in their ability to elicit CD4(+) T and CD8(+) T cell responses. In particular, both GIPLs (GTH, and GY) and CpG ODNs (B344, B297 and B128) derived from T. cruzi elicited interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) production by CD4(+) T cells. On the other hand, the parasite derived CpG ODNs, but not GIPLs, elicited a potent IFN-γ response by CD8(+) T lymphocytes. The side effects were also evaluated by local pain (hypernociception). The intensity of hypernociception induced by vaccination was alleviated by administration of an analgesic drug without affecting protective immunity. Finally, the level of protective immunity against the NY-ESO-1 expressing melanoma was associated with the magnitude of both CD4(+) T and CD8(+) T cell responses elicited by a specific immunological adjuvant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Junqueira
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | | | - Bruno Galvão-Filho
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Warrison A. Andrade
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Ana Paula C. Salgado
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Thiago M. Cunha
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Catherine Ropert
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Marco Antônio Campos
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Marcus L. O. Penido
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Lúcia Mendonça-Previato
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - José Oswaldo Previato
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Gerd Ritter
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, New York Branch at Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Fernando Q. Cunha
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Ricardo T. Gazzinelli
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Assis RR, Ibraim IC, Noronha FS, Turco SJ, Soares RP. Glycoinositolphospholipids from Leishmania braziliensis and L. infantum: modulation of innate immune system and variations in carbohydrate structure. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2012; 6:e1543. [PMID: 22389743 PMCID: PMC3289616 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2011] [Accepted: 01/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The essential role of the lipophosphoglycan (LPG) of Leishmania in innate immune response has been extensively reported. However, information about the role of the LPG-related glycoinositolphospholipids (GIPLs) is limited, especially with respect to the New World species of Leishmania. GIPLs are low molecular weight molecules covering the parasite surface and are similar to LPG in sharing a common lipid backbone and a glycan motif containing up to 7 sugars. Critical aspects of their structure and functions are still obscure in the interaction with the vertebrate host. In this study, we evaluated the role of those molecules in two medically important South American species Leishmania infantum and L. braziliensis, causative agents of visceral (VL) and cutaneous Leishmaniasis (CL), respectively. GIPLs derived from both species did not induce NO or TNF-α production by non-primed murine macrophages. Additionally, primed macrophages from mice (BALB/c, C57BL/6, TLR2-/- and TLR4-/-) exposed to GIPLs from both species, with exception to TNF-α, did not produce any of the cytokines analyzed (IL1-β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-10, IL-12p40, IFN-γ) or p38 activation. GIPLs induced the production of TNF-α and NO by C57BL/6 mice, primarily via TLR4. Pre incubation of macrophages with GIPLs reduced significantly the amount of NO and IL-12 in the presence of IFN-γ or lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which was more pronounced with L. braziliensis GIPLs. This inhibition was reversed after PI-specific phospholipase C treatment. A structural analysis of the GIPLs showed that L. infantum has manose rich GIPLs, suggestive of type I and Hybrid GIPLs while L. braziliensis has galactose rich GIPLs, suggestive of Type II GIPLs. In conclusion, there are major differences in the structure and composition of GIPLs from L. braziliensis and L. infantum. Also, GIPLs are important inhibitory molecules during the interaction with macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Ramiro Assis
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Departmento de Microbiologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Izabela Coimbra Ibraim
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Fátima Soares Noronha
- Departmento de Microbiologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Salvatore Joseph Turco
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Kentucky Medical Center, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Rodrigo Pedro Soares
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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Gomes JAS, Campi-Azevedo AC, Teixeira-Carvalho A, Silveira-Lemos D, Vitelli-Avelar D, Sathler-Avelar R, Peruhype-Magalhães V, Silvestre KF, Batista MA, Schachnik NCC, Correa-Oliveira R, Eloi-Santos S, Martins-Filho OA. Impaired phagocytic capacity driven by downregulation of major phagocytosis-related cell surface molecules elicits an overall modulatory cytokine profile in neutrophils and monocytes from the indeterminate clinical form of Chagas disease. Immunobiology 2012; 217:1005-16. [PMID: 22387073 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2012.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2011] [Revised: 01/11/2012] [Accepted: 01/15/2012] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The distinct ability of phagocytes to present antigens, produce cytokines and provide co-stimulatory signals may contribute to the severity of the outcome of Chagas disease. In this paper, we evaluate the phenotypic features of phagocytes along with the cytokine signature of circulating T-cells from Chagas disease patients with indeterminate (IND) and cardiac (CARD) clinical forms of the disease. Our data demonstrated that neutrophils from IND patients displayed an impaired ability to produce cytokines. A lower Trypanosoma cruzi phagocytic index and higher nitric oxide levels were characteristics of monocytes from IND. The impaired phagocytic capacity did not reflect on the levels of anti-T. cruzi IgG, but was detectable in the downregulation of Fc-γR, TLR and CR1 molecules. The monocyte-derived cytokine signature demonstrated that a down-regulated synthesis of IL-12 and a modulatory state were evidenced by a positive correlation between IL-12 and IL-10 with a lower synthesis of TNF-α. The down-regulation of MHC-II and CD86 in monocytes supports the occurrence of particularities in the APC-activation-arm in IND, and may be involved in the T-cell pro-inflammatory pattern counterbalanced by a potent IL-10 response. Our findings support the hypothesis that differential phenotypic features of monocytes from IND may be committed to the induction of a distinct immune response related to low morbidity in chronic Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A S Gomes
- Laboratório de Biologia das Interações Celulares, Departamento de Morfologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, UFMG, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
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24
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de Assis RR, Ibraim IC, Nogueira PM, Soares RP, Turco SJ. Glycoconjugates in New World species of Leishmania: polymorphisms in lipophosphoglycan and glycoinositolphospholipids and interaction with hosts. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2011; 1820:1354-65. [PMID: 22093608 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2011.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2011] [Revised: 10/31/2011] [Accepted: 11/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania cause a number of important diseases in humans and undergo a complex life cycle, alternating between a sand fly vector and vertebrate hosts. The parasites have a remarkable capacity to avoid destruction in which surface molecules are determinant for survival. Amongst the many surface molecules of Leishmania, the glycoconjugates are known to play a central role in host-parasite interactions and are the focus of this review. SCOPE OF THE REVIEW The most abundant and best studied glycoconjugates are the Lipophosphoglycans (LPGs) and glycoinositolphospholipids (GIPLs). This review summarizes the main studies on structure and biological functions of these molecules in New World Leishmania species. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS LPG and GIPLs are complex molecules that display inter- and intraspecies polymorphisms. They are key elements for survival inside the vector and to modulate the vertebrate immune response during infection. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Most of the studies on glycoconjugates focused on Old World Leishmania species. Here, it is reported some of the studies involving New World species and their biological significance on host-parasite interaction. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Glycoproteomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Ramiro de Assis
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Av. Augusto de Lima, 1715, Belo Horizonte, MG 30190-002, Brazil
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25
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Doyle PS, Zhou YM, Hsieh I, Greenbaum DC, McKerrow JH, Engel JC. The Trypanosoma cruzi protease cruzain mediates immune evasion. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1002139. [PMID: 21909255 PMCID: PMC3164631 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2010] [Accepted: 05/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the causative agent of Chagas' disease. Novel chemotherapy with the drug K11777 targets the major cysteine protease cruzain and disrupts amastigote intracellular development. Nevertheless, the biological role of the protease in infection and pathogenesis remains unclear as cruzain gene knockout failed due to genetic redundancy. A role for the T. cruzi cysteine protease cruzain in immune evasion was elucidated in a comparative study of parental wild type- and cruzain-deficient parasites. Wild type T. cruzi did not activate host macrophages during early infection (<60 min) and no increase in ∼P iκB was detected. The signaling factor NF-κB P65 colocalized with cruzain on the cell surface of intracellular wild type parasites, and was proteolytically cleaved. No significant IL-12 expression occurred in macrophages infected with wild type T. cruzi and treated with LPS and BFA, confirming impairment of macrophage activation pathways. In contrast, cruzain-deficient parasites induced macrophage activation, detectable iκB phosphorylation, and nuclear NF-κB P65 localization. These parasites were unable to develop intracellularly and survive within macrophages. IL 12 expression levels in macrophages infected with cruzain-deficient T. cruzi were comparable to LPS activated controls. Thus cruzain hinders macrophage activation during the early (<60 min) stages of infection, by interruption of the NF-κB P65 mediated signaling pathway. These early events allow T. cruzi survival and replication, and may lead to the spread of infection in acute Chagas' disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia S. Doyle
- Tropical Disease Research Unit and Sandler Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Yuan M. Zhou
- Tropical Disease Research Unit and Sandler Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Ivy Hsieh
- Tropical Disease Research Unit and Sandler Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Doron C. Greenbaum
- Tropical Disease Research Unit and Sandler Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - James H. McKerrow
- Tropical Disease Research Unit and Sandler Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Juan C. Engel
- Tropical Disease Research Unit and Sandler Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
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26
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Sharma S, DeOliveira RB, Kalantari P, Parroche P, Goutagny N, Jiang Z, Chan J, Bartholomeu DC, Lauw F, Hall JP, Barber GN, Gazzinelli RT, Fitzgerald KA, Golenbock DT. Innate immune recognition of an AT-rich stem-loop DNA motif in the Plasmodium falciparum genome. Immunity 2011; 35:194-207. [PMID: 21820332 PMCID: PMC3162998 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2011.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 205] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2010] [Revised: 04/28/2011] [Accepted: 05/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Although Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) has been implicated in cytokine and type I interferon (IFN) production during malaria in humans and mice, the high AT content of the Plasmodium falciparum genome prompted us to examine the possibility that malarial DNA triggered TLR9-independent pathways. Over 6000 ATTTTTAC ("AT-rich") motifs are present in the genome of P. falciparum, which we show here potently induce type I IFNs. Parasite DNA, parasitized erythrocytes and oligonucleotides containing the AT-rich motif induce type I IFNs via a pathway that did not involve the previously described sensors TLR9, DAI, RNA polymerase-III or IFI16/p204. Rather, AT-rich DNA sensing involved an unknown receptor that coupled to the STING, TBK1 and IRF3-IRF7 signaling pathway. Mice lacking IRF3, IRF7, the kinase TBK1 or the type I IFN receptor were resistant to otherwise lethal cerebral malaria. Collectively, these observations implicate AT-rich DNA sensing via STING, TBK1 and IRF3-IRF7 in P. falciparum malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shruti Sharma
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 364 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
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Vallochi AL, Goldberg AC, Falcai A, Ramasawmy R, Kalil J, Silveira C, Belfort R, Rizzo LV. Molecular markers of susceptibility to ocular toxoplasmosis, host and guest behaving badly. Clin Ophthalmol 2011; 2:837-48. [PMID: 19668438 PMCID: PMC2699811 DOI: 10.2147/opth.s1629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection with Toxoplasma gondii results in retinochoroiditis in 6% to 20% of immunocompetent individuals. The outcome of infection is the result of a set of interactions involving host genetic background, environmental, and social factors, and the genetic background of the parasite, all of which can be further modified by additional infections or even reinfection. Genes that encode several components of the immune system exhibit polymorphisms in their regulatory and coding regions that affect level and type of expression in response to stimuli, directing the immune response into different pathways. These variant alleles have been associated with susceptibility to immune-mediated diseases and with severity of pathology. We have investigated polymorphisms in several of these genes, identified as candidates for progression to retinochoroiditis caused by toxoplasmosis, namely chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 5 (CCR5), toll-like receptor-2 (TLR2), and TLR4. Furthermore, because interleukin-12 (IL-12) has been shown to be fundamental both in mice and in man to control a protective response against T. gondii, molecules that have a key function in IL-12 production will be emphasized in this review, in addition to discussing the importance of the genetic background of the parasite in the establishment of ocular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Lima Vallochi
- Oswaldo Cruz Institution (IOC), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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Abstract
Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) in innate immune cells play a pivotal role in the first line of host defense system. PRRs recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) or danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) to initiate and regulate innate and adaptive immune responses. PRRs include Toll-like receptors (TLRs), RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs) and NOD-like receptors (NLRs), which have their own features in ligand recognition and cellular location. Activated PRRs deliver signals to adaptor molecules (MyD88, TRIF, MAL/TIRAP, TRAM, IPS-1) which act as important messengers to activate downstream kinases (IKK complex, MAPKs, TBK1, RIP-1) and transcription factors (NF-κB, AP-1, IRF3), which produce effecter molecules including cytokines, chemokines, inflammatory enzymes, and type I interferones. Since excessive PRR activation is closely linked to the development of chronic inflammatory diseases, the role of intrinsic and extrinsic regulators in the prevention of over- or unnecessary activation of PRRs has been widely studied. Intracellular regulators include MyD88s, SOCS1, TOLLIP, A20, and CYLD. Extrinsic regulators have also been identified with their molecular targets in PRR signaling pathways. TLR dimerization has been suggested as an inhibitory target for small molecules such as curcumin, cinnamaldehyde, and sulforaphane. TBK1 kinase can be a target for certain flavonoids such as EGCG, luteolin, quercetin, chrysin, and eriodictyol to regulate TRIF-dependent TLR pathways. This review focuses on the features of PRR signaling pathways and the therapeutic targets of intrinsic and extrinsic regulators in order to provide beneficial strategies for controlling the activity of PRRs and the related inflammatory diseases and immune disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunshil Jeong
- School of Life Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Korea.
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29
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Zakeri S, Pirahmadi S, Mehrizi AA, Djadid ND. Genetic variation of TLR-4, TLR-9 and TIRAP genes in Iranian malaria patients. Malar J 2011; 10:77. [PMID: 21457584 PMCID: PMC3079695 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-10-77] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2010] [Accepted: 04/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Toll-like receptors (TLRs) recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns and their activation leads to the induction of effector genes involving inflammatory cytokines that may have contribute to controlling parasite growth and disease pathogenesis. The current immunogenetic study was designed to analyse the key components of innate immunity, TLRs and TIRAP (Toll-interleukin-1 receptor domain-containing adaptor protein), also known as MAL (MYD88 adaptor-like), in Iranian patients with mild malaria. Methods The tlr-4 (D299G and T399I), tlr-9 (T-1486C and T-1237C) and tirap (S180L) genes were assessed in 640 Baluchi individuals (320 Plasmodium falciparum-infected and 320 non-infected, median age of 28 years) from malaria-endemic regions using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) methods. Results Common tlr-4 SNPs and promoter SNPs of tlr-9 were distributed among P. falciparum-infected and non-infected groups (P > 0.05) that showed no association of these variants with mild clinical manifestation. The comparison of the tirap S180L genotypes between patients with mild malaria and those healthy individuals showed that the frequency of heterozygosity was significantly higher in infected than non-infected individuals (33.8 vs. 25.6; OR, 1.479; 95% CI, 1.051-2.081; P = 0.024). The result also revealed a significant association of tirap S180L (P < 0.05) with development of mild malaria, which is common in Baluchi populations, who are living in malaria hypoendemic region of Iran but not in African populations (0%-6%). Conclusion These data point towards the need for addressing the exact role of TLRs in contributing to human genetic factors in malaria susceptibility/resistance/severity within different malaria settings in the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sedigheh Zakeri
- Malaria and Vector Research Group, Biotechnology Research Center, Institut Pasteur Iran, Tehran, Iran, Pasteur Avenue, POBOX 1316943551, Tehran, Iran.
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30
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Kumar A, Sisodia B, Misra P, Sundar S, Shasany AK, Dube A. Proteome mapping of overexpressed membrane-enriched and cytosolic proteins in sodium antimony gluconate (SAG) resistant clinical isolate of Leishmania donovani. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2011; 70:609-17. [PMID: 20840452 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2010.03716.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS This study aimed to identify differentially overexpressed membrane-enriched as well as cytosolic proteins in SAG sensitive and resistant clinical strains of L. donovani isolated from VL patients which are involved in the drug resistance mechanism. METHODS The proteins in the membrane-enriched as well as cytosolic fractions of drug-sensitive as well as drug-resistant clinical isolates were separated using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and overexpressed identified protein spots of interest were excised and analysed using MALDI-TOF/TOF. RESULTS Six out of 12 overexpressed proteins were identified in the membrane-enriched fraction of the SAG resistant strain of L. donovani whereas 14 out of 18 spots were identified in the cytosolic fraction as compared with the SAG sensitive strain. The major proteins in the membrane-enriched fraction were ABC transporter, HSP-83, GPI protein transamidase, cysteine-leucine rich protein and 60S ribosomal protein L23a whereas in the cytosolic fraction proliferative cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), proteasome alpha 5 subunit, carboxypeptidase, HSP-70, enolase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase, tubulin-beta chain have been identified. Most of these proteins have been reported as potential drug targets, except 60S ribosomal protein L23a and PCNA which have not been reported to date for their possible involvement in drug resistance against VL. CONCLUSION This study for the first time provided a cumulative proteomic analysis of proteins overexpressed in drug resistant clinical isolates of L. donovani indicating their possible role in antimony resistance of the parasite. Identified proteins provide a vast field to be exploited for novel treatment strategies against VL such as cloning and overexpression of these targets to produce recombinant therapeutic/prophylactic proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Awanish Kumar
- Division of Parasitology, Central Drug Research Institute, Post Box no. 173,M.G. Road, Lucknow-226 001, India
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31
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Ribeiro CMS, Pontes MJSL, Bird S, Chadzinska M, Scheer M, Verburg-van Kemenade BML, Savelkoul HFJ, Wiegertjes GF. Trypanosomiasis-induced Th17-like immune responses in carp. PLoS One 2010; 5:e13012. [PMID: 20885956 PMCID: PMC2946394 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2010] [Accepted: 08/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In mammalian vertebrates, the cytokine interleukin (IL)-12 consists of a heterodimer between p35 and p40 subunits whereas interleukin-23 is formed by a heterodimer between p19 and p40 subunits. During an immune response, the balance between IL-12 and IL-23 can depend on the nature of the pathogen associated molecular pattern (PAMP) recognized by, for example TLR2, leading to a preferential production of IL-23. IL-23 production promotes a Th17-mediated immune response characterized by the production of IL-17A/F and several chemokines, important for neutrophil recruitment and activation. For the cold blooded vertebrate common carp, only the IL-12 subunits have been described so far. Methodology/Principal Findings Common carp is the natural host of two protozoan parasites: Trypanoplasma borreli and Trypanosoma carassii. We found that these parasites negatively affect p35 and p40a gene expression in carp. Transfection studies of HEK293 and carp macrophages show that T. carassii-derived PAMPs are agonists of carp TLR2, promoting p19 and p40c gene expression. The two protozoan parasites induce different immune responses as assessed by gene expression and histological studies. During T. carassii infections, in particular, we observed a propensity to induce p19 and p40c gene expression, suggestive of the formation of IL-23. Infections with T. borreli and T. carassii lead to an increase of IFN-γ2 gene expression whereas IL-17A/F2 gene expression was only observed during T. carasssii infections. The moderate increase in the number of splenic macrophages during T. borreli infection contrasts the marked increase in the number of splenic neutrophilic granulocytes during T. carassii infection, along with an increased gene expression of metalloproteinase-9 and chemokines. Conclusion/Significance This is the first study that provides evidence for a Th17-like immune response in fish in response to infection with a protozoan parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla M. S. Ribeiro
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Maria J. S. L. Pontes
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Steve Bird
- School of Biological Sciences, Scottish Fish Immunology Research Centre, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Magdalena Chadzinska
- Department of Evolutionary Immunobiology, Institute of Zoology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Marleen Scheer
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Huub F. J. Savelkoul
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Geert F. Wiegertjes
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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The endless race between Trypanosoma cruzi and host immunity: lessons for and beyond Chagas disease. Expert Rev Mol Med 2010; 12:e29. [PMID: 20840799 DOI: 10.1017/s1462399410001560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Infection with the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, the agent of Chagas disease, is characterised by a variable clinical course - from symptomless cases to severe chronic disease with cardiac and/or gastrointestinal involvement. The variability in disease outcome has been attributed to host responses as well as parasite heterogeneity. In this article, we review studies indicating the importance of immune responses as key determinants of host resistance to T. cruzi infection and the pathogenesis of Chagas disease. Particular attention is given to recent studies defining the role of cognate innate immune receptors and immunodominant CD8+ T cells that recognise parasite components - both crucial for host-parasite interaction and disease outcome. In light of these studies we speculate about parasite strategies that induce a strong and long-lasting T-cell-mediated immunity but at the same time allow persistence of the parasite in the vertebrate host. We also discuss what we have learned from these studies for increasing our understanding of Chagas pathogenesis and for the design of new strategies to prevent the development of Chagas disease. Finally, we highlight recent studies employing a genetically engineered attenuated T. cruzi strain as a vaccine shuttle that elicits potent T cell responses specific to a tumour antigen and protective immunity against a syngeneic melanoma cell line.
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Nasu K, Narahara H. Pattern recognition via the toll-like receptor system in the human female genital tract. Mediators Inflamm 2010; 2010:976024. [PMID: 20396665 PMCID: PMC2853082 DOI: 10.1155/2010/976024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2009] [Revised: 01/10/2010] [Accepted: 02/15/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The mucosal surface of the female genital tract is a complex biosystem, which provides a barrier against the outside world and participates in both innate and acquired immune defense systems. This mucosal compartment has adapted to a dynamic, non-sterile environment challenged by a variety of antigenic/inflammatory stimuli associated with sexual intercourse and endogenous vaginal microbiota. Rapid innate immune defenses against microbial infection usually involve the recognition of invading pathogens by specific pattern-recognition receptors recently attributed to the family of Toll-like receptors (TLRs). TLRs recognize conserved pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) synthesized by microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses as well as endogenous ligands associated with cell damage. Members of the TLR family, which includes 10 human TLRs identified to date, recognize distinct PAMPs produced by various bacterial, fungal, and viral pathogens. The available literature regarding the innate immune system of the female genital tract during human reproductive processes was reviewed in order to identify studies specifically related to the expression and function of TLRs under normal as well as pathological conditions. Increased understanding of these molecules may provide insight into site-specific immunoregulatory mechanisms in the female reproductive tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaei Nasu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, Oita 879-5593, Japan.
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Portugal LR, Fernandes LR, Alvarez-Leite JI. Host cholesterol and inflammation as common key regulators of toxoplasmosis and artherosclerosis development. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2009; 7:807-19. [PMID: 19735223 DOI: 10.1586/eri.09.60] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis and toxoplasmosis are two widely prevalent diseases worldwide. The relationship between these diseases is now being elucidated. Atherosclerosis is a disease with three main components: increased blood lipoprotein/cholesterol and their deposition in the arterial wall, an important Th1-mediated proinflammatory reaction and thrombogenic status. Toxoplasma gondii, in turn, is dependent on host cholesterol for optimal intracellular growth and replication. As a result, host cholesterol will be cleared from the blood, reducing plasma low-density lipoprotein, a crucial atherosclerosis risk factor. On the other hand, T. gondii infection elicits an important Th1 systemic inflammatory response in the host. Therefore, this additional proinflammatory stimulus may impose an enhanced pro-atherogenic environment in the host. As result, the association between these two diseases in one individual could change the course of atherosclerosis. In this review, we demonstrate that the host-parasite relationship is complex and that the outcome of each disease is dependent on the availability of intracellular cholesterol, as well as the intensity of the inflammatory reaction triggered by the parasite. We also discuss the possible clinical implications of these studies.
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Toll-like receptor initiated host defense against Toxoplasma gondii. J Biomed Biotechnol 2009; 2010:737125. [PMID: 19911079 PMCID: PMC2775932 DOI: 10.1155/2010/737125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2009] [Accepted: 09/30/2009] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular pathogen notable for its ability to establish a stable host-parasite relationship amongst a wide range of host species and in a large percentage of the human population. Toll-like receptor signaling through MyD88 is a critical pathway in initiating defense against this opportunistic protozoan and may also be a mediator of pathology during immune dysfunction. Other MyD88 independent signaling pathways are also involved in the host-parasite interaction. These responses can be triggered by the parasite itself, but interactions with the intestinal microbiota add additional complexity during enteric infection.
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Yamamoto M, Standley DM, Takashima S, Saiga H, Okuyama M, Kayama H, Kubo E, Ito H, Takaura M, Matsuda T, Soldati-Favre D, Takeda K. A single polymorphic amino acid on Toxoplasma gondii kinase ROP16 determines the direct and strain-specific activation of Stat3. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 206:2747-60. [PMID: 19901082 PMCID: PMC2806617 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20091703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Infection by Toxoplasma gondii down-regulates the host innate immune responses, such as proinflammatory cytokine production, in a Stat3-dependent manner. A forward genetic approach recently demonstrated that the type II strain fails to suppress immune responses because of a potential defect in a highly polymorphic parasite-derived kinase, ROP16. We generated ROP16-deficient type I parasites by reverse genetics and found a severe defect in parasite-induced Stat3 activation, culminating in enhanced production of interleukin (IL) 6 and IL-12 p40 in the infected macrophages. Furthermore, overexpression of ROP16 but not ROP18 in mammalian cells resulted in Stat3 phosphorylation and strong activation of Stat3-dependent promoters. In addition, kinase-inactive ROP16 failed to activate Stat3. Comparison of type I and type II ROP16 revealed that a single amino acid substitution in the kinase domain determined the strain difference in terms of Stat3 activation. Moreover, ROP16 bound Stat3 and directly induced phosphorylation of this transcription factor. These results formally establish an essential and direct requirement of ROP16 in parasite-induced Stat3 activation and the significance of a single amino acid replacement in the function of type II ROP16.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Yamamoto
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, World Premier International Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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Toxoplasma gondii inhibits R5 HIV-1 replication in human lymphoid tissues ex vivo. Microbes Infect 2009; 11:1106-13. [PMID: 19671446 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2009.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2009] [Revised: 07/28/2009] [Accepted: 08/04/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Critical events of HIV-1 pathogenesis occur in lymphoid tissues where HIV-1 is typically accompanied by infections with other pathogens (HIV co-pathogens). Co-pathogens greatly affect the clinical course of the disease and the transmission of HIV. The apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii is a common HIV co-pathogen associated with AIDS development. Here, we examined the interaction of T. gondii and HIV in coinfected human lymphoid tissue ex vivo. Both pathogens readily replicate in ex vivo infected blocks of human tonsillar tissue. Surprisingly, we found that live T. gondii preferentially inhibits R5 HIV-1 replication in coinfected tissues. This effect is reproduced by treatment of the tissue blocks with recombinant C-18, a T. gondii-encoded cyclophilin that binds to CCR5. These ex vivo findings raise the possibility that, in addition to being a co-factor in HIV disease, T. gondii may influence the outcome of viral infection by preferentially suppressing R5 variants.
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Abstract
Immunity against microbial pathogens primarily depends on the recognition of pathogen components by innate receptors expressed on immune and non-immune cells. Innate receptors are evolutionarily conserved germ-line-encoded proteins and include TLRs (Toll-like receptors), RLRs [RIG-I (retinoic acid-inducible gene-I)-like receptors] and NLRs (Nod-like receptors). These receptors recognize pathogens or pathogen-derived products in different cellular compartments, such as the plasma membrane, the endosomes or the cytoplasm, and induce the expression of cytokines, chemokines and co-stimulatory molecules to eliminate pathogens and instruct pathogen-specific adaptive immune responses. In the present review, we will discuss the recent progress in the study of pathogen recognition by TLRs, RLRs and NLRs and their signalling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Himanshu Kumar
- Laboratory of Host Defense, WPI Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, 3-1 Yamada-oka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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Melo RCN. Acute heart inflammation: ultrastructural and functional aspects of macrophages elicited by Trypanosoma cruzi infection. J Cell Mol Med 2009; 13:279-94. [PMID: 18624767 PMCID: PMC3823355 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2008.00388.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2008] [Accepted: 05/24/2008] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The heart is the main target organ of the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, the causal agent of Chagas' disease, a significant public health issue and still a major cause of morbidity and mortality in Latin America. During the acute disease, tissue damage in the heart is related to the intense myocardium parasitism. To control parasite multiplication, cells of the monocytic lineage are highly mobilized. In response to inflammatory and immune stimulation, an intense migration and extravasation of monocytes occurs from the bloodstream into heart. Monocyte differentiation leads to the formation of tissue phagocytosing macrophages, which are strongly activated and direct host defence. Newly elicited monocyte-derived macrophages both undergo profound physiological changes and display morphological heterogeneity that greatly differs from originally non-inflammatory macrophages, and underlie their functional activities as potent inflammatory cells. Thus, activated macrophages play a critical role in the outcome of parasite infection. This review covers functional and ultrastructural aspects of heart inflammatory macrophages triggered by the acute Chagas' disease, including recent discoveries on morphologically distinct, inflammation-related organelles, termed lipid bodies, which are actively formed in vivo within macrophages in response to T. cruzi infection. These findings are defining a broader role for lipid bodies as key markers of macrophage activation during innate immune responses to infectious diseases and attractive targets for novel anti-inflammatory therapies. Modulation of macrophage activation may be central in providing therapeutic benefits for Chagas' disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rossana C N Melo
- Department of Biology, Federal University of Juiz de Fora, MG, Brazil.
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Egan CE, Sukhumavasi W, Butcher BA, Denkers EY. Functional aspects of Toll-like receptor/MyD88 signalling during protozoan infection: focus on Toxoplasma gondii. Clin Exp Immunol 2009; 156:17-24. [PMID: 19161444 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2009.03876.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptor (TLR)/MyD88 signalling has emerged as a major pathway of pathogen recognition in the innate immune system. Here, we review recent data that begin to show how this pathway controls the immune response to protozoan infection, with particular emphasis on the opportunistic pathogen Toxoplasma gondii. The various ways that the parasite activates and suppresses TLR/MyD88 signalling defines several key principals that illuminate the complexities of the host-pathogen interaction. We also speculate how TLR/MyD88 signalling might be exploited to provide protection against Toxoplasma, as well as other protozoa and infection in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- C E Egan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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Zafra G, Flórez O, Morillo CA, Echeverría LE, Martín J, González CI. Polymorphisms of toll-like receptor 2 and 4 genes in Chagas disease. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2008; 103:27-30. [PMID: 18368233 DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762008000100004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2007] [Accepted: 02/11/2008] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to test the possible implication of toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and TLR4 gene polymorphisms in determining the susceptibility to Chagas' disease. Genotypes were determined by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism in 475 individuals from Colombia, 143 seropositive with chagasic cardiomyopathy, 132 seropositive asymptomatic and 200 seronegative. The TLR2 arginine to glutamine substitution at residue 753(Arg753Gln) polymorphism was absent in the groups analyzed. The TLR4 Asp299Gly and Thr399Ile polymorphisms are in linkage disequilibrium and we observed a very low frequency of these polymorphisms in our study population (2.6% and 1.8% respectively). The overall TLR2 and TLR4 alleles and genotype distribution in seronegative and seropositive were not significantly different. We compared the frequencies between asymptomatic patients and those with chagasic cardiomyopathy and we did not observe any significant differences in the distribution of alleles or genotypes. In summary, this study corroborates the low frequency of TLR2 and TLR4 polymorphisms observed in other populations and suggest that these do not play an important role in Chagas' disease. The validation of these findings in independent cohorts is needed to firmly establish a role for TLR2 and TLR4 variants in Chagas' disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- German Zafra
- Grupo de Inmunología y Epidemiología Molecular, Escuela de Bacteriología, Facultad de Salud, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga, Colombia
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False-positive results of a rapid K39-based strip test and Chagas disease. Int J Infect Dis 2008; 13:182-5. [PMID: 18786847 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2008.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2008] [Accepted: 06/04/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The definitive diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) requires invasive procedures with demonstration of amastigotes in tissue or promastigotes in culture. Unfortunately, these approaches require laboratory materials not available in poor countries where the disease is endemic. The correct diagnosis of VL is important, and made more difficult by the fact that several common tropical diseases such as malaria, disseminated tuberculosis, and enteric fever share the same clinical presentation. Serological tests have been developed to replace parasitological diagnosis in the field. A commercially available K39-based strip test for VL has been developed for this purpose. The endemic area of leishmaniasis in Brazil overlaps the endemic area of Chagas disease, a disease that can cause false-positive serological test results. The aim of this study was to evaluate the incidence of false-positive exams using a rapid test for VL in patients with Chagas disease. METHODS A rapid test based on the recombinant K39 antigen of Leishmania was used in: (1) 30 patients with confirmed Chagas disease, (2) 30 patients with a serological diagnosis of Chagas disease by ELISA, indirect immunofluorescence, indirect hemagglutination, and chemiluminescence, (3) 30 healthy patients from a non-endemic area as the control group, (4) 30 patients with confirmed VL, and (5) 20 patients with proved cutaneous leishmaniasis. RESULTS The sensitivity and specificity of the rapid strip test were 100% when compared with healthy volunteers and those with confirmed Chagas disease. One false-positive result occurred in the group with Chagas disease diagnosed by serological tests (specificity of 96%). CONCLUSION The rapid test based on recombinant K39 is a useful diagnostic assay, and a false-positive result rarely occurs in patients with a serological diagnosis of Chagas disease.
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Dzierszinski FS, Hunter CA. Advances in the use of genetically engineered parasites to study immunity to Toxoplasma gondii. Parasite Immunol 2008; 30:235-44. [PMID: 18194347 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2007.01016.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Studying in vivo biology and the host immune response to Toxoplasma gondii has yielded many insights into the pathogenesis of this parasitic organism. It is recognized that this infection in immune competent hosts elicits a strong Th1-type response, which is characterized by the generation of parasite-specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells that produce IFN-gamma and provide protective immunity. One of the problems associated with studying resistance to Toxoplasma has been the lack of reagents to track parasite-specific T cell responses with a high degree of specificity. To overcome this difficulty, it is possible to use a combination of transgenic parasites that are engineered to express well-characterized heterologous reporters or antigens, and T cell hybridomas or naïve T cells that express a T cell receptor specific for the processed peptide. These approaches have provided new insights into parasite dissemination, antigen presentation, as well as immune regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- F S Dzierszinski
- Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Canada.
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Loharungsikul S, Troye-Blomberg M, Amoudruz P, Pichyangkul S, Yongvanitchit K, Looareesuwan S, Mahakunkijcharoen Y, Sarntivijai S, Khusmith S. Expression of toll-like receptors on antigen-presenting cells in patients with falciparum malaria. Acta Trop 2008; 105:10-5. [PMID: 17854755 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2007.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2006] [Revised: 03/25/2007] [Accepted: 08/01/2007] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The continuous release of blood-stage malaria parasites and their products can activate components of the innate immune system and induce the production of proinflammatory cytokines. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have emerged as pattern-recognition receptors, residing on/in innate immune cells whose function is recognizing specific conserved components on different microbes. The aim of this study was to determine the expression of TLR2, TLR4 and TLR9 on antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in patients with mild and severe forms of falciparum malaria. Healthy individuals were used as controls. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were stained with specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to investigate the percentage and the level of TLR expression by flow cytometry. Patients with severe and mild malaria showed increased surface expression of TLR2 and TLR4 on CD14(+)monocytes and myeloid dendritic cells (MDCs) and decreased intracellular expression of TLR9 on plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDCs), compared to those of healthy controls. A significant decrease in the percentage of circulating CD14(+)monocytes and MDCs expressing TLR2 was found in both severe and mild malaria patients. These findings suggested that TLRs might play role in innate immune recognition in which the differential expression of TLRs on APCs could be regulated by the P. falciparum parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Somying Loharungsikul
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Faculty of Medical Technology, Mahidol University, 2 Prannok Road, Bangkok-Noi, Bangkok 10700, Thailand
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Role of TLRs/MyD88 in host resistance and pathogenesis during protozoan infection: lessons from malaria. Semin Immunopathol 2007; 30:41-51. [PMID: 18071705 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-007-0103-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2007] [Accepted: 11/07/2007] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are important to initiate the innate immune response to a wide variety of pathogens. The protective role of TLRs during infection with protozoan parasites has been established. In this regard, malaria represents an exception where activation of TLRs seems to be deleterious to the host. In this article, we review the recent findings indicating the contrasting role of Myeloid Differentiation Primary-Response gene 88 (MyD88) and TLRs during malaria and infection with other protozoa. These findings suggest that MyD88 may represent an Achilles' heel during Plasmodium infection.
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Koyama K. Dendritic cells have a crucial role in the production of cytokines in mesenteric lymph nodes of B10.BR mice infected with Trichuris muris. Parasitol Res 2007; 102:349-56. [PMID: 17929057 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-007-0768-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2007] [Accepted: 09/20/2007] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells bridge innate and adaptive immunity and establish protective immunity to pathogens. Protection against the murine nematode parasite Trichuris muris depends on the T helper 2 (Th2) response and requires the Th2 cytokines interleukin 4 (IL-4), IL-10, or IL-13. To examine if the Th2 response to T. muris infection is regulated by CD11c(+)B220(-) dendritic cells in mesenteric lymph nodes, dendritic cell-enriched and dendritic cell-depleted fractions were obtained from mesenteric lymph node cells of T. muris-infected mice, and production of cytokines in cultures of these fractions was measured. At day 14 postinfection, no worm expulsion was observed, and high levels of interferon gamma production occurred in dendritic cell-enriched fractions. Expulsion of worms occurred on days 20 and 25 postinfection, and IL-10 production was induced in dendritic cell-enriched fractions on these 2 days. No cytokine production was observed in mesenteric lymph node cells and dendritic cell-depleted fractions during T. muris infection. The occurrence of worm expulsion was consistent with IL-10 production in dendritic cell-enriched fractions. IL-10 inhibits Th1 cells and promotes the Th2 response, and results from this study suggest that CD11c(+)B220(-) dendritic cells in the mesenteric lymph nodes are required for IL-10 production and the IL-10-dependent protective Th2 response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koichi Koyama
- Department of Parasitology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, 1-15-1, Kitasato, Sagamihara, Kanagawa 228-8555, Japan.
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Qiu L, Song L, Yu Y, Xu W, Ni D, Zhang Q. Identification and characterization of a myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) cDNA from Zhikong scallop Chlamys farreri. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 23:614-23. [PMID: 17383200 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2007.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2006] [Revised: 01/05/2007] [Accepted: 01/11/2007] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) is a universal and essential adapter for the TLR/IL-1R family. In this report, the first mollusk Myd88 ortholog (named as CfMyd88) was cloned from Zhikong scallop (Chlamys farreri). The full-length cDNA of CfMyd88 was of 1554 bp, including a 5'-terminal untranslated region (UTR) of 427 bp, a polyA tail, and an open reading frame (ORF) of 1104 bp encoding a polypeptide of 367 amino acids containing the typical TLR and IL-1R-related (TIR) domain and death domain (DD). Homology analysis revealed that the predicted amino acid sequence of CfMyd88 was homologous to a variety of previously identified Myd88s with more than 30% identity. The temporal expressions of CfMyd88 mRNA in the mixed primary cultured haemocytes stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and peptidoglycans (PGN) were measured by real-time RT-PCR system. The mRNA expression of CfMyd88 decreased after stimulation with both LPS and PGN, and the lowest level was about 1/3 times (at 6 h) and 1/10 times (at 9 h) to that in the control group, respectively. The expression then recovered and was upregulated to two-fold at 9 h after LPS stimulation or to the original level at 12 h after PGN stimulation. The results suggest that the MyD88-dependent signaling pathway exists in scallop and was involved in the defense system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Limei Qiu
- Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Nanhai Road, Qingdao 266071, China
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50
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Morrison WI, McKeever DJ. Current status of vaccine development against Theileria parasites. Parasitology 2007; 133 Suppl:S169-87. [PMID: 17274845 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182006001867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The tick-borne protozoan parasites Theileria parva and Theileria annulata cause economically important diseases of cattle in tropical and sub-tropical regions. Because of shortcomings in disease control measures based on therapy and tick control, there is a demand for effective vaccines against these diseases. Vaccines using live parasites have been available for over two decades, but despite their undoubted efficacy they have not been used on a large scale. Lack of infrastructure for vaccine production and distribution, as well as concerns about the introduction of vaccine parasite strains into local tick populations have curtailed the use of these vaccines. More recently, research has focused on the development of subunit vaccines. Studies of immune responses to different stages of the parasites have yielded immunological probes that have been used to identify candidate vaccine antigens. Immunisation of cattle with antigens expressed in the sporozoite, schizont or merozoite stages has resulted in varying degrees of protection against challenge. Although the levels of protection achieved have not been sufficient to allow exploitation for vaccination, there are clearly further lines of investigation, relating to both the choice of antigens and the antigen delivery systems employed, that need to be pursued to fully explore the potential of the candidate vaccines. Improved knowledge of the molecular biology and immunology of the parasites gained during the course of these studies has also opened up opportunities to refine and improve the quality of live vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- W I Morrison
- Division of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
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