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Setoguchi R, Sengiku T, Kono H, Kawakami E, Kubo M, Yamamoto T, Hori S. Memory CD8 T cells are vulnerable to chronic IFN-γ signals but not to CD4 T cell deficiency in MHCII-deficient mice. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4418. [PMID: 38806459 PMCID: PMC11133459 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-48704-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms by which the number of memory CD8 T cells is stably maintained remains incompletely understood. It has been postulated that maintaining them requires help from CD4 T cells, because adoptively transferred memory CD8 T cells persist poorly in MHC class II (MHCII)-deficient mice. Here we show that chronic interferon-γ signals, not CD4 T cell-deficiency, are responsible for their attrition in MHCII-deficient environments. Excess IFN-γ is produced primarily by endogenous colonic CD8 T cells in MHCII-deficient mice. IFN-γ neutralization restores the number of memory CD8 T cells in MHCII-deficient mice, whereas repeated IFN-γ administration or transduction of a gain-of-function STAT1 mutant reduces their number in wild-type mice. CD127high memory cells proliferate actively in response to IFN-γ signals, but are more susceptible to attrition than CD127low terminally differentiated effector memory cells. Furthermore, single-cell RNA-sequencing of memory CD8 T cells reveals proliferating cells that resemble short-lived, terminal effector cells and documents global downregulation of gene signatures of long-lived memory cells in MHCII-deficient environments. We propose that chronic IFN-γ signals deplete memory CD8 T cells by compromising their long-term survival and by diverting self-renewing CD127high cells toward terminal differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruka Setoguchi
- Formerly Laboratory for Immunogenetics, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama City, Kanagawa, 230-0045, Japan.
- Laboratory of Immunology and Microbiology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan.
| | - Tomoya Sengiku
- Laboratory of Immunology and Microbiology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Hiroki Kono
- Laboratory of Immunology and Microbiology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Eiryo Kawakami
- Advanced Data Science Project (ADSP), RIKEN Information R&D and Strategy Headquarters, RIKEN, Yokohama City, Kanagawa, 230-0045, Japan
- Department of Artificial Intelligence Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba, 260-8670, Japan
- Institute for Advanced Academic Research (IAAR), Chiba University, Chiba, 260-8670, Japan
- Chiba University Synergy Institute for Futuristic Mucosal Vaccine Research and Development (cSIMVa), Chiba University, Chiba, 260-8670, Japan
| | - Masato Kubo
- Division of Molecular Pathology, Research Institute for Biomedical Science, Tokyo University of Science, 2669 Yamazaki, Noda-shi, Chiba, 278-0022, Japan
- Laboratory for Cytokine Regulation, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama City, Kanagawa, 230-0045, Japan
| | - Tadashi Yamamoto
- Formerly Laboratory for Immunogenetics, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama City, Kanagawa, 230-0045, Japan
- Cell Signal Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, 904-0495, Japan
| | - Shohei Hori
- Laboratory of Immunology and Microbiology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
- Formerly Laboratory for Immune Homeostasis, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama City, Kanagawa, 230-0045, Japan
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2
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Galeota E, Bevilacqua V, Gobbini A, Gruarin P, Bombaci M, Pesce E, Favalli A, Lombardi A, Vincenti F, Ongaro J, Fabbris T, Curti S, Martinovic M, Toccafondi M, Lorenzo M, Critelli A, Clemente F, Crosti M, Sarnicola ML, Martinelli M, La Sala L, Espadas A, Donnici L, Borghi MO, De Feo T, De Francesco R, Prati D, Meroni PL, Notarbartolo S, Geginat J, Gori A, Bandera A, Abrignani S, Grifantini R. Tracking the immune response profiles elicited by the BNT162b2 vaccine in COVID-19 unexperienced and experienced individuals. Clin Immunol 2024; 261:110164. [PMID: 38417765 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2024.110164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024]
Abstract
Multiple vaccines have been approved to control COVID-19 pandemic, with Pfizer/BioNTech (BNT162b2) being widely used. We conducted a longitudinal analysis of the immune response elicited after three doses of the BNT162b2 vaccine in individuals who have previously experienced SARS-CoV-2 infection and in unexperienced ones. We conducted immunological analyses and single-cell transcriptomics of circulating T and B lymphocytes, combined to CITE-seq or LIBRA-seq, and VDJ-seq. We found that antibody levels against SARS-CoV-2 Spike, NTD and RBD from wild-type, delta and omicron VoCs show comparable dynamics in both vaccination groups, with a peak after the second dose, a decline after six months and a restoration after the booster dose. The antibody neutralization activity was maintained, with lower titers against the omicron variant. Spike-specific memory B cell response was sustained over the vaccination schedule. Clonal analysis revealed that Spike-specific B cells were polyclonal, with a partial clone conservation from natural infection to vaccination. Spike-specific T cell responses were oriented towards effector and effector memory phenotypes, with similar trends in unexperienced and experienced individuals. The CD8 T cell compartment showed a higher clonal expansion and persistence than CD4 T cells. The first two vaccinations doses tended to induce new clones rather than promoting expansion of pre-existing clones. However, we identified a fraction of Spike-specific CD8 T cell clones persisting from natural infection that were boosted by vaccination and clones specifically induced by vaccination. Collectively, our observations revealed a moderate effect of the second dose in enhancing the immune responses elicited after the first vaccination. Differently, we found that a third dose was necessary to restore comparable levels of neutralizing antibodies and Spike-specific T and B cell responses in individuals who experienced a natural SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugenia Galeota
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Valeria Bevilacqua
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Gobbini
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Paola Gruarin
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Mauro Bombaci
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Elisa Pesce
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy; Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Favalli
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy; Ph.D. Program in Translational and Molecular Medicine, Dottorato in Medicina Molecolare e Traslazionale (DIMET), University of Milan-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Andrea Lombardi
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Foundation IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan 20122, Italy; Centre for Multidisciplinary Research in Health Science (MACH), University of Milano, Milan 20122, Italy; Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan 20122, Italy
| | - Francesca Vincenti
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Jessica Ongaro
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Tanya Fabbris
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Serena Curti
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Martina Martinovic
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Mirco Toccafondi
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Mariangela Lorenzo
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Angelica Critelli
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca Clemente
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Mariacristina Crosti
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Lucia Sarnicola
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | | | | | - Alejandro Espadas
- Laboratory of Transplant Immunology - North Italy Transplant program (NITp) - Foundation IRCCS Cà Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico of Milan, Italy
| | - Lorena Donnici
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Orietta Borghi
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy; IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Immunorheumatology Research Laboratory, Milan, Italy
| | - Tullia De Feo
- Laboratory of Transplant Immunology - North Italy Transplant program (NITp) - Foundation IRCCS Cà Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico of Milan, Italy
| | - Raffaele De Francesco
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy; Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Daniele Prati
- Department of Transfusion Medicine and Hematology, Foundation IRCCS Cà Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico of Milan, Italy
| | - Pier Luigi Meroni
- IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Immunorheumatology Research Laboratory, Milan, Italy
| | - Samuele Notarbartolo
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy; Infectious Diseases Unit, Foundation IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan 20122, Italy
| | - Jens Geginat
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy; Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Gori
- Centre for Multidisciplinary Research in Health Science (MACH), University of Milano, Milan 20122, Italy; Infectious Diseases Unit, Ospedale "Luigi Sacco", Milan, Italy
| | - Alessandra Bandera
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Foundation IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan 20122, Italy; Centre for Multidisciplinary Research in Health Science (MACH), University of Milano, Milan 20122, Italy; Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan 20122, Italy
| | - Sergio Abrignani
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy; Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Renata Grifantini
- INGM, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy; CheckmAb Srl, Milan, Italy.
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Santry LA, van Vloten JP, AuYeung AWK, Mould RC, Yates JGE, McAusland TM, Petrik JJ, Major PP, Bridle BW, Wootton SK. Recombinant Newcastle disease viruses expressing immunological checkpoint inhibitors induce a pro-inflammatory state and enhance tumor-specific immune responses in two murine models of cancer. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1325558. [PMID: 38328418 PMCID: PMC10847535 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1325558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Tumor microenvironments are immunosuppressive due to progressive accumulation of mutations in cancer cells that can drive expression of a range of inhibitory ligands and cytokines, and recruitment of immunomodulatory cells, including myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC), tumor-associated macrophages, and regulatory T cells (Tregs). Methods To reverse this immunosuppression, we engineered mesogenic Newcastle disease virus (NDV) to express immunological checkpoint inhibitors anti-cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 and soluble programmed death protein-1. Results Intratumoral administration of recombinant NDV (rNDV) to mice bearing intradermal B16-F10 melanomas or subcutaneous CT26LacZ colon carcinomas led to significant changes in the tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte profiles. Vectorizing immunological checkpoint inhibitors in NDV increased activation of intratumoral natural killer cells and cytotoxic T cells and decreased Tregs and MDSCs, suggesting induction of a pro-inflammatory state with greater infiltration of activated CD8+ T cells. These notable changes translated to higher ratios of activated effector/suppressor tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in both cancer models, which is a promising prognostic marker. Whereas all rNDV-treated groups showed evidence of tumor regression and increased survival in the CT26LacZ and B16-F10, only treatment with NDV expressing immunological checkpoint blockades led to complete responses compared to tumors treated with NDV only. Discussion These data demonstrated that NDV expressing immunological checkpoint inhibitors could reverse the immunosuppressive state of tumor microenvironments and enhance tumor-specific T cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa A. Santry
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Jacob P. van Vloten
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Amanda W. K. AuYeung
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Robert C. Mould
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Jacob G. E. Yates
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Thomas M. McAusland
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - James J. Petrik
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | | | - Byram W. Bridle
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Sarah K. Wootton
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
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Huseby ES, Teixeiro E. The perception and response of T cells to a changing environment are based on the law of initial value. Sci Signal 2022; 15:eabj9842. [PMID: 35639856 PMCID: PMC9290192 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.abj9842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
αβ T cells are critical components of the adaptive immune system and are capable of inducing sterilizing immunity after pathogen infection and eliminating transformed tumor cells. The development and function of T cells are controlled through the T cell antigen receptor, which recognizes peptides displayed on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Here, we review how T cells generate the ability to recognize self-peptide-bound MHC molecules and use signals derived from these interactions to instruct cellular development, activation thresholds, and functional specialization in the steady state and during immune responses. We argue that the basic tenants of T cell development and function follow Weber-Fetcher's law of just noticeable differences and Wilder's law of initial value. Together, these laws argue that the ability of a system to respond and the quality of that response are scalable to the basal state of that system. Manifestation of these laws in T cells generates clone-specific activation thresholds that are based on perceivable differences between homeostasis and pathogen encounter (self versus nonself discrimination), as well as poised states for subsequent differentiation into specific effector cell lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric S. Huseby
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
| | - Emma Teixeiro
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
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5
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'Stem-like' precursors are the fount to sustain persistent CD8 + T cell responses. Nat Immunol 2022; 23:836-847. [PMID: 35624209 DOI: 10.1038/s41590-022-01219-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Virus-specific CD8+ T cells that differentiate in the context of resolved versus persisting infections exhibit divergent phenotypic and functional characteristics, which suggests that their differentiation trajectories are governed by distinct cellular dynamics, developmental pathways and molecular mechanisms. For acute infection, it is long known that antigen-specific T cell populations contain terminally differentiated effector T cells, known as short-lived effector T cells, and proliferation-competent and differentiation-competent memory precursor T cells. More recently, it was identified that a similar functional segregation occurs in chronic infections. A failure to generate proliferation-competent precursor cells in chronic infections and tumors results in the collapse of the T cell response. Thus, these precursor cells are major therapeutic and prophylactic targets of immune interventions. These observations suggest substantial commonality between T cell responses in acute and chronic infections but there are also critical differences. We are therefore reviewing the common features and peculiarities of precursor cells in acute infections, different types of persistent infection and cancer.
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Egawa T. A Fateful Decision in the Thymus Controlled by the Transcription Factor ThPOK. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2021; 206:1981-1982. [PMID: 33879577 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2100157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Egawa
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO
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7
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Comparison of Lethal and Nonlethal Mouse Models of Orientia tsutsugamushi Infection Reveals T-Cell Population-Associated Cytokine Signatures Correlated with Lethality and Protection. Trop Med Infect Dis 2021; 6:tropicalmed6030121. [PMID: 34287349 PMCID: PMC8293330 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed6030121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The antigenic diversity of Orientia tsutsugamushi as well as the interstrain difference(s) associated with virulence in mice impose the necessity to dissect the host immune response. In this study we compared the host response in lethal and non-lethal murine models of O. tsutsugamushi infection using the two strains, Karp (New Guinea) and Woods (Australia). The models included the lethal model: Karp intraperitoneal (IP) challenge; and the nonlethal models: Karp intradermal (ID), Woods IP, and Woods ID challenges. We monitored bacterial trafficking to the liver, lung, spleen, kidney, heart, and blood, and seroconversion during the 21-day challenge. Bacterial trafficking to all organs was observed in both the lethal and nonlethal models of infection, with significant increases in average bacterial loads observed in the livers and hearts of the lethal model. Multicolor flow cytometry was utilized to analyze the CD4+ and CD8+ T cell populations and their intracellular production of the cytokines IFNγ, TNF, and IL2 (single, double, and triple combinations) associated with both the lethal and nonlethal murine models of infection. The lethal model was defined by a cytokine signature of double- (IFNγ-IL2) and triple-producing (IL2-TNF-IFNγ) CD4+ T-cell populations; no multifunctional signature was identified in the CD8+ T-cell populations associated with the lethal model. In the nonlethal model, the cytokine signature was predominated by CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell populations associated with single (IL2) and/or double (IL2-TNF) populations of producers. The cytokine signatures associated with our lethal model will become depletion targets in future experiments; those signatures associated with our nonlethal model are hypothesized to be related to the protective nature of the nonlethal challenges.
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8
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Isaacs A, Li Z, Cheung STM, Wijesundara DK, McMillan CLD, Modhiran N, Young PR, Ranasinghe C, Watterson D, Chappell KJ. Adjuvant Selection for Influenza and RSV Prefusion Subunit Vaccines. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9020071. [PMID: 33498370 PMCID: PMC7909420 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9020071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Subunit vaccines exhibit favorable safety and immunogenicity profiles and can be designed to mimic native antigen structures. However, pairing with an appropriate adjuvant is imperative in order to elicit effective humoral and cellular immune responses. In this study, we aimed to determine an optimal adjuvant pairing with the prefusion form of influenza haemagglutinin (HA) or respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) fusion (F) subunit vaccines in BALB/c mice in order to inform future subunit vaccine adjuvant selection. We tested a panel of adjuvants, including aluminum hydroxide (alhydrogel), QS21, Addavax, Addavax with QS21 (AdQS21), and Army Liposome Formulation 55 with monophosphoryl lipid A and QS21 (ALF55). We found that all adjuvants elicited robust humoral responses in comparison to placebo, with the induction of potent neutralizing antibodies observed in all adjuvanted groups against influenza and in AdQS21, alhydrogel, and ALF55 against RSV. Upon HA vaccination, we observed that none of the adjuvants were able to significantly increase the frequency of CD4+ and CD8+ IFN-γ+ cells when compared to unadjuvanted antigen. The varying responses to antigens with each adjuvant highlights that those adjuvants most suited for pairing purposes can vary depending on the antigen used and/or the desired immune response. We therefore suggest that an adjuvant trial for different subunit vaccines in development would likely be necessary in preclinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariel Isaacs
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; (A.I.); (S.T.M.C.); (C.L.D.M.); (N.M.); (P.R.Y.); (D.W.)
| | - Zheyi Li
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Disease, The John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; (Z.L.); (C.R.)
| | - Stacey T. M. Cheung
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; (A.I.); (S.T.M.C.); (C.L.D.M.); (N.M.); (P.R.Y.); (D.W.)
| | - Danushka K. Wijesundara
- The Australian Institute for Biotechnology and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
| | - Christopher L. D. McMillan
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; (A.I.); (S.T.M.C.); (C.L.D.M.); (N.M.); (P.R.Y.); (D.W.)
| | - Naphak Modhiran
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; (A.I.); (S.T.M.C.); (C.L.D.M.); (N.M.); (P.R.Y.); (D.W.)
| | - Paul R. Young
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; (A.I.); (S.T.M.C.); (C.L.D.M.); (N.M.); (P.R.Y.); (D.W.)
- The Australian Institute for Biotechnology and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
- Australian Infectious Disease Research Centre, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Charani Ranasinghe
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Disease, The John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; (Z.L.); (C.R.)
| | - Daniel Watterson
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; (A.I.); (S.T.M.C.); (C.L.D.M.); (N.M.); (P.R.Y.); (D.W.)
- Australian Infectious Disease Research Centre, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Keith J. Chappell
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; (A.I.); (S.T.M.C.); (C.L.D.M.); (N.M.); (P.R.Y.); (D.W.)
- The Australian Institute for Biotechnology and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
- Australian Infectious Disease Research Centre, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
- Correspondence:
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Vigano S, Bobisse S, Coukos G, Perreau M, Harari A. Cancer and HIV-1 Infection: Patterns of Chronic Antigen Exposure. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1350. [PMID: 32714330 PMCID: PMC7344140 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The main role of the human immune system is to eliminate cells presenting foreign antigens and abnormal patterns, while maintaining self-tolerance. However, when facing highly variable pathogens or antigens very similar to self-antigens, this system can fail in completely eliminating the anomalies, leading to the establishment of chronic pathologies. Prototypical examples of immune system defeat are cancer and Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 (HIV-1) infection. In both conditions, the immune system is persistently exposed to antigens leading to systemic inflammation, lack of generation of long-term memory and exhaustion of effector cells. This triggers a negative feedback loop where effector cells are unable to resolve the pathology and cannot be replaced due to the lack of a pool of undifferentiated, self-renewing memory T cells. In addition, in an attempt to reduce tissue damage due to chronic inflammation, antigen presenting cells and myeloid components of the immune system activate systemic regulatory and tolerogenic programs. Beside these homologies shared between cancer and HIV-1 infection, the immune system can be shaped differently depending on the type and distribution of the eliciting antigens with ultimate consequences at the phenotypic and functional level of immune exhaustion. T cell differentiation, functionality, cytotoxic potential and proliferation reserve, immune-cell polarization, upregulation of negative regulators (immune checkpoint molecules) are indeed directly linked to the quantitative and qualitative differences in priming and recalling conditions. Better understanding of distinct mechanisms and functional consequences underlying disease-specific immune cell dysfunction will contribute to further improve and personalize immunotherapy. In the present review, we describe relevant players of immune cell exhaustion in cancer and HIV-1 infection, and enumerate the best-defined hallmarks of T cell dysfunction. Moreover, we highlight shared and divergent aspects of T cell exhaustion and T cell activation to the best of current knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selena Vigano
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of Lausanne and Department of Oncology, University Hospital of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sara Bobisse
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of Lausanne and Department of Oncology, University Hospital of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - George Coukos
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of Lausanne and Department of Oncology, University Hospital of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Matthieu Perreau
- Service of Immunology and Allergy, University Hospital of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Alexandre Harari
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of Lausanne and Department of Oncology, University Hospital of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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10
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Khan IA, Hwang S, Moretto M. Toxoplasma gondii: CD8 T Cells Cry for CD4 Help. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 9:136. [PMID: 31119107 PMCID: PMC6504686 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii, an apicomplexan parasite, is a pathogenic protozoan that can infect the central nervous system. In pregnant women, infection can result in congenital problems of the fetus, while in immunocompromised individual it can lead to severe neurological consequences. Although CD8 T cells play an important effector role in controlling the chronic infection, their maintenance is dependent on the critical help provided by CD4 T cells. In a recent study, we demonstrated that reactivation of the infection in chronically infected host is a consequence of CD8 T dysfunction caused by CD4 T cell exhaustion. Furthermore, treatment of chronically infected host with antigen-specific non-exhausted CD4 T cells can restore CD8 T cell functionality and prevent reactivation of the latent infection. The exhaustion status of CD4 T cells is mediated by the increased expression of the transcription factor BLIMP-1, and deletion of this molecule led to the restoration of CD4 T cell function, reversal of CD8 exhaustion and prevention of reactivation of the latent infection. In a recent study from our laboratory, we also observed an increased expression of miR146a levels by CD4 T cells from the chronically infected animals. Recent reports have demonstrated that microRNAs (especially miR146a) has a strong impact on the immune system of T. gondii infected host. Whether these molecules have any role in the BLIMP-1 up-regulation and dysfunctionality of these cells needs to be investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imtiaz A. Khan
- Department Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, The George Washington University, Washington, DC, United States
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11
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Khan IA, Ouellette C, Chen K, Moretto M. Toxoplasma: Immunity and Pathogenesis. CURRENT CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY REPORTS 2019; 6:44-50. [PMID: 31179204 DOI: 10.1007/s40588-019-0114-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii infection induces a strong immunity in the host. Although the response is manifested by innate response during early infection, adaptive immunity is critical for long-term protection. Amongst the adaptive immune response CD4 T cells play an important helper role for CD8 T cells which are the primary effector cells responsible for controlling the infection. Notwithstanding the induction of robust CD8 T immunity during acute infection, the parasite is not eradicated. One of the reasons for this is the functional exhaustion of CD8 T cells during latent infection. Recent studies from our laboratory have reported that primary cause of CD8 T cell exhaustion is compromised CD4 T cell help during latent toxoplasmosis. CD8 T cell dysfunctionality is preceded by CD4 exhaustion and effector immunity is severely compromised.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imtiaz A Khan
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, George Washington University, Washington DC 20037
| | - Charlotte Ouellette
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, George Washington University, Washington DC 20037
| | - Keer Chen
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, George Washington University, Washington DC 20037
| | - Magali Moretto
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, George Washington University, Washington DC 20037
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12
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Aberle JH, Koblischke M, Stiasny K. CD4 T cell responses to flaviviruses. J Clin Virol 2018; 108:126-131. [PMID: 30312909 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2018.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2018] [Revised: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 09/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Flaviviruses pose an increasing threat to global health with their potential to cause severe disease in millions of people. Protective and long-lived immunity is closely linked to the generation of CD4 T cells, which provide B cell help and support high affinity neutralizing antibody responses. Research performed during the last years revealed important new insights into the antigen specificities and diverse effector functions of CD4 T cell responses to flaviviruses. Moreover, the identification of mechanisms involved in the regulation of T cell specificity and function provides significant advances in our understanding of how durable protective immunity is established. Here, we summarize what is known about human CD4 T cell responses to flaviviruses, with a special emphasis on CD4 T cells that provide direct help to B cells producing neutralizing and protective antibodies. We review recent progress in the identification of epitope sites in the context of the atomic structures of flavivirus proteins and highlight specific influences that shape the human CD4 T cell response in the context of infection or vaccination. Finally, we discuss challenges facing vaccine efforts to generate appropriate CD4 T cell responses, as well as recent strategies to enhance T cell-mediated antibody responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith H Aberle
- Center for Virology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| | | | - Karin Stiasny
- Center for Virology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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13
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van Dinther D, Veninga H, Revet M, Hoogterp L, Olesek K, Grabowska J, Borg EGF, Kalay H, van Kooyk Y, den Haan JMM. Comparison of Protein and Peptide Targeting for the Development of a CD169-Based Vaccination Strategy Against Melanoma. Front Immunol 2018; 9:1997. [PMID: 30237798 PMCID: PMC6135888 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
CD169+ macrophages are part of the innate immune system and capture pathogens that enter secondary lymphoid organs such as the spleen and the lymph nodes. Their strategic location in the marginal zone of the spleen and the subcapsular sinus in the lymph node enables them to capture antigens from the blood and the lymph respectively. Interestingly, these specific CD169+ macrophages do not destroy the antigens they obtain, but instead, transfer it to B cells and dendritic cells (DCs) which facilitates the induction of strong adaptive immune responses. This latter characteristic of the CD169+ macrophages can be exploited by specifically targeting tumor antigens to CD169+ macrophages for the induction of specific T cell immunity. In the current study we target protein and peptide antigen as antibody-antigen conjugates to CD169+ macrophages. We monitored the primary, memory, and recall T cell responses and evaluated the anti-tumor immune responses after immunization. In conclusion, both protein and peptide targeting to CD169 resulted in strong primary, memory, and recall T cell responses and protective immunity against melanoma, which indicates that both forms of antigen can be further explored as anti-cancer vaccination strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dieke van Dinther
- Amsterdam UMC, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity Institute, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Henrike Veninga
- Amsterdam UMC, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity Institute, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Mirjam Revet
- Amsterdam UMC, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity Institute, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Leoni Hoogterp
- Amsterdam UMC, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity Institute, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Katarzyna Olesek
- Amsterdam UMC, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity Institute, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Joanna Grabowska
- Amsterdam UMC, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity Institute, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Ellen G F Borg
- Amsterdam UMC, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity Institute, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Hakan Kalay
- Amsterdam UMC, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity Institute, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Yvette van Kooyk
- Amsterdam UMC, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity Institute, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Joke M M den Haan
- Amsterdam UMC, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity Institute, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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14
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Abstract
Memory cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are able to provide protections to the host against repeated insults from intracellular pathogens. However, it has not been completely understood how the effector functions of memory CTLs are induced upon antigen challenge, which is directly related to the efficacy of their protection. Third signal cytokines, such as IL-12 and type I interferon, have been suggested to be involved in the protective function of memory CTLs, but direct evidence is warranted. In this report, we found that memory CTLs need to be reactivated to exert effector functions. Infusion of a large population of quiescent memory CTLs did not lead to cancer control in tumor-bearing mice, whereas infusion of a reactivated memory CTL population did. This reactivation of memory CTLs requires cytokines such as IL-12 in addition to antigen but was less dependent upon costimulation and IL-2 compared to naive CTLs. Memory CTLs responded more quickly and with greater strength than their naive counterparts upon stimulation, which is associated with higher upregulation of important transcription factors such as T-bet and phosphorylated STAT4. In addition, memory CTLs underwent less expansion than naive CTLs upon pathogen challenge. In conclusion, effector functions of established memory CTLs may be affected by certain cytokines such as IL-12 and type I IFN. Thus, a pathogen's ability to induce cytokines could contribute to the efficacy of protection of an established memory CTL population.
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15
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Desai P, Tahiliani V, Hutchinson TE, Dastmalchi F, Stanfield J, Abboud G, Thomas PG, Ware CF, Song J, Croft M, Salek-Ardakani S. The TNF Superfamily Molecule LIGHT Promotes the Generation of Circulating and Lung-Resident Memory CD8 T Cells following an Acute Respiratory Virus Infection. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2018; 200:2894-2904. [PMID: 29514949 PMCID: PMC5893426 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1701499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Accepted: 02/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The transition of effector T cells or memory precursors into distinct long-lived memory T cell subsets is not well understood. Although many molecules made by APCs can contribute to clonal expansion and effector cell differentiation, it is not clear if clonal contraction and memory development is passive or active. Using respiratory virus infection, we found that CD8 T cells that cannot express the TNF family molecule lymphotoxin-like, exhibits inducible expression, competes with HSV glycoprotein D for herpes virus entry mediator, a receptor expressed by T lymphocytes (LIGHT) are unimpaired in their initial response and clonally expand to form effector cell pools. Thereafter, LIGHT-deficient CD8 T cells undergo strikingly enhanced clonal contraction with resultant compromised accumulation of both circulating and tissue-resident memory cells. LIGHT expression at the peak of the effector response regulates the balance of several pro- and antiapoptotic genes, including Akt, and has a preferential impact on the development of the peripheral memory population. These results underscore the importance of LIGHT activity in programming memory CD8 T cell development, and suggest that CD8 effector T cells can dictate their own fate into becoming memory cells by expressing LIGHT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pritesh Desai
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610
| | - Vikas Tahiliani
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610
| | - Tarun E Hutchinson
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610
| | - Farhad Dastmalchi
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610
| | - Jessica Stanfield
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610
| | - Georges Abboud
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610
| | - Paul G Thomas
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105
| | - Carl F Ware
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
| | - Jianxun Song
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033
| | - Michael Croft
- Division of Immune Regulation, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, CA 92037; and
- Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093
| | - Shahram Salek-Ardakani
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610;
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16
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Zens KD, Chen JK, Guyer RS, Wu FL, Cvetkovski F, Miron M, Farber DL. Reduced generation of lung tissue-resident memory T cells during infancy. J Exp Med 2017; 214:2915-2932. [PMID: 28855242 PMCID: PMC5626403 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20170521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2017] [Revised: 06/15/2017] [Accepted: 08/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Zens et al. demonstrate a deficiency in the establishment of protective lung tissue-resident memory T cells following respiratory infection during infancy that is T cell intrinsic and can be ameliorated by reduced expression of T-bet during infection. These findings reveal a potential mechanism for increased susceptibility to infection in infancy and identify T-bet as a mediator of TRM generation in early life. Infants suffer disproportionately from respiratory infections and generate reduced vaccine responses compared with adults, although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In adult mice, lung-localized, tissue-resident memory T cells (TRMs) mediate optimal protection to respiratory pathogens, and we hypothesized that reduced protection in infancy could be due to impaired establishment of lung TRM. Using an infant mouse model, we demonstrate generation of lung-homing, virus-specific T effectors after influenza infection or live-attenuated vaccination, similar to adults. However, infection during infancy generated markedly fewer lung TRMs, and heterosubtypic protection was reduced compared with adults. Impaired TRM establishment was infant–T cell intrinsic, and infant effectors displayed distinct transcriptional profiles enriched for T-bet–regulated genes. Notably, mouse and human infant T cells exhibited increased T-bet expression after activation, and reduction of T-bet levels in infant mice enhanced lung TRM establishment. Our findings reveal that infant T cells are intrinsically programmed for short-term responses, and targeting key regulators could promote long-term, tissue-targeted protection at this critical life stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyra D Zens
- Columbia Center for Translational Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY
| | - Jun Kui Chen
- Columbia Center for Translational Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY
| | - Rebecca S Guyer
- Columbia Center for Translational Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY
| | - Felix L Wu
- Columbia Center for Translational Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY
| | - Filip Cvetkovski
- Columbia Center for Translational Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY
| | - Michelle Miron
- Columbia Center for Translational Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY
| | - Donna L Farber
- Columbia Center for Translational Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY .,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY.,Department of Surgery, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY
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17
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Laher F, Ranasinghe S, Porichis F, Mewalal N, Pretorius K, Ismail N, Buus S, Stryhn A, Carrington M, Walker BD, Ndung'u T, Ndhlovu ZM. HIV Controllers Exhibit Enhanced Frequencies of Major Histocompatibility Complex Class II Tetramer + Gag-Specific CD4 + T Cells in Chronic Clade C HIV-1 Infection. J Virol 2017; 91:e02477-16. [PMID: 28077659 PMCID: PMC5355603 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02477-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2016] [Accepted: 01/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune control of viral infections is heavily dependent on helper CD4+ T cell function. However, the understanding of the contribution of HIV-specific CD4+ T cell responses to immune protection against HIV-1, particularly in clade C infection, remains incomplete. Recently, major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II tetramers have emerged as a powerful tool for interrogating antigen-specific CD4+ T cells without relying on effector functions. Here, we defined the MHC class II alleles for immunodominant Gag CD4+ T cell epitopes in clade C virus infection, constructed MHC class II tetramers, and then used these to define the magnitude, function, and relation to the viral load of HIV-specific CD4+ T cell responses in a cohort of untreated HIV clade C-infected persons. We observed significantly higher frequencies of MHC class II tetramer-positive CD4+ T cells in HIV controllers than progressors (P = 0.0001), and these expanded Gag-specific CD4+ T cells in HIV controllers showed higher levels of expression of the cytolytic proteins granzymes A and B. Importantly, targeting of the immunodominant Gag41 peptide in the context of HLA class II DRB1*1101 was associated with HIV control (r = -0.5, P = 0.02). These data identify an association between HIV-specific CD4+ T cell targeting of immunodominant Gag epitopes and immune control, particularly the contribution of a single class II MHC-peptide complex to the immune response against HIV-1 infection. Furthermore, these results highlight the advantage of the use of class II tetramers in evaluating HIV-specific CD4+ T cell responses in natural infections.IMPORTANCE Increasing evidence suggests that virus-specific CD4+ T cells contribute to the immune-mediated control of clade B HIV-1 infection, yet there remains a relative paucity of data regarding the role of HIV-specific CD4+ T cells in shaping adaptive immune responses in individuals infected with clade C, which is responsible for the majority of HIV infections worldwide. Understanding the contribution of HIV-specific CD4+ T cell responses in clade C infection is particularly important for developing vaccines that would be efficacious in sub-Saharan Africa, where clade C infection is dominant. Here, we employed MHC class II tetramers designed to immunodominant Gag epitopes and used them to characterize CD4+ T cell responses in HIV-1 clade C infection. Our results demonstrate an association between the frequency of HIV-specific CD4+ T cell responses targeting an immunodominant DRB1*11-Gag41 complex and HIV control, highlighting the important contribution of a single class II MHC-peptide complex to the immune response against HIV-1 infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faatima Laher
- HIV Pathogenesis Programme, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Srinika Ranasinghe
- Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Center for HIV/AIDS Vaccine Immunology and Immunogen Discovery, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Filippos Porichis
- Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Center for HIV/AIDS Vaccine Immunology and Immunogen Discovery, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Nikoshia Mewalal
- HIV Pathogenesis Programme, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Karyn Pretorius
- HIV Pathogenesis Programme, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Nasreen Ismail
- HIV Pathogenesis Programme, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Søren Buus
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - Anette Stryhn
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - Mary Carrington
- Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Cancer and Inflammation Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Bruce D Walker
- HIV Pathogenesis Programme, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, Maryland, USA
| | - Thumbi Ndung'u
- HIV Pathogenesis Programme, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- KwaZulu-Natal Research Institute for Tuberculosis and HIV (K-RITH), Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Zaza M Ndhlovu
- HIV Pathogenesis Programme, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
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18
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He R, Yang X, Liu C, Chen X, Wang L, Xiao M, Ye J, Wu Y, Ye L. Efficient control of chronic LCMV infection by a CD4 T cell epitope-based heterologous prime-boost vaccination in a murine model. Cell Mol Immunol 2017; 15:815-826. [PMID: 28287115 DOI: 10.1038/cmi.2017.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2016] [Revised: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 12/08/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
CD4+ T cells are essential for sustaining CD8+ T cell responses during a chronic infection. The adoptive transfer of virus-specific CD4+ T cells has been shown to efficiently rescue exhausted CD8+ T cells. However, the question of whether endogenous virus-specific CD4+ T cell responses can be enhanced by certain vaccination strategies and subsequently reinvigorate exhausted CD8+ T cells remains unexplored. In this study, we developed a CD4+ T cell epitope-based heterologous prime-boost immunization strategy and examined the efficacy of this strategy using a mouse model of chronic lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection. We primed chronically LCMV-infected mice with a Listeria monocytogenes vector that expressed the LCMV glycoprotein-specific I-Ab-restricted CD4+ T cell epitope GP61-80 (LM-GP61) and subsequently boosted the primed mice with an influenza virus A (PR8 strain) vector that expressed the same CD4+ T cell epitope (IAV-GP61). This heterologous prime-boost vaccination strategy elicited strong anti-viral CD4+ T cell responses, which further improved both the quantity and quality of the virus-specific CD8+ T cells and led to better control of the viral loads. The combination of this strategy and the blockade of the programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) inhibitory pathway further enhanced the anti-viral CD8+ T cell responses and viral clearance. Thus, a heterologous prime-boost immunization that selectively induces virus-specific CD4+ T cell responses in conjunction with blockade of the inhibitory pathway may represent a promising therapeutic approach to treating patients with chronic viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ran He
- Center for Clinical Laboratory, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, 510515, Guangzhou, China.,Institute of Immunology, Medical School, Third Military Medical University, 400038, Chongqing, China
| | - Xinxin Yang
- Institute of Immunology, Medical School, Third Military Medical University, 400038, Chongqing, China
| | - Cheng Liu
- Institute of Immunology, Medical School, Third Military Medical University, 400038, Chongqing, China
| | - Xiangyu Chen
- Institute of Immunology, Medical School, Third Military Medical University, 400038, Chongqing, China
| | - Lin Wang
- Institute of Immunology, Medical School, Third Military Medical University, 400038, Chongqing, China
| | - Minglu Xiao
- Institute of Immunology, Medical School, Third Military Medical University, 400038, Chongqing, China
| | - Jianqiang Ye
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Avian Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, 225009, Yangzhou, China, Jiangsu.,Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, 225009, Yangzhou, China, Jiangsu
| | - Yuzhang Wu
- Center for Clinical Laboratory, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, 510515, Guangzhou, China.,Institute of Immunology, Medical School, Third Military Medical University, 400038, Chongqing, China
| | - Lilin Ye
- Institute of Immunology, Medical School, Third Military Medical University, 400038, Chongqing, China.
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19
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Chen SS, Hu Z, Zhong XP. Diacylglycerol Kinases in T Cell Tolerance and Effector Function. Front Cell Dev Biol 2016; 4:130. [PMID: 27891502 PMCID: PMC5103287 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2016.00130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Diacylglycerol kinases (DGKs) are a family of enzymes that regulate the relative levels of diacylglycerol (DAG) and phosphatidic acid (PA) in cells by phosphorylating DAG to produce PA. Both DAG and PA are important second messengers cascading T cell receptor (TCR) signal by recruiting multiple effector molecules, such as RasGRP1, PKCθ, and mTOR. Studies have revealed important physiological functions of DGKs in the regulation of receptor signaling and the development and activation of immune cells. In this review, we will focus on recent progresses in our understanding of two DGK isoforms, α and ζ, in CD8 T effector and memory cell differentiation, regulatory T cell development and function, and invariant NKT cell development and effector lineage differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley S Chen
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center Durham, NC, USA
| | - Zhiming Hu
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical CenterDurham, NC, USA; Institute of Biotherapy, School of Biotechnology, Southern Medical UniversityGuangzhou, China
| | - Xiao-Ping Zhong
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical CenterDurham, NC, USA; Department of Immunology, Duke University Medical CenterDurham, NC, USA; Hematologic Malignancies and Cellular Therapies Program, Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University Medical CenterDurham, NC, USA
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20
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Ni J, Hölsken O, Miller M, Hammer Q, Luetke-Eversloh M, Romagnani C, Cerwenka A. Adoptively transferred natural killer cells maintain long-term antitumor activity by epigenetic imprinting and CD4 + T cell help. Oncoimmunology 2016; 5:e1219009. [PMID: 27757318 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2016.1219009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Revised: 07/25/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cell infusions can induce remissions in subsets of patients with different types of cancer. The optimal strategies for NK cell activation prior to infusion are still under debate. There is recent evidence that NK cells can acquire long-term functional competence by preactivation with the cytokines IL-12/15/18. The mechanisms supporting the maintenance of long-term NK cell antitumor activity are incompletely under-stood. Here, we show that NK cells preactivated in vitro with IL-12/15/18, but not with IL-15 alone, maintained high antitumor activity even 1 mo after transfer into lymphopenic RAG-2-/-γc-/- mice. The NK cell intrinsic ability for IFNγ production coincided with demethylation of the conserved non-coding sequence (CNS) 1 in the Ifng locus, previously shown to enhance transcription of Ifng. In a xenograft melanoma mouse model, human IL-12/15/18-preactivated NK cells rejected tumors more efficiently. In RAG-2-/-γc-/- mice, co-transfer of CD4+ T cells further improved the long-term competence of NK cells for IFNγ production that was dependent on IL-2. CD4+ T cell activation during homeostatic proliferation required macrophages and further promoted the long-term NK cell antitumor activity. Thus, NK cells can "remember" a previous exposure to cytokines by epigenetic imprinting resulting in a remarkable stability of the IFNγ-producing phenotype after adoptive transfer. In addition, our results support combination of cytokine-preactivated NK cells with CD4+ T cell activation upon lymphopenic conditioning to achieve long-term NK cell effector function for cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Ni
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Research Group Innate Immunity , Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Oliver Hölsken
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Research Group Innate Immunity , Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Matthias Miller
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Research Group Innate Immunity , Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Quirin Hammer
- Innate Immunity, Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum - A Leibniz Institute , Berlin, Germany
| | - Merlin Luetke-Eversloh
- Innate Immunity, Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum - A Leibniz Institute , Berlin, Germany
| | - Chiara Romagnani
- Innate Immunity, Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum - A Leibniz Institute , Berlin, Germany
| | - Adelheid Cerwenka
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Research Group Innate Immunity , Heidelberg, Germany
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21
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Kinder JM, Jiang TT, Ertelt JM, Xin L, Strong BS, Shaaban AF, Way SS. Tolerance to noninherited maternal antigens, reproductive microchimerism and regulatory T cell memory: 60 years after 'Evidence for actively acquired tolerance to Rh antigens'. CHIMERISM 2015; 6:8-20. [PMID: 26517600 PMCID: PMC5063085 DOI: 10.1080/19381956.2015.1107253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Compulsory exposure to genetically foreign maternal tissue imprints in offspring sustained tolerance to noninherited maternal antigens (NIMA). Immunological tolerance to NIMA was first described by Dr. Ray D. Owen for women genetically negative for erythrocyte rhesus (Rh) antigen with reduced sensitization from developmental Rh exposure by their mothers. Extending this analysis to HLA haplotypes has uncovered the exciting potential for therapeutically exploiting NIMA-specific tolerance naturally engrained in mammalian reproduction for improved clinical outcomes after allogeneic transplantation. Herein, we summarize emerging scientific concepts stemming from tolerance to NIMA that includes postnatal maintenance of microchimeric maternal origin cells in offspring, expanded accumulation of immune suppressive regulatory T cells with NIMA-specificity, along with teleological benefits and immunological consequences of NIMA-specific tolerance conserved across mammalian species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy M Kinder
- a Division of Infectious Diseases and Perinatal Institute, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati , OH , USA
| | - Tony T Jiang
- a Division of Infectious Diseases and Perinatal Institute, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati , OH , USA
| | - James M Ertelt
- a Division of Infectious Diseases and Perinatal Institute, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati , OH , USA
| | - Lijun Xin
- a Division of Infectious Diseases and Perinatal Institute, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati , OH , USA
| | - Beverly S Strong
- b Center for Fetal Cellular and Molecular Therapy, Cincinnati Children's Hospital , Cincinnati , OH , USA
| | - Aimen F Shaaban
- b Center for Fetal Cellular and Molecular Therapy, Cincinnati Children's Hospital , Cincinnati , OH , USA
| | - Sing Sing Way
- a Division of Infectious Diseases and Perinatal Institute, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati , OH , USA
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22
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Cardillo F, de Pinho RT, Antas PRZ, Mengel J. Immunity and immune modulation in Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Pathog Dis 2015; 73:ftv082. [PMID: 26438729 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftv082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease is caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi. The parasite reaches the secondary lymphoid organs, the heart, skeletal muscles, neurons in the intestine and esophagus among other tissues. The disease is characterized by mega syndromes, which may affect the esophagus, the colon and the heart, in about 30% of infected people. The clinical manifestations associated with T. cruzi infection during the chronic phase of the disease are dependent on complex interactions between the parasite and the host tissues, particularly the lymphoid system that may either result in a balanced relationship with no disease or in an unbalanced relationship that follows an inflammatory response to parasite antigens and associated tissues in some of the host organs and/or by an autoimmune response to host antigens. This review discusses the findings that support the notion of an integrated immune response, considering the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system in the control of parasite numbers and also the mechanisms proposed to regulate the immune response in order to tolerate the remaining parasite load, during the chronic phase of infection. This knowledge is fundamental to the understanding of the disease progression and is essential for the development of novel therapies and vaccine strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabíola Cardillo
- Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Bahia, Rua Waldemar Falcão 121, Salvador 40295-001, Brazil
| | - Rosa Teixeira de Pinho
- Laboratório de Imunologia Clínica, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil
| | - Paulo Renato Zuquim Antas
- Laboratório de Imunologia Clínica, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil
| | - José Mengel
- Laboratório de Imunologia Clínica, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil Faculty of Medicine of Petropolis, FMP-FASE, 25680-120, Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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23
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Ophir E, Bobisse S, Coukos G, Harari A, Kandalaft LE. Personalized approaches to active immunotherapy in cancer. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2015; 1865:72-82. [PMID: 26241169 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2015.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2015] [Revised: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Immunotherapy is emerging as a promising anti-cancer curative modality. However, in contrast to recent advances obtained employing checkpoint blockade agents and T cell therapies, clinical efficacy of therapeutic cancer vaccines is still limited. Most vaccination attempts in the clinic represent "off-the shelf" approaches since they target common "self" tumor antigens, shared among different patients. In contrast, personalized approaches of vaccination are tailor-made for each patient and in spite being laborious, hold great potential. Recent technical advancement enabled the first steps in the clinic of personalized vaccines that target patient-specific mutated neo-antigens. Such vaccines could induce enhanced tumor-specific immune response since neo-antigens are mutation-derived antigens that can be recognized by high affinity T cells, not limited by central tolerance. Alternatively, the use of personalized vaccines based on whole autologous tumor cells, overcome the need for the identification of specific tumor antigens. Whole autologous tumor cells could be administered alone, pulsed on dendritic cells as lysate, DNA, RNA or delivered to dendritic cells in-vivo through encapsulation in nanoparticle vehicles. Such vaccines may provide a source for the full repertoire of the patient-specific tumor antigens, including its private neo-antigens. Furthermore, combining next-generation personalized vaccination with other immunotherapy modalities might be the key for achieving significant therapeutic outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eran Ophir
- Ludwig Center for Cancer Research at the University of Lausanne, Department of Oncology, University Hospital of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sara Bobisse
- Ludwig Center for Cancer Research at the University of Lausanne, Department of Oncology, University Hospital of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - George Coukos
- Ludwig Center for Cancer Research at the University of Lausanne, Department of Oncology, University Hospital of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland; Ovarian Cancer Research Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Alexandre Harari
- Ludwig Center for Cancer Research at the University of Lausanne, Department of Oncology, University Hospital of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland; Center of Experimental Therapeutics, Ludwig Center for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lana E Kandalaft
- Ludwig Center for Cancer Research at the University of Lausanne, Department of Oncology, University Hospital of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland; Center of Experimental Therapeutics, Ludwig Center for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland; Ovarian Cancer Research Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
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24
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Murray SA, Mohar I, Miller JL, Brempelis KJ, Vaughan AM, Kappe SHI, Crispe IN. CD40 is required for protective immunity against liver stage Plasmodium infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 194:2268-79. [PMID: 25646303 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1401724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The costimulatory molecule CD40 enhances immunity through several distinct roles in T cell activation and T cell interaction with other immune cells. In a mouse model of immunity to liver stage Plasmodium infection, CD40 was critical for the full maturation of liver dendritic cells, accumulation of CD8(+) T cells in the liver, and protective immunity induced by immunization with the Plasmodium yoelii fabb/f(-) genetically attenuated parasite. Using mixed adoptive transfers of polyclonal wild-type and CD40-deficient CD8(+) T cells into wild-type and CD40-deficient hosts, we evaluated the contributions to CD8(+) T cell immunity of CD40 expressed on host tissues including APC, compared with CD40 expressed on the CD8(+) T cells themselves. Most of the effects of CD40 could be accounted for by expression in the T cells' environment, including the accumulation of large numbers of CD8(+) T cells in the livers of immunized mice. Thus, protective immunity generated during immunization with fabb/f(-) was largely dependent on effective APC licensing via CD40 signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara A Murray
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Isaac Mohar
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195; and
| | | | | | | | - Stefan H I Kappe
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195; Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98109
| | - Ian N Crispe
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195; and
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25
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Xu Y, Yang E, Huang Q, Ni W, Kong C, Liu G, Li G, Su H, Wang H. PPE57 induces activation of macrophages and drives Th1-type immune responses through TLR2. J Mol Med (Berl) 2015; 93:645-62. [PMID: 25586105 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-014-1243-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2014] [Revised: 12/04/2014] [Accepted: 12/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Proline-glutamic acid (PE) and proline-proline-glutamic acid (PPE) are related proteins exclusive to Mycobacteria that play diverse roles in modulating critical innate immune pathways. In this study, we observed that the PPE57 protein is associated with the cell wall and is exposed on the cell surface. PPE57 enhances Mycobacterium spp. entering into macrophages and plays a role in macrophage phagocytosis. To explore the underlying mechanism, we demonstrated that PPE57 is able to recognise Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and further induce macrophage activation by augmenting the expression of several cell surface molecules (CD40, CD80, CD86 and MHC class II) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-12p40) within macrophages. These molecules are involved in the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) signalling pathways. We demonstrated that PPE57 effectively polarises T cells to secrete interferon (IFN)-γ and IL-2 and to up-regulate CXCR3 expression in vivo and in vitro, suggesting that this protein may contribute to Th1 polarisation during the immune response. Moreover, recombinant Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) over-expressing PPE57 could provide better protective efficacy against Mycobacterium tuberculosis challenge compared with BCG. Taken together, our data provides several pieces of evidence that PPE57 may regulate innate and adaptive immunity by interacting with TLR2. These findings indicate that PPE57 protein is a potential antigen for the rational design of an efficient vaccine against M. tuberculosis. KEY MESSAGES PPE57 is located on the cell surface and enhances mycobacterium entry into macrophage. PPE57 interacts directly with TLR2 on macrophages. PPE57 plays a key role in the activation of macrophages in a TLR2-dependent manner. PPE57 induces a Th1 immune response via TLR2-mediated macrophage functions. Recombinant BCG over-expressing PPE57 could improve protective efficacy against M. tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Institute of Genetics, School of Life Science, Fudan University, No. 220 Handan Road, Shanghai, 200433, China,
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26
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Setoguchi R, Matsui Y, Mouri K. mTOR signaling promotes a robust and continuous production of IFN-γ by human memory CD8+ T cells and their proliferation. Eur J Immunol 2015; 45:893-902. [PMID: 25476730 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201445086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2014] [Revised: 10/29/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Human CD8(+) T cells are functionally heterogeneous and can be divided into phenotypically and functionally distinct subsets according to CCR7 and CD45RA expression levels. Among these, CCR7(low) CD45RA(low) effector memory CD8(+) T cells (Tem) and CCR7(low) CD45RA(high) CD8(+) T cells, which are designated as Temra and considered to be terminally differentiated cells, are Ag-experienced T cells but show different functionalities. Here, we show that, while Tem proliferate vigorously and produce IFN-γ persistently and robustly, Temra proliferate poorly and lose the ability to produce IFN-γ over time after TCR stimulation. Temra showed impaired cell growth upon TCR stimulation, which was associated with defective activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling. Furthermore, rapamycin, an inhibitor of mTOR signaling, interfered with the robust and continuous proliferation of and IFN-γ production by Tem at later time points after TCR stimulation. Thus, these data collectively indicate that activation of mTOR signaling is required for the robust functions of Tem cells in humans and suggest that defective mTOR signaling in Temra contributes to their functional impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruka Setoguchi
- Center for Innovation in Immunoregulative Technology and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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27
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Azzi J, Ohori S, Ting C, Uehara M, Abdoli R, Smith BD, Safa K, Solhjou Z, Lukyanchykov P, Patel J, McGrath M, Abdi R. Serine protease inhibitor-6 differentially affects the survival of effector and memory alloreactive CD8-T cells. Am J Transplant 2015; 15:234-41. [PMID: 25534448 PMCID: PMC4976694 DOI: 10.1111/ajt.13051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2014] [Revised: 08/07/2014] [Accepted: 08/25/2014] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The clonal expansion of effector T cells and subsequent generation of memory T cells are critical in determining the outcome of transplantation. While cytotoxic T lymphocytes induce direct cytolysis of target cells through secretion of Granzyme-B (GrB), they also express cytoplasmic serine protease inhibitor-6 (Spi6) to protect themselves from GrB that has leaked from granules. Here, we studied the role of GrB/Spi6 axis in determining clonal expansion of alloreactive CD8-T cells and subsequent generation of memory CD8-T cells in transplantation. CD8-T cells from Spi6(-/-) mice underwent more GrB mediated apoptosis upon alloantigen stimulation in vitro and in vivo following adoptive transfer into an allogeneic host. Interestingly, while OT1.Spi6(-/-) CD8 T cells showed significantly lower clonal expansion following skin transplants from OVA mice, there was no difference in the size of the effector memory CD8-T cells long after transplantation. Furthermore, lack of Spi6 resulted in a decrease of short-lived-effector-CD8-cells but did not impact the pool of memory-precursor-effector-CD8-cells. Similar results were found in heart transplant models. Our findings suggest that the final alloreactive CD8-memory-pool-size is independent from the initial clonal-proliferation as memory precursors express low levels of GrB and therefore are independent of Spi6 for survival. These data advance our understanding of memory T cells generation in transplantation and provide basis for Spi6 based strategies to target effector T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Azzi
- Corresponding authors: Jamil Azzi, and Reza Abdi,
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - R. Abdi
- Corresponding authors: Jamil Azzi, and Reza Abdi,
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28
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Xu Y, Yang E, Wang J, Li R, Li G, Liu G, Song N, Huang Q, Kong C, Wang H. Prime-boost bacillus Calmette-Guérin vaccination with lentivirus-vectored and DNA-based vaccines expressing antigens Ag85B and Rv3425 improves protective efficacy against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in mice. Immunology 2014; 143:277-86. [PMID: 24773322 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2014] [Revised: 04/21/2014] [Accepted: 04/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
To prevent the global spread of tuberculosis (TB), more effective vaccines and vaccination strategies are urgently needed. As a result of the success of bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) in protecting children against miliary and meningeal TB, the majority of individuals will have been vaccinated with BCG; hence, boosting BCG-primed immunity will probably be a key component of future vaccine strategies. In this study, we compared the ability of DNA-, protein- and lentiviral vector-based vaccines that express the antigens Ag85B and Rv3425 to boost the effects of BCG in the context of immunity and protection against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in C57BL/6 mice. Our results demonstrated that prime-boost BCG vaccination with a lentiviral vector expressing the antigens Ag85B and Rv3425 significantly enhanced immune responses, including T helper type 1 and CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses, compared with DNA- and protein-based vaccines. However, lentivirus-vectored and DNA-based vaccines greatly improved the protective efficacy of BCG against M. tuberculosis, as indicated by a lack of weight loss and significantly reduced bacterial loads and histological damage in the lung. Our study suggests that the use of lentiviral or DNA vaccines containing the antigens Ag85B and Rv3425 to boost BCG is a good choice for the rational design of an efficient vaccination strategy against TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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29
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Grabowska AK, Kaufmann AM, Riemer AB. Identification of promiscuous HPV16-derived T helper cell epitopes for therapeutic HPV vaccine design. Int J Cancer 2014; 136:212-24. [PMID: 24824905 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.28968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2013] [Accepted: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Cervical carcinoma and several other human papillomavirus (HPV)-induced malignancies are a global public health problem, thus novel treatment modalities are urgently needed. Immunotherapy is an attractive option for treatment of HPV infection and HPV-mediated premalignant and malignant lesions. However, previous approaches--focusing on the induction of cytotoxic CD8+ T cells (CTLs)--have as yet not yielded clinical successes. Since CD4+ T cells have been shown to be crucial for the induction and maintenance of CTL responses, and more recently to be also important for direct anti-tumor immunity, human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II-restricted epitopes are intensively investigated to improve the efficacy of peptide-based HPV immunotherapy. We here present an approach to identify promiscuous HPV16-derived CD4+ T helper epitopes, which are capable of inducing T cell immunity in a large proportion of the population. To this end, we combined HLA class II epitope prediction servers with in vitro immunological evaluation to identify HPV16 E2-, E5-, E6-, and E7-derived CD4+ T cell epitopes. Candidate selected HPV16-derived epitopes were found to be restricted by up to nine HLA-DR molecules. Furthermore, they were found to induce frequent and robust HPV16 peptide-specific Th1 responses in healthy donors, as monitored by interferon (IFN)-γ ELISPOT and cytokine secretion assays. Moreover, these selected peptides also induced specific IFN-γ T cell responses in blood from HPV16+ CIN2/3 and cervical carcinoma patients. We thus conclude that the identified T helper epitopes are valuable candidates for the development of a comprehensive therapeutic HPV vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka K Grabowska
- Immunotherapy and -prevention, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
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30
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Rai D, Martin MD, Badovinac VP. The longevity of memory CD8 T cell responses after repetitive antigen stimulations. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 192:5652-9. [PMID: 24829415 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1301063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
In experimental models in which the Ag-stimulation history of memory CD8 T cell populations was clearly defined (adoptive transfer of a known number of TCR-transgenic memory CD8 T cells), all facets of the ensuing CD8 T cell responses, including proliferative expansion, duration and extent of contraction, diversification of memory CD8 T cell transcriptomes, and life-long survival, were dependent on the number of prior Ag encounters. However, the extent to which sequential adoptive-transfer models reflect the physiological scenario in which memory CD8 T cells are generated by repetitive Ag challenges of individual hosts (no adoptive transfer involved) is not known. Direct comparison of endogenous memory CD8 T cell responses generated in repetitively infected hosts revealed that recurrent homologous boosting was required to preserve the numbers and increase the phenotypic and functional complexity of the developing memory CD8 T cell pool. Although life-long survival of the memory CD8 T cells was not impacted, phenotype (i.e., upregulation of CD62L) and function (i.e., homeostatic turnover, Ag-stimulated IL-2 production) of repeatedly stimulated memory CD8 T cells were dependent on time after last Ag encounter. Therefore, repetitive Ag challenges of individual hosts can substantially influence the numerical and functional attributes of polyclonal memory CD8 T cells, a notion with important implications for the design of future vaccination strategies aimed at increasing the number of protective memory CD8 T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepa Rai
- Department of Pathology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242; and
| | - Matthew D Martin
- Department of Pathology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242; and Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242
| | - Vladimir P Badovinac
- Department of Pathology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242; and Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242
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31
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Jorquera PA, Oakley KE, Tripp RA. Advances in and the potential of vaccines for respiratory syncytial virus. Expert Rev Respir Med 2014; 7:411-27. [PMID: 23964629 DOI: 10.1586/17476348.2013.814409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of serious lower respiratory track illness causing bronchiolitis and some mortality in infants and the elderly. Despite decades of research there is no licensed RSV vaccine. To enable the development of RSV vaccines, several major obstacles must be overcome including immature and waning immunity to RSV infection, the capacity of RSV to evade immunity and the failure of RSV infection to induce robust enduring immunity. Since the failure of the formalin-inactivated RSV vaccine trial, more cautious and deliberate progress has been made toward RSV vaccine development using a variety of experimental approaches. The scientific rational and the state of development of these approaches are reviewed in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia A Jorquera
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Infectious Disease, Animal Health Research Center, 111 Carlton Street, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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32
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Kinder JM, Jiang TT, Clark DR, Chaturvedi V, Xin L, Ertelt JM, Way SS. Pregnancy-induced maternal regulatory T cells, bona fide memory or maintenance by antigenic reminder from fetal cell microchimerism? CHIMERISM 2014; 5:16-9. [PMID: 24553046 DOI: 10.4161/chim.28241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Long-term maintenance of immune components with defined specificity, without antigen is the hallmark feature of immunological memory. However, there are fundamental differences in how memory CD8(+) compared with CD4(+) T cells are maintained. After complete antigen elimination, CD8(+) T cells can persist as a self-renewing numerically stable cell population, and therefore satisfy the most stringent definition of "memory." Comparatively, CD4(+) T cell maintenance is considerably less stable, often requiring low-level antigen persistence or antigenic reminders. Recent studies show these basic memory features, classically ascribed to effector CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cells, extend to immune suppressive Foxp3(+) regulatory CD4(+) T cells (Tregs). In particular, gestational expansion and postpartum retention of maternal Tregs with fetal specificity may explain the protective benefits of primary pregnancy on complications in subsequent pregnancy. Herein, the possibility of ongoing antigenic reminders from fetal cell microchimerism in postpartum maintenance of maternal Tregs with fetal specificity is considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy M Kinder
- Division of Infectious Diseases; Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center; Cincinnati, OH USA
| | - Tony T Jiang
- Division of Infectious Diseases; Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center; Cincinnati, OH USA
| | - Dayna R Clark
- Division of Infectious Diseases; Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center; Cincinnati, OH USA
| | - Vandana Chaturvedi
- Division of Infectious Diseases; Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center; Cincinnati, OH USA
| | - Lijun Xin
- Division of Infectious Diseases; Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center; Cincinnati, OH USA
| | - James M Ertelt
- Division of Infectious Diseases; Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center; Cincinnati, OH USA
| | - Sing Sing Way
- Division of Infectious Diseases; Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center; Cincinnati, OH USA
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33
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Yatsuda J, Irie A, Harada K, Michibata Y, Tsukamoto H, Senju S, Tomita Y, Yuno A, Hirayama M, Abu Sayem M, Takeda N, Shibuya I, Sogo S, Fujiki F, Sugiyama H, Eto M, Nishimura Y. Establishment of HLA-DR4 transgenic mice for the identification of CD4+ T cell epitopes of tumor-associated antigens. PLoS One 2013; 8:e84908. [PMID: 24386437 PMCID: PMC3875545 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2013] [Accepted: 11/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Reports have shown that activation of tumor-specific CD4+ helper T (Th) cells is crucial for effective anti-tumor immunity and identification of Th-cell epitopes is critical for peptide vaccine-based cancer immunotherapy. Although computer algorithms are available to predict peptides with high binding affinity to a specific HLA class II molecule, the ability of those peptides to induce Th-cell responses must be evaluated. We have established HLA-DR4 (HLA-DRA*01:01/HLA-DRB1*04:05) transgenic mice (Tgm), since this HLA-DR allele is most frequent (13.6%) in Japanese population, to evaluate HLA-DR4-restricted Th-cell responses to tumor-associated antigen (TAA)-derived peptides predicted to bind to HLA-DR4. To avoid weak binding between mouse CD4 and HLA-DR4, Tgm were designed to express chimeric HLA-DR4/I-Ed, where I-Ed α1 and β1 domains were replaced with those from HLA-DR4. Th cells isolated from Tgm immunized with adjuvant and HLA-DR4-binding cytomegalovirus-derived peptide proliferated when stimulated with peptide-pulsed HLA-DR4-transduced mouse L cells, indicating chimeric HLA-DR4/I-Ed has equivalent antigen presenting capacity to HLA-DR4. Immunization with CDCA155-78 peptide, a computer algorithm-predicted HLA-DR4-binding peptide derived from TAA CDCA1, successfully induced Th-cell responses in Tgm, while immunization of HLA-DR4-binding Wilms' tumor 1 antigen-derived peptide with identical amino acid sequence to mouse ortholog failed. This was overcome by using peptide-pulsed syngeneic bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BM-DC) followed by immunization with peptide/CFA booster. BM-DC-based immunization of KIF20A494-517 peptide from another TAA KIF20A, with an almost identical HLA-binding core amino acid sequence to mouse ortholog, successfully induced Th-cell responses in Tgm. Notably, both CDCA155-78 and KIF20A494-517 peptides induced human Th-cell responses in PBMCs from HLA-DR4-positive donors. Finally, an HLA-DR4 binding DEPDC1191-213 peptide from a new TAA DEPDC1 overexpressed in bladder cancer induced strong Th-cell responses both in Tgm and in PBMCs from an HLA-DR4-positive donor. Thus, the HLA-DR4 Tgm combined with computer algorithm was useful for preliminary screening of candidate peptides for vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junji Yatsuda
- Department of Immunogenetics, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
- Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Atsushi Irie
- Department of Immunogenetics, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Kumiko Harada
- Department of Immunogenetics, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Yayoi Michibata
- Department of Immunogenetics, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Hirotake Tsukamoto
- Department of Immunogenetics, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Satoru Senju
- Department of Immunogenetics, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Yusuke Tomita
- Department of Immunogenetics, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Akira Yuno
- Department of Immunogenetics, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Masatoshi Hirayama
- Department of Immunogenetics, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Mohammad Abu Sayem
- Department of Immunogenetics, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
- Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Tangail, Bangladesh
| | - Naoki Takeda
- Division of Transgenic Technology, Institute of Resource Development and Analysis, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Isao Shibuya
- Microbiological Research Institute, Otsuka Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Shinji Sogo
- Microbiological Research Institute, Otsuka Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Fumihiro Fujiki
- Department of Cancer Immunology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Haruo Sugiyama
- Department of Functional Diagnostic Science, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masatoshi Eto
- Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Yasuharu Nishimura
- Department of Immunogenetics, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
- * E-mail:
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Zhang J, Crumpacker C. Eradication of HIV and Cure of AIDS, Now and How? Front Immunol 2013; 4:337. [PMID: 24151495 PMCID: PMC3799464 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2013.00337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2013] [Accepted: 10/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have highlighted the importance of eradication of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and cure of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). However, a pivotal point that the patient immunity controls HIV reactivation after highly active anti-retroviral therapy [HAART or combination anti-retroviral therapy (cART)] remains less well addressed. In spite of the fact that both innate and adaptive immunities are indispensable and numerous cells participate in the anti-HIV immunity, memory CD4 T-cells are indisputably the key cells organizing all immune actions against HIV while being the targets of HIV. Here we present a view and multidisciplinary approaches to HIV/AIDS eradication and cure. We aim at memory CD4 T-cells, utilizing the stem cell properties of these cells to reprogram an anti-HIV memory repertoire to eliminate the viral reservoir, toward achieving an AIDS-free world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jielin Zhang
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center , Boston, MA , USA
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Tufail S, Badrealam KF, Owais M, Zubair S. Illuminating the petite picture of T cell memory responses to Listeria monocytogenes. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2013; 2013:121684. [PMID: 24171157 PMCID: PMC3793310 DOI: 10.1155/2013/121684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2013] [Accepted: 07/25/2013] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The ease to culture, moderately less safety constraints in handling, and above all, hurdle free induction of an anticipated infection in mouse rendered Listeria monocytogenes the rank of a model organism for studying a variety of host immune responses. Listeria monocytogenes being an intracellular pathogen evokes potent CD8 T cell response during which CD8 T cells pass through a massive expansion phase. This is generally followed by contraction phase wherein majority of activated cells undergo apoptosis leaving behind a population of memory CD8 T cells that has potential to confer enhanced protection upon reencounter with the same pathogen. Functional attributes of various cytokines, transcription factors, receptors, adaptors, and effectors pertaining to the generation of robust memory T cell response have begun to be unravelled for better understanding of memory and opening avenues to create superior vaccine strategies. This review is an attempt to unveil related discoveries along with updating recent advances on this issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saba Tufail
- Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh 202002, India
| | - Khan Farheen Badrealam
- Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh 202002, India
| | - Mohammad Owais
- Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh 202002, India
| | - Swaleha Zubair
- Women's College, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh 202002, India
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Krishna S, Zhong XP. Regulation of Lipid Signaling by Diacylglycerol Kinases during T Cell Development and Function. Front Immunol 2013; 4:178. [PMID: 23847619 PMCID: PMC3701226 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2013.00178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2013] [Accepted: 06/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Diacylglycerol (DAG) and phosphatidic acid (PA) are bioactive lipids synthesized when the T cell receptor binds to a cognate peptide-MHC complex. DAG triggers signaling by recruiting Ras guanyl-releasing protein 1, PKCθ, and other effectors, whereas PA binds to effector molecules that include mechanistic target of rapamycin, Src homology region 2 domain-containing phosphatase 1, and Raf1. While DAG-mediated pathways have been shown to play vital roles in T cell development and function, the importance of PA-mediated signals remains less clear. The diacylglycerol kinase (DGK) family of enzymes phosphorylates DAG to produce PA, serving as a molecular switch that regulates the relative levels of these critical second messengers. Two DGK isoforms, α and ζ, are predominantly expressed in T lineage cells and play an important role in conventional αβ T cell development. In mature T cells, the activity of these DGK isoforms aids in the maintenance of self-tolerance by preventing T cell hyper-activation and promoting T cell anergy. In this review, we discuss the roles of DAG-mediated pathways, PA-effectors, and DGKs in T cell development and function. We also highlight recent work that has uncovered previously unappreciated roles for DGK activity, for instance in invariant NKT cell development, anti-tumor and anti-viral CD8 responses, and the directional secretion of soluble effectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sruti Krishna
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Allergy and Immunology, Duke University Medical Center , Durham, NC , USA ; Department of Immunology, Duke University Medical Center , Durham, NC , USA
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Vaitaitis GM, Carter JR, Waid DM, Olmstead MH, Wagner DH. An alternative role for Foxp3 as an effector T cell regulator controlled through CD40. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 191:717-25. [PMID: 23776180 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1300625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The BDC2.5 T cell clone is highly diabetogenic, but the transgenic mouse generated from that clone is surprisingly slow in diabetes development. Although defining pathogenic effector T cells in autoimmunity has been inconsistent, CD4(+) cells expressing the CD40 receptor (Th40 cells) are highly diabetogenic in NOD mice, and NOD.BDC2.5.TCR.Tg mice possess large numbers of these cells. Given the importance of CD40 for pathogenic T cell development, BDC2.5.CD40(-/-) mice were created. Regulatory T cells, CD4(+)CD25(hi)Foxp3(+), develop normally, but pathogenic effector cells are severely reduced in number. Th40 cells from diabetic BDC2.5 mice rapidly induce diabetes in NOD.scid recipients, but Th40 cells from prediabetic mice transfer diabetes very slowly. Demonstrating an important paradigm shift, effector Th40 cells from prediabetic mice are Foxp3(+). As mice age, moving to type 1 diabetes development, Th40 cells lose Foxp3. When Th40 cells that are Foxp3(+) are transferred to NOD.scid recipients, disease is delayed. Th40 cells that are Foxp3(-) rapidly transfer disease. Th40 cells from BDC2.5.CD40(-/-) mice do not transfer disease nor do they lose Foxp3 expression. Mechanistically, Foxp3(+) cells produce IL-17 but do not produce IFN-γ, whereas Foxp3(-) Th40 cells produce IFN-γ and IL-2. This poses a new consideration for the function of Foxp3, as directly impacting effector T cell function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gisela M Vaitaitis
- Webb-Waring Center, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
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Näslund TI, Gehrmann U, Qazi KR, Karlsson MCI, Gabrielsson S. Dendritic cell-derived exosomes need to activate both T and B cells to induce antitumor immunity. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 190:2712-9. [PMID: 23418627 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1203082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are secreted membrane nanovesicles of endosomal origin and are considered potential cancer vaccine vectors. Phase I clinical trials have been successfully conducted with tumor peptide-loaded exosomes derived from dendritic cells (dexosomes), and a phase II clinical trial is ongoing. However, much is still unknown regarding the in vivo role of dexosomes and whether their immunogenicity can be enhanced. We previously reported that dexosomes induce CD4(+) T cell responses in a B cell-dependent manner, suggesting that immunization with dexosomes carrying only T cell peptides induce suboptimal immune responses. In this study, we show that CD8(+) T cell responses were induced in vivo when mice were immunized with protein-loaded, but not peptide-loaded, dexosomes. We also show that the cytotoxic T cell response was totally dependent on CD4(+) T cells and, interestingly, also on B cells. Mice deficient in complement activation and Ag shuttling by B cells have lower responses to protein-loaded dexosomes, showing involvement of these B cell-mediated mechanisms. Finally, protein-loaded dexosomes were superior in protecting against tumor growth. In conclusion, proper activation of CD4(+) T and B cells needs to be considered when designing cancer vaccines to ensure full potential of the treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja I Näslund
- Translational Immunology Unit, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital Solna, 17176 Stockholm, Sweden
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39
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Quinn KM, Da Costa A, Yamamoto A, Berry D, Lindsay RWB, Darrah PA, Wang L, Cheng C, Kong WP, Gall JGD, Nicosia A, Folgori A, Colloca S, Cortese R, Gostick E, Price DA, Gomez CE, Esteban M, Wyatt LS, Moss B, Morgan C, Roederer M, Bailer RT, Nabel GJ, Koup RA, Seder RA. Comparative analysis of the magnitude, quality, phenotype, and protective capacity of simian immunodeficiency virus gag-specific CD8+ T cells following human-, simian-, and chimpanzee-derived recombinant adenoviral vector immunization. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 190:2720-35. [PMID: 23390298 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1202861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Recombinant adenoviral vectors (rAds) are the most potent recombinant vaccines for eliciting CD8(+) T cell-mediated immunity in humans; however, prior exposure from natural adenoviral infection can decrease such responses. In this study we show low seroreactivity in humans against simian- (sAd11, sAd16) or chimpanzee-derived (chAd3, chAd63) compared with human-derived (rAd5, rAd28, rAd35) vectors across multiple geographic regions. We then compared the magnitude, quality, phenotype, and protective capacity of CD8(+) T cell responses in mice vaccinated with rAds encoding SIV Gag. Using a dose range (1 × 10(7)-10(9) particle units), we defined a hierarchy among rAd vectors based on the magnitude and protective capacity of CD8(+) T cell responses, from most to least, as: rAd5 and chAd3, rAd28 and sAd11, chAd63, sAd16, and rAd35. Selection of rAd vector or dose could modulate the proportion and/or frequency of IFN-γ(+)TNF-α(+)IL-2(+) and KLRG1(+)CD127(-)CD8(+) T cells, but strikingly ∼30-80% of memory CD8(+) T cells coexpressed CD127 and KLRG1. To further optimize CD8(+) T cell responses, we assessed rAds as part of prime-boost regimens. Mice primed with rAds and boosted with NYVAC generated Gag-specific responses that approached ∼60% of total CD8(+) T cells at peak. Alternatively, priming with DNA or rAd28 and boosting with rAd5 or chAd3 induced robust and equivalent CD8(+) T cell responses compared with prime or boost alone. Collectively, these data provide the immunologic basis for using specific rAd vectors alone or as part of prime-boost regimens to induce CD8(+) T cells for rapid effector function or robust long-term memory, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kylie M Quinn
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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40
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Abstract
Sant and McMichael discuss new advances in detecting CD4+ T cells at the right time and place during viral infection. Protective immunity to chronic and acute viral infection relies on both the innate and adaptive immune response. Although neutralizing antibody production by B cells and cytotoxic activity of CD8+ T cells are well-accepted components of the adaptive immune response to viruses, identification of the specific role of CD4+ T cells in protection has been more challenging to establish. Delineating the contribution of CD4+ T cells has been complicated by their functional heterogeneity, breadth in antigen specificity, transient appearance in circulation, and sequestration in tissue sites of infection. In this minireview, we discuss recent progress in identifying the multiple roles of CD4+ T cells in orchestrating and mediating the immune responses against viral pathogens. We highlight several recent reports, including one published in this issue, that have employed comprehensive and sophisticated approaches to provide new evidence for CD4+ T cells as direct effectors in antiviral immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea J Sant
- David H. Smith Center for Vaccine Biology and the Immunology Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14623, USA.
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Wiesel M, Oxenius A. From crucial to negligible: functional CD8⁺ T-cell responses and their dependence on CD4⁺ T-cell help. Eur J Immunol 2012; 42:1080-8. [PMID: 22539281 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201142205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
CD8(+) T cells play an important role in controlling pathogenic infections and are therefore key players in the immune response. It has been shown that among other factors CD4(+) T cells can shape the magnitude as well as the quality of primary and/or secondary CD8(+) T-cell responses. However, due to the complexity and the differences among diverse immunization or infection models, the overall requirement, the time points, as well as the specific mechanism(s) of CD4(+) T-cell help may differ substantially. Here, we summarize current knowledge about the differential requirement of CD4(+) T-cell help in promoting primary CD8(+) T-cell responses as well as establishing functional memory CD8(+) T cells in various experimental settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Wiesel
- Institute for Microbiology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
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42
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Immune markers and correlates of protection for vaccine induced immune responses. Vaccine 2012; 30:4907-20. [PMID: 22658928 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.05.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2012] [Revised: 05/15/2012] [Accepted: 05/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Vaccines have been a major innovation in the history of mankind and still have the potential to address the challenges posed by chronic intracellular infections including tuberculosis, HIV and malaria which are leading causes of high morbidity and mortality across the world. Markers of an appropriate humoral response currently remain the best validated correlates of protective immunity after vaccination. Despite advancements in the field of immunology over the past few decades currently there are, however, no sufficiently validated immune correlates of vaccine induced protection against chronic infections in neither human nor veterinary medicine. Technological and conceptual advancements within cell-mediated immunology have led to a number of new immunological read-outs with the potential to emerge as correlates of vaccine induced protection. For T(H)1 type responses, antigen-specific production of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) has been promoted as a quantitative marker of protective cell-mediated immune responses over the past couple of decades. More recently, however, evidence from several infections has pointed towards the quality of the immune response, measured through increased levels of antigen-specific polyfunctional T cells capable of producing a triad of relevant cytokines, as a better correlate of sustained protective immunity against this type of infections. Also the possibilities to measure antigen-specific cytotoxic T cells (CTL) during infection or in response to vaccination, through recombinant major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I tetramers loaded with relevant peptides, has opened a new vista to include CTL responses in the evaluation of protective immune responses. Here, we review different immune markers and new candidates for correlates of a protective vaccine induced immune response against chronic infections and how successful they have been in defining the protective immunity in human and veterinary medicine.
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Division-linked generation of death-intermediates regulates the numerical stability of memory CD8 T cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:6199-204. [PMID: 22474367 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1118868109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Infection or successful vaccination results in the formation of long-lived memory CD8 T-cell populations. Despite their numerical stability, memory CD8 T-cell populations are thought to completely turn over through proliferation within a 2- to 3-mo period. Therefore, steady-state memory cell proliferation must be balanced by a precisely regulated and equivalent death rate. However, the mechanisms regulating this balancing process remain completely undefined. Herein, we provide evidence for "death-intermediate memory cells" (T(DIM)) within memory CD8 T-cell populations generated by infection. Importantly, CD62L(Lo)/CD27(Lo) T(DIM)s are functionally characterized by an inability to produce cytokines, the failure to internalize T-cell receptor following antigenic stimulation, and signatures of apoptotic death. Furthermore, we demonstrate that, mechanistically, T(DIM) are directly generated from dividing "central memory" T-cell populations undergoing memory turnover in vivo. Collectively, these results demonstrate that as central memory CD8 T cells proliferate, they continuously generate a population of CD8 T cells that are nonfunctional and apoptotic; thus, our data support a model wherein division-linked generation of T(DIM) contributes to numerically stable CD8 T-cell memory.
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Müller JR, Waldmann TA, Dubois S. Selective dependence of H2-M3-restricted CD8 responses on IL-15. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2012; 188:2575-82. [PMID: 22312130 PMCID: PMC3294130 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1102393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
We studied whether CD8 T cell responses that are mediated by unconventional MHC class Ib molecules are IL-15 dependent in mice. CD8(+) T cell responses to Listeria monocytogenes infection that are restricted by the MHC class Ib molecule H2-M3 decreased in the absence of IL-15, whereas other primary MHC class Ib- and MHC class Ia-restricted responses were IL-15 independent. This result was confirmed in MHC class Ia-deficient mice in which IL-15 deficiency also reduced H2-M3-restricted but not all CD8 T cell responses to L. monocytogenes. IL-15 deficiency did not affect proliferation or survival of responding H2-M3-restricted CD8(+) T cells, but IL-15 was necessary to detect H2-M3-restricted CD8(+) T cells in naive mice. This finding suggests that these CD8(+) T cells require IL-15 during development, but become IL-15 independent after activation. IL-15 was necessary for the survival of most class Ib-restricted CD8(+) T cells, starting at the mature thymocyte stage in naive mice, but does not affect a distinct CD44(low)/CD122(low) subpopulation. These data suggest that the nature of the selecting MHC class Ib molecule determines whether CD8(+) T cells acquire IL-15 dependence during thymic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen R. Müller
- Metabolism Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892
| | - Thomas A. Waldmann
- Metabolism Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892
| | - Sigrid Dubois
- Metabolism Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892
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Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of lower respiratory tract viral disease in infants and young children. Presently, there are no explicit recommendations for RSV treatment apart from supportive care. The virus is therefore responsible for an estimated 160,000 deaths per year worldwide. Despite half a century of dedicated research, there remains no licensed vaccine product. Herein are described past and current efforts to harness innate and adaptive immune potentials to combat RSV. A plethora of candidate vaccine products and strategies are reviewed. The development of a successful RSV vaccine may ultimately stem from attention to historical lessons, in concert with an integral partnering of immunology and virology research fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia L Hurwitz
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN 38105, USA.
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46
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Martin MD, Condotta SA, Harty JT, Badovinac VP. Population dynamics of naive and memory CD8 T cell responses after antigen stimulations in vivo. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 188:1255-65. [PMID: 22205031 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1101579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The extent to which the progeny of one primary memory CD8 T cell differs from the progeny of one naive CD8 T cell of the same specificity remains an unresolved question. To explore cell-autonomous functional differences between naive and memory CD8 T cells that are not influenced by differences in the priming environment, an experimental model has been developed in which physiological numbers of both populations of cells were cotransferred into naive hosts before Ag stimulation. Interestingly, naive CD8 T cells undergo greater expansion in numbers than do primary memory CD8 T cells after various infections or immunizations. The intrinsic ability of one naive CD8 T cell to give rise to more effector CD8 T cells than one memory CD8 T cell is independent of the number and quality of primary memory CD8 T cells present in vivo. The sustained proliferation of newly activated naive CD8 T cells contributed to their greater magnitude of expansion. Additionally, longitudinal analyses of primary and secondary CD8 T cell responses revealed that on a per-cell basis naive CD8 T cells generate higher numbers of long-lived memory cells than do primary memory CD8 T cells. This enhanced "memory generation potential" of responding naive CD8 T cells occurred despite the delayed contraction of secondary CD8 T cell responses. Taken together, the data in this study revealed previously unappreciated differences between naive and memory CD8 T cells and will help further define the functional potential for both cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Martin
- Department of Pathology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
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47
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Quezada SA, Peggs KS. Tumor-reactive CD4+ T cells: plasticity beyond helper and regulatory activities. Immunotherapy 2011; 3:915-7. [PMID: 21843076 DOI: 10.2217/imt.11.83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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48
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Tight regulation of memory CD8(+) T cells limits their effectiveness during sustained high viral load. Immunity 2011; 35:285-98. [PMID: 21856186 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2011.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2010] [Revised: 04/08/2011] [Accepted: 05/06/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
To design successful vaccines for chronic diseases, an understanding of memory CD8(+) T cell responses to persistent antigen restimulation is critical. However, most studies comparing memory and naive cell responses have been performed only in rapidly cleared acute infections. Herein, by comparing the responses of memory and naive CD8(+) T cells to acute and chronic lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection, we show that memory cells dominated over naive cells and were protective when present in sufficient numbers to quickly reduce infection. In contrast, when infection was not rapidly reduced, because of high antigen load or persistence, memory cells were quickly lost, unlike naive cells. This loss of memory cells was due to a block in sustaining cell proliferation, selective regulation by the inhibitory receptor 2B4, and increased reliance on CD4(+) T cell help. Thus, emphasizing the importance of designing vaccines that elicit effective CD4(+) T cell help and rapidly control infection.
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49
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Randall KL, Chan SSY, Ma CS, Fung I, Mei Y, Yabas M, Tan A, Arkwright PD, Al Suwairi W, Lugo Reyes SO, Yamazaki-Nakashimada MA, Garcia-Cruz MDLL, Smart JM, Picard C, Okada S, Jouanguy E, Casanova JL, Lambe T, Cornall RJ, Russell S, Oliaro J, Tangye SG, Bertram EM, Goodnow CC. DOCK8 deficiency impairs CD8 T cell survival and function in humans and mice. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 208:2305-20. [PMID: 22006977 PMCID: PMC3201196 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20110345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
In humans, DOCK8 immunodeficiency syndrome is characterized by severe cutaneous viral infections. Thus, CD8 T cell function may be compromised in the absence of DOCK8. In this study, by analyzing mutant mice and humans, we demonstrate a critical, intrinsic role for DOCK8 in peripheral CD8 T cell survival and function. DOCK8 mutation selectively diminished the abundance of circulating naive CD8 T cells in both species, and in DOCK8-deficient humans, most CD8 T cells displayed an exhausted CD45RA(+)CCR7(-) phenotype. Analyses in mice revealed the CD8 T cell abnormalities to be cell autonomous and primarily postthymic. DOCK8 mutant naive CD8 T cells had a shorter lifespan and, upon encounter with antigen on dendritic cells, exhibited poor LFA-1 synaptic polarization and a delay in the first cell division. Although DOCK8 mutant T cells underwent near-normal primary clonal expansion after primary infection with recombinant influenza virus in vivo, they showed greatly reduced memory cell persistence and recall. These findings highlight a key role for DOCK8 in the survival and function of human and mouse CD8 T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrina L Randall
- Department of Immunology, The John Curtin School of Medical Research , Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 0200, Australia
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50
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Abstract
Immune responses during infection, injury, and cancer proceed in the presence of tissue injury and cell death. Consequently, the system must deal with its own dead cells while it determines the appropriate response to the invader. As apoptotic cells are known to induce immune tolerance and necrotic cells can be potent stimulators of immunity, this decision becomes more complex. The key to understanding the immunologic choices made during cell death is to examine the mechanisms of tolerance induction by dying cells and then relate them to the mechanisms of immunity. Ideally, immunogenic cell death should be directed toward tumor cells and infected cells, whereas tolerogenic cell death should be associated with preventing unwanted immune responses to self. In this review, we discuss how the decision is made by focusing on the biochemical process of cell death and how its key components can influence both tolerance and immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A Ferguson
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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