Trends during a half century in relative squamous cell carcinoma distribution by body site in the Swedish population: Support for accumulated sun exposure as the main risk factor

Sex Disparity for Patients with Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Head and Neck: A Systematic Review

The incidence of head and neck cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (HNcSCC) is unevenly distributed between men and women. At present, the mechanism behind this disparity remains elusive. This study conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of proportions to investigate the disparity between sexes for patients with HNcSCC. PubMed, Scopus, EMBASE, MEDLINE, Emcare and CINAHL were searched in November 2021 and June 2022 (N > 50, English, human), and studies which examined the association between sex and HNcSCC were included. Analysis was conducted using RStudio with data and forest plots displaying males as a proportion of total patients with HNcSCC. Two independent researchers performed study selection, data extraction, data analysis and risk of bias. Eighty-two studies (1948 to 2018) comprising approximately 186,000 participants (67% male, 33% female) from 29 countries were included. Significantly more males had HNcSCC overall (71%; CI: 67−74). Males were also significantly more affected by cSCC of the ear (92%; CI: 89−94), lip (74%; CI: 66−81), and eyelid (56%; CI: 51−62). This study found HNcSCC disproportionately affected males overall and across all subtypes. Improving our understanding of sex-specific mechanisms in HNcSCC will better inform our preventive, therapeutic and prognostic practices.

Nationwide Incidence of Metastatic Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in England

Importance

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) is the most common skin cancer with metastatic potential, but epidemiologic data are poor. Changes to the National Cancer Registration and Analysis Service (NCRAS) in England have allowed more accurate data analysis of primary and metastatic cSCC since 2013.

Objective

To assess the national incidence of cSCC and metastatic cSCC (mcSCC) in England from 2013 through 2015.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This national population-based study identified a cohort of patients with cSCC and mcSCC in England from January 1, 2013, through December 31, 2015. Patients were identified using diagnostic codes derived from pathology reports in the NCRAS. Data were analyzed from March 1, 2017, through March 1, 2018.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Incidence rates across sex and risk factors for cSCC were derived from the NCRAS data. Risk of occurrence of mcSCC among the population with cSCC was assessed with Cox proportional hazards regression analysis to determine indicators of mcSCC.

Results

Among the 76 977 patients with first primary cSCC in 2013 through 2015 (62.7% male; median age, 80 years [interquartile range, 72-86 years]), the age-standardized rates for the first registered cSCC in England from 2013 through 2015 were 77.3 per 100 000 person-years (PY) (95% CI, 76.6-78.0) in male patients and 34.1 per 100 000 PY (95% CI, 33.7-34.5) in female patients. Increased primary cSCC tumor count was observed in older, white male patients in lower deprivation quintiles. After a maximum follow-up of 36 months, cumulative incidence of mcSCC developed in 1.1% of women and 2.4% of men with a primary cSCC. Significant increases in the risk of metastasis with adjusted hazard rates of approximately 2.00 were observed in patients who were aged 80 to 89 years (hazard ratio [HR], 1.23; 95% CI, 1.07-1.43), 90 years or older (HR, 1.35; 95% CI, 1.09-1.66), male (HR, 1.79; 95% CI, 1.52-2.10), immunosuppressed (HR, 1.99; 95% CI, 1.64-2.42), and in higher deprivation quintiles (HR for highest quintile, 1.64; 95% CI, 1.35-2.00). Primary cSCC located on the ear (HR, 1.70; 95% CI, 1.42-2.03) and lip (HR, 1.85; 95% CI, 1.29-2.63) were at highest risk of metastasis.

Conclusions and Relevance

This study presents the first national study of the incidence of mcSCC. With limited health care resources and an aging population, accurate epidemiologic data are essential for informing future health care planning, identifying high-risk patients, and evaluating skin cancer prevention policies.

Changes in Ultraviolet Radiation Exposure to the Ocular Region: A Population-Based Study

In contrast to the well-established association between ultraviolet radiation (UVR) exposure and skin cancers, the relationship between UVR and uveal malignant melanoma (UM) remains controversial. To address this controversy, we evaluated the incidence rates of cutaneous malignancies in the eyelids as a proxy for UVR exposure in the ocular region using a population-based cancer registry. Overall, 74,053 cases of eyelid basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and 7890 cases of melanoma over a 26-year period (1982–2007) were analyzed. The incidence of eyelid basal cell carcinoma and uveal melanoma remained stable, whereas other cutaneous areas demonstrated an increase in the rates. A comparability test demonstrated that BCC incidence trends were significantly different between the eyelid versus both chronically exposed (males p = 0.001; females p = 0.01) and intermittently exposed skin (males and females, p = 0.0002), as well as the skin of the face (males p = 0.002; females p = 0.02). Similarly, melanoma trends were significantly different between the UM group versus both chronically exposed cutaneous melanoma (CM) (males p = 0.001; females p = 0.04) and intermittently exposed CM (males p = 0.005), as well as facial skin CM (males and females p = 0.0002). The discrepancy of cancer incidence between tumors in the peri-ocular region versus the rest of the body suggests that the peri-ocular region might have a different or unique exposure pattern to ultraviolet radiation.

A Natural History of Actinic Keratosis and Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma Microbiomes

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is the second-most-common cancer in Australia. The majority of SCCs progress from premalignant actinic keratosis (AK) lesions that form on chronically sun-exposed skin. The role of skin microbiota in this progression is not well understood; therefore, we performed a longitudinal microbiome analysis of AKs and SCCs using a cohort of 13 SCC-prone immunocompetent men. The majority of variability in microbial profiles was attributable to subject, followed by time and lesion type. Propionibacterium and Malassezia organisms were relatively more abundant in nonlesional photodamaged skin than in AKs and SCCs. Staphylococcus was most commonly associated with lesional skin, in particular, sequences most closely related to Staphylococcus aureus Of 11 S. aureus-like operational taxonomic units (OTUs), six were significantly associated with SCC lesions across seven subjects, suggesting their specific involvement with AK-to-SCC progression. If a causative link exists between certain S. aureus-like OTUs and SCC etiology, therapeutic approaches specifically targeting these bacteria could be used to reduce SCC.IMPORTANCE Actinic keratosis (AK) and cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) are two of the most common dermatologic conditions in Western countries and cause substantial morbidity worldwide. The role of human papillomaviruses under these conditions has been well studied yet remains inconclusive. One PCR-based study has investigated bacteria in the etiology of these conditions; however, no study has investigated the microbiomes of AK and SCC more broadly. We longitudinally profiled the microbiomes of 112 AK lesions, profiled cross sections of 32 spontaneously arising SCC lesions, and compared these to matching nonlesional photodamaged control skin sites. We identified commonly occurring strains of Propionibacterium and Malassezia at higher relative abundances on nonlesional skin than in AK and SCC lesions, and strains of Staphylococcus aureus were relatively more abundant in lesional than nonlesional skin. These findings may aid in the prevention of SCC.

The association between geographic location and incidence of Merkel cell carcinoma in comparison to melanoma: An international assessment

AIM

The aim of this article was to provide worldwide, population-based incidence rates for Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC).

METHODS

We included 11,576 cases from 20 countries for time trend analyses (1990-2007) and 11,028 cases (2.5 billion person-years) from 21 countries for the period 2003-2007 extracted from Cancer Incidence in Five Continents. We computed age-standardised incidence rates (World Standard population) per million person years and sex ratios of these rates. We estimated annual percentage changes (EAPCs) of the incidence and studied the association between geographic latitude and MCC incidence. We examined the body site distribution of MCC.

FINDINGS

In the majority of populations, the incidence has increased over time (EAPC, men 2.0-21.0%; women 1.6-27.2%). Rate differences between 1995 and 2007 were typically small (men: 0.8-2.2; women: 0.2-1.7). The incidence was relatively stable in some populations (men: U.S. blacks, Japan, Norway, Denmark; women: Denmark, Norway, Sweden). Incidences from 2003 to 2007 were highest in Australia, New Zealand, the United States and Israel among men and in New Zealand, Australia, Ireland and the Netherlands among women. The incidence of MCC and melanoma among white non-Hispanic males in North America was positively associated with living closer to the equator. The proportion of MCC on the head was higher with advanced age. The head was a less likely primary site among blacks as compared with any other ethnicity.

INTERPRETATION

Several countries showed increases in MCC incidence among white non-Hispanics over time. Latitude closer to the equator was associated with the MCC incidence in North American men, but barely in women, possibly due to occupational sunlight exposure patterns.

Early Life UV and Risk of Basal and Squamous Cell Carcinoma in New South Wales, Australia

Sun exposure is the main cause of squamous (SCC) and basal cell carcinoma (BCC) although pattern and amount differ by cancer type, and sun sensitivity is the major host risk factor. Our study investigated risk factors and residential ambient UV in a population-based sample of Australian 45 and Up Study participants: 916 BCC cases, 433 SCC cases, 1224 controls. Unconditional logistic regression models adjusting for key covariates demonstrated 60% increased BCC risk and two-fold increased SCC risk with sun sensitivity, and three- and four-fold increased risk, respectively, with solar keratoses. BCC but not SCC risk increased with higher early-life residential UV in all participants (odds ratio (OR) = 1.54; 95% CI 1.22-1.96 for intermediate; OR = 1.31; 95% CI 1.03-1.68 for high UV at birthplace) and similarly in Australian-born participants (P-values < 0.05). Risk of SCC but not BCC increased with long-term cumulative sun exposure assessed by self-reported outdoor work (OR 1.74, 95% CI 1.21-2.49). In conclusion, sun sensitivity is important for both cancers, early-life UV but not cumulative UV appears to increase BCC risk, the former an apparently novel finding, and SCC risk appears only to be related to long-term cumulative sun exposure.

BRAF inhibitor-associated cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: new mechanistic insight, emerging evidence for viral involvement and perspectives on clinical management

Mutations in the BRAF proto-oncogene occur in the majority of cutaneous melanomas. The commonly detected valine (V) to glutamate (E) mutation (V600E) is known to drive melanomagenesis and has thus been the target of two highly selective chemotherapeutic agents: vemurafenib and dabrafenib. While BRAF inhibitor therapy has revolutionized the treatment of metastatic melanoma, unanticipated cutaneous toxicities, including the development of cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas (cSCCs), are frequently reported and hinder therapeutic durability. However, the mechanisms by which BRAF inhibitors induce cutaneous neoplasms are poorly understood, thus posing a challenge for specific therapies. In this review, we summarize the clinical and molecular profiles of BRAF inhibitor-associated cSCCs, with a focus on factors that may contribute to disease pathogenesis. In particular, we discuss the emerging evidence pointing towards viral involvement in BRAF inhibitor-induced cutaneous neoplasms and offer new perspectives on future therapeutic interventions. Continued clinical and mechanistic studies along this line will not only allow for better understanding of the pathogenic progression of BRAF inhibitor-induced cSCCs, but will also lead to development of new therapeutic and preventative options for patients receiving targeted cancer therapy.

Aging in the Male Face: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors

BACKGROUND

Gender is one of the most significant factors that influence facial anatomy and behavior, both key factors in the aging process.

OBJECTIVE

To review male facial anatomy, physiology, and behavior and how it contributes to sexual dimorphism in facial aging.

METHODS

A MEDLINE search was performed for publications on gender differences in facial anatomy, aging, cutaneous physiology, and behavior.

RESULTS

There are differences in both intrinsic and extrinsic aging factors in men. Men have a thicker epidermis and dermis with more active cutaneous appendages including hair growth. Male skin has a reduced antioxidant capacity and increased ultraviolet-induced immunosuppression. The male face is larger and has a unique square shape with less subcutaneous soft tissue, especially at the medial cheek. Men are also more prone to smoking and exhibiting poor sun-protective behavior. The differences in intrinsic and extrinsic aging factors contribute to poor facial aging in men. Men develop more severe rhytides in a unique pattern, show increased periocular aging changes, and are more prone to hair loss.

CONCLUSION

This review provides insight into the factors contributing to accelerated male facial aging. Understanding gender differences in aging will help physicians tailor cosmetic treatments for men and minimize extrinsic aging factors.

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: an epidemiological review

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is a common cancer in white populations and its disease burden is often substantially underestimated. SCC occurs more often in men than women and increases dramatically with age; those affected often develop multiple primaries over time, which increases the burden. The main external cause is solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR), with immunosuppression being the other established risk factor, shown by the high SCC rates in organ transplant recipients. Sunbed use and certain genetic disorders and medical conditions are also associated with SCC, while associations with human papillomavirus infection and high bodyweight are not established. The presence of actinic keratoses (AKs) on sun-damaged skin is one of the strongest predictors of SCC in unaffected people and a very small proportion of AKs are SCC precursors, although the true rate of malignant transformation of AKs is unknown. The mainstay of SCC prevention is protection of the skin from undue sun exposure by use of clothing cover and sunscreen during summer or in sunny places. Educational, behavioural and multicomponent interventions directed at individuals ranging from parents of newborns, to school children and adolescents, to outdoor workers, have repeatedly been shown to be effective in improving sun-protective behaviours. Health policies can facilitate SCC prevention by setting standards for relevant behaviours to reduce UVR exposure, for example, by legislated restriction of the tanning industry. Skin cancer prevention initiatives are generally highly cost-effective and public investment should be encouraged to control the growing public health problems caused by SCC.

Daily, seasonal, and latitudinal variations in solar ultraviolet A and B radiation in relation to vitamin D production and risk for skin cancer

BACKGROUND

Solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation varies with latitude, time of day, and season. Both spectral UV composition and ambient UV dose lead to different health outcomes at different latitudes. Finding the optimal time for sun exposure, whereby the positive effects of UV exposure (vitamin D) are facilitated and the negative effects (skin cancer, photoimmunosuppression) avoided are the most important consideration in modern skin cancer prevention programs.

OBJECTIVES

This paper focuses on the latitude dependency of UVB, UVA, vitamin D production, and skin cancer risk in Caucasians.

METHODS

Biologically effective UVB (280-315 nm) and UVA (315-400 nm) doses were calculated using radiative transfer models with appropriate climatologic data for selected locations. Incidences of squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and cutaneous melanoma (CM) were retrieved from cancer registries and published articles.

RESULTS

Annual doses of UVA radiation decrease much less with increasing latitude than annual doses of UVB. Incidences of CM also decrease less steeply with increasing latitude than incidences of SCC. As SCC is caused mainly by UVB, these observations support the assumption that UVA plays an important role in the development of CM. The variations in UVA (relevant to CM) and UVB (relevant to vitamin D production) over 1 day differ: the UVB : UVA ratio is maximal at noon.

CONCLUSIONS

The best way to obtain a given dose of vitamin D with minimal carcinogenic risk is through a non-burning exposure in the middle of the day, rather than in the afternoon or morning.

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma in Norway 1963-2011: increasing incidence and stable mortality

The incidence of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is rapidly increasing in white populations, causing high morbidity and health-care costs. Few studies, however, have described the trends for SCC, as population-based data with a long follow-up are limited. In Norway we have this opportunity and we aimed to describe SCC incidence, mortality and survival rates, according to sex, age, stage, primary anatomical location, and geographical region, for the period 1963–2011, for estimation of future health-care needs. Data were retrieved from the Cancer Registry of Norway. Age-adjusted SCC incidence and mortality rates and 5-year relative survival (in percent) were calculated for 5-year calendar periods. A joinpoint regression model identified the annual percentage change (APC) in rates over the 50-year period. The age-adjusted incidence rate increased ninefold in females and sixfold in males from 1963 to 2011, with APCs of 5.6% (95% confidence interval, CI 4.5, 7.3) and 3.3% (95% CI 1.3, 5.3) in females and males, respectively. SCC incidence rose in all age groups, anatomical locations (except ears in females), and geographical regions, though restricted to localized tumors. Most striking increase was seen in the age group 70–79, in face and head locations and among residents in southern Norway. SCC mortality and survival rates remained relatively stable. Our findings underline an increasing need for SCC treatment in Norway, especially considering the aging population. The findings also call for the creation of particular guidelines for primary prevention of SCC.

Minimal and maximal incidence rates of skin cancer in Caucasians estimated by use of sigmoidal UV dose-incidence curves

BACKGROUND

Sigmoidal (S-shaped) dose-cancer incidence relationships are often observed in animal bioassays for carcinogenicity. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is an established skin carcinogen. The aim of this study is to examine if S-shaped curves describe the relationship between solar UV doses and skin cancer incidences, and if such relationships can be used to estimate threshold levels of non-carcinogenic UV exposure, as well as maximal incidence rates.

METHODS

We studied the incidence rate-annual erythema-effective UV dose relationship for squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and cutaneous melanoma (CM) among different Caucasian populations in Europe, Australia and New Zealand.

RESULTS

Our analysis indicates that S-shaped associations describe the data well (P < 0.0001). The age-adjusted incidence rates for cases expected to be due to other causes than solar UV exposure (at zero UV dose) were found to be around 0.6, 9.7 and 4.0 per 100,000 for women in 1997-2007 for SCC, BCC and CM, respectively, and around 1.2, 14.3 and 2.6 per 100,000 for men. The analysis indicates that SCC, BCC and CM have maximal incidence of 361 ± 24, 1544 ± 49 and 36 ± 4 per 100,000 for women, and 592 ± 35, 2204 ± 109 and 50 ± 4 per 100,000 for men.

CONCLUSIONS

Between 89 and 95% of the annual CM cases, around 99.8% SCC and 99.4% BCC cases are caused by solar UV exposure. The analysis did not identify any "safe" UV dose below which the risk for skin cancer was absent. Avoidance of UV radiation has a potential to reduce the incidence of skin cancer in fair-skinned population.

North-South gradients of melanomas and non-melanomas: A role of vitamin D?

Incidence rates of skin cancer increase with decreasing latitude in Norway, as in many other countries with white populations. The latitudinal trends of the incidence rates of skin cancer were studied and compared with data for vitamin D-induced by UV and for vitamin D intake. The north-south gradient for CMM incidence rates on sun exposed skin is much smaller than those for BCC and SCC, and that for BCC is smaller than that for SCC. This indicates that SCC and BCC are mainly due to solar UVB, while UVA may play a significant role for CMM and a smaller role for BCC, since the north-south gradient of annual UVB fluences is larger than that of UVA fluences. However, there is an inverse latitudinal gradient of skin cancer in central Europe. This is probably due to a gradient of skin color, since white skin is an important determinant of increased risk of skin cancer. The role of vitamin D for skin cancer risk is difficult to evaluate, since serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D, as well as vitamin D intakes, are widely different from country to country. Still, epidemiological evidence indicates a role: for melanomas arising on non-sun exposed body localizations (uveal melanomas, melanomas arising in the vulva and perianal/anorectal regions) there appears to be no latitudinal gradient, or, a negative gradient, i.e., increasing rates with decreasing latitude as would be expected if UV-generated vitamin D plays a protective role. Both skin cancer risk and vitamin D photosynthesis decrease with increasing skin darkness.

Biologically efficient solar radiation: Vitamin D production and induction of cutaneous malignant melanoma

Solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation is the main source of vitamin D production and is also the most important environmental risk factor for cutaneous malignant melanoma (CMM) development. In the present study the relationships between daily or seasonal UV radiation doses and vitamin D status, dietary vitamin D intake and CMM incidence rates at different geographical latitudes were investigated. North-South gradients of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) generation and CMM induction were calculated, based on known action spectra, and compared with measured vitamin D levels and incidence rates of CMM. The relative roles of UVA and UVB in CMM induction are discussed. Latitudinal dependencies of serum 25(OH)D levels and CMM incidence rates can only partly be explained by ambient UV doses. The UV sensitivity is different among populations with different skin color. This is well known for CMM, but seems also to be true for vitamin D status. The fact that UV-induced vitamin D may reduce the risk of CMM complicates the discussion. To some extent high dietary vitamin D intake seems to compensate low UV doses.

Oral squamous cell carcinoma in a red deer (Cervus elaphus)

We describe the pathomorphologic and immunophenotypic characteristics of an oral squamous cell carcinoma in a 13-yr-old, free-ranging red deer (Cervus elaphus) in Lower Saxony, Germany.

A systematic review of worldwide incidence of nonmelanoma skin cancer

BACKGROUND

  Nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC) is the most common cancer affecting white-skinned individuals and the incidence is increasing worldwide.

OBJECTIVES

This systematic review brings together 75 studies conducted over the past half century to look at geographical variations and trends worldwide in NMSC, and specifically incidence data are compared with recent U.K. cancer registry data.

METHODS

Following the development of a comprehensive search strategy, an assessment tool was adapted to look at the methodological quality of the eligible studies.

RESULTS

Most of the studies focused on white populations in Europe, the U.S.A. and Australia; however, limited data were available for other skin types in regions such as Africa. Worldwide the incidence for NMSC varies widely with the highest rates in Australia [>1000/100, 000 person-years for basal cell carcinoma (BCC)] and the lowest rates in parts of Africa (< 1/100, 000 person-years for BCC). The average incidence rates in England were 76·21/100, 000 person-years and 22·65/100, 000 person-years for BCC and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), respectively, with highest rates in the South-West of England (121·29/100, 000 person-years for BCC and 33·02/100, 000 person-years for SCC) and lowest rates by far in London (0·24/100, 000 person-years for BCC and 14·98/100, 000 person-years for SCC). The incidence rates in the U.K. appear to be increasing at a greater rate when compared with the rest of Europe.

CONCLUSIONS

NMSC is an increasing problem for health care services worldwide. This review highlights a requirement for prevention studies in this area and the issues surrounding incomplete NMSC registration. Registration standards of NMSC should be improved to the level of other invasive disease.

Epidemiology of dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans in Alberta, Canada, from 1988 to 2007

BACKGROUND

There have only been a few population-based, epidemiologic studies assessing dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans (DFSP).

OBJECTIVE

To assess the epidemiology of DFSP in Alberta, Canada, over a 20-year period.

METHODS

A population-based, retrospective analysis of all cases of DFSP in Alberta was conducted using data from the Alberta Cancer Registry. Sex-, age-, and anatomical location-specific incidence rates and trends were determined.

RESULTS

The overall age-standardized incidence rate of DFSP remained stable at 0.93 per 100,000. DFSP prevalence was highest in individuals aged 20 to 39 (46.8%), followed by those aged 40 to 59 (34.0%), 60 and older (14.7%), and lastly younger than 20 (4.5%). The mean age at diagnosis was 41.1 (women) and 43.1 (men). The incidence of DFSP in men and women has shown a dramatic shift such that incidence in women has increased 3.2% per year, whereas in men it has decreased 2.7% per year. In women, DFSP incidence increased on the trunk and decreased on the upper extremities.

CONCLUSION

The age-standardized incidence of DFSP observed is nearly twice as high as previously reported and has remained stable. The incidence is increasing in women and decreasing in men. DFSP primarily affects young to middle-aged adults and most commonly presents on the trunk.

Increased risk of cancer among 3663 patients with cutaneous lupus erythematosus: a Swedish nationwide cohort study

BACKGROUND

  Other autoimmune diseases have been associated with higher risks for cancer, and numerous case reports of cutaneous lupus erythematosus (CLE) and different cancer types are available.

OBJECTIVES

To estimate the overall and specific cancer risks in a nationwide cohort study of patients diagnosed with CLE in Sweden and compare that risk with that in a control cohort without CLE.

METHODS

A cohort of 3663 individuals with CLE and a matched control cohort from the general population (three controls to each CLE case) without a diagnosis of CLE were derived from the Swedish National Patient Register, 1997-2007, and were electronically linked to the Swedish Cancer Register and the Swedish Cause of Death Register. Hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated to compare the observed vs. the expected numbers of cancers.

RESULTS

A total of 183 incident cancers occurred within the observation interval, yielding a HR of 1·8 (95% CI 1·5-2·2) for cancer overall. Median follow-up was 4·1 years. About a fourfold risk increase was seen for buccal cancer, lymphomas, respiratory cancer and nonmelanoma skin cancer.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with CLE appear to have an elevated risk for certain cancer types, an increase that remains when excluding patients also diagnosed with systemic lupus erythematosus. Our findings point to the importance of counselling about not smoking and sun avoidance, and underscore the need for specialized monitoring of this patient group along with bench-to-bedside research efforts to clarify pathogenesis.

[Management of eyelid tumors: general considerations]

Despite the fact that the majority of eyelid tumors are benign, proper management in daily practice requires detection of the malignant ones. Several clinical criteria are usually proposed to support or reject a hypothesis of malignancy; however, most are of limited reliability. In any case of doubt, outpatient biopsy is recommended, so as to establish the correct diagnosis and formulate the most appropriate treatment plan. In all facial malignancies, the first (and absolutely mandatory) consideration is control of the cancer. Then, restoration of eyelid function can be addressed, in the following order: protection of the globe by complete dynamic eyelid closure and opening, visual function (and prevention of possible deprivation amblyopia) by insuring a clear visual axis, correction of the tear film, efficient lachrymal drainage, and only then the role of the eyelids in facial expression and esthetics. For most malignant eyelid tumors, the best assurance of complete excision is obtained by extemporaneous examination of the resection margins by frozen section (by Mohs' micrographic surgery techniques, or a variation thereof). Currently, advancement and transposition flaps, possibly in combination with tarso-conjunctival or skin grafts, are the most utilised techniques. Despite the lack of histological verification, new treatment modalities, including topical chemotherapy, photodynamic therapy and cryotherapy, may provide interesting treatment options, particularly in collaboration with the dermatologist.

Immunological differences in women compared with men: overview and contributing factors

CITATION

Ghazeeri G, Abdullah L, Abbas O. Immunological differences in women compared with men: overview and contributing factors. Am J Reprod Immunol 2011; 66: 163-169 Gender differences in the innate and adaptive immune systems have long been observed in humans. These immunological differences in immune function manifest as diverse susceptibilities to different types of infections and varied risks of developing autoimmune disorders and maybe even, cancers. Several factors contribute to the development of this immunological dimorphism including sex hormones, genetic makeup, environmental causes, and more recently microchimerism. Although the aim behind this sexual immune dimorphism is still unclear, it is tempting to believe that the higher risk of developing autoimmune diseases in women somehow serves the higher evolutionary goal of reproduction and creating new life.

The human health effects of ozone depletion and interactions with climate change

Depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer has led to increased solar UV-B radiation (280-315 nm) at the surface of the Earth. This change is likely to have had an impact on human exposure to UV-B radiation with consequential detrimental and beneficial effects on health, although behavioural changes in society over the past 60 years or so with regard to sun exposure are of considerable importance. The present report concentrates on information published since our previous report in 2007. The adverse effects of UV radiation are primarily on the eye and the skin. While solar UV radiation is a recognised risk factor for some types of cataract and for pterygium, the evidence is less strong, although increasing, for ocular melanoma, and is equivocal at present for age-related macular degeneration. For the skin, the most common harmful outcome is skin cancer, including melanoma and the non-melanoma skin cancers, basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma. The incidence of all three of these tumours has risen significantly over the past five decades, particularly in people with fair skin, and is projected to continue to increase, thus posing a significant world-wide health burden. Overexposure to the sun is the major identified environmental risk factor in skin cancer, in association with various genetic risk factors and immune effects. Suppression of some aspects of immunity follows exposure to UV radiation and the consequences of this modulation for the immune control of infectious diseases, for vaccination and for tumours, are additional concerns. In a common sun allergy (polymorphic light eruption), there is an imbalance in the immune response to UV radiation, resulting in a sun-evoked rash. The major health benefit of exposure to solar UV-B radiation is the production of vitamin D. Vitamin D plays a crucial role in bone metabolism and is also implicated in protection against a wide range of diseases. Although there is some evidence supporting protective effects for a range of internal cancers, this is not yet conclusive, but strongest for colorectal cancer, at present. A role for vitamin D in protection against several autoimmune diseases has been studied, with the most convincing results to date for multiple sclerosis. Vitamin D is starting to be assessed for its protective properties against several infectious and coronary diseases. Current methods for protecting the eye and the skin from the adverse effects of solar UV radiation are evaluated, including seeking shade, wearing protective clothing and sunglasses, and using sunscreens. Newer possibilities are considered such as creams that repair UV-induced DNA damage, and substances applied topically to the skin or eaten in the diet that protect against some of the detrimental effects of sun exposure. It is difficult to provide easily understandable public health messages regarding "safe" sun exposure, so that the positive effects of vitamin D production are balanced against the negative effects of excessive exposure. The international response to ozone depletion has included the development and deployment of replacement technologies and chemicals. To date, limited evidence suggests that substitutes for the ozone-depleting substances do not have significant effects on human health. In addition to stratospheric ozone depletion, climate change is predicted to affect human health, and potential interactions between these two parameters are considered. These include altering the risk of developing skin tumours, infectious diseases and various skin diseases, in addition to altering the efficiency by which pathogenic microorganisms are inactivated in the environment.

Environmental effects of ozone depletion and its interactions with climate change: progress report, 2009

The parties to the Montreal Protocol are informed by three panels of experts. One of these is the Environmental Effects Assessment Panel (EEAP), which deals with UV radiation and its effects on human health, animals, plants, biogeochemistry, air quality and materials. Since 2000, the analyses and interpretation of these effects have included interactions between UV radiation and global climate change. When considering the effects of climate change, it has become clear that processes resulting in changes in stratospheric ozone are more complex than believed previously. As a result of this, human health and environmental problems will likely be longer-lasting and more regionally variable. Like the other panels, the EEAP produces a detailed report every four years; the most recent was that for 2006 (Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2007, 6, 201-332). In the years in between, the EEAP produces a less detailed and shorter progress report, as is the case for this present one for 2009. A full quadrennial report will follow for 2010.

Environmental effects of ozone depletion and its interactions with climate change: progress report, 2008

After the enthusiastic celebration of the 20th Anniversary of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer in 2007, the work for the protection of the ozone layer continues. The Environmental Effects Assessment Panel is one of the three expert panels within the Montreal Protocol. This EEAP deals with the increase of the UV irradiance on the Earth's surface and its effects on human health, animals, plants, biogeochemistry, air quality and materials. For the past few years, interactions of ozone depletion with climate change have also been considered. It has become clear that the environmental problems will be long-lasting. In spite of the fact that the worldwide production of ozone depleting chemicals has already been reduced by 95%, the environmental disturbances are expected to persist for about the next half a century, even if the protective work is actively continued, and completed. The latest full report was published in Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2007, 6, 201-332, and the last progress report in Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2008, 7, 15-27. The next full report on environmental effects is scheduled for the year 2010. The present progress report 2008 is one of the short interim reports, appearing annually.