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Izutsu R, Osaki M, Jehung JP, Seong HK, Okada F. Liver Metastasis Formation Is Defined by AMIGO2 Expression via Adhesion to Hepatic Endothelial Cells in Human Gastric and Colorectal Cancer Cells. Pathol Res Pract 2022; 237:154015. [PMID: 35843033 DOI: 10.1016/j.prp.2022.154015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The adhesion of circulating cancer cells to vascular endothelial cells is an initial and critical step in distant metastases. Amphoterin-induced gene and open reading frame 2 (AMIGO2) was found to regulate tumor cell adhesion to hepatic endothelial cells and act as a driver gene for liver metastasis in mouse cell lines. However, whether the role of AMIGO2 observed in mouse tumor cells can be extrapolated to human cancer cells in vivo has not been verified. In this study, AMIGO2 expression in various human gastric and colorectal cancer cells was found to be closely associated with their adhesion to human hepatic sinusoidal endothelial cells (HHSECs). Constitutive AMIGO2-knockdown clones of human gastric (MKN-45) and colorectal cancer cell lines (DLD-1) were established to examine whether AMIGO2 expression in cancer cells is involved in the adhesion to HHSECs in vitro and the formation of liver metastasis in vivo. All AMIGO2-knockdown cells showed significantly attenuated adhesion to HHSECs. In vivo analysis revealed that intrasplenic inoculation of AMIGO2-knockdown clones could engraft in the spleen but significantly suppressed liver metastasis in nude mice. This study demonstrated that the role of AMIGO2 as a driver gene of liver metastasis in mouse tumor cells can be extrapolated to human cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Runa Izutsu
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Tottori University, Yonago, Tottori, Japan
| | - Mitsuhiko Osaki
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Tottori University, Yonago, Tottori, Japan; Chromosomal Engineering Research Center, Tottori University, Yonago, Tottori, Japan.
| | - Jumond P Jehung
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Tottori University, Yonago, Tottori, Japan
| | - Hee Kyung Seong
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Tottori University, Yonago, Tottori, Japan
| | - Futoshi Okada
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Tottori University, Yonago, Tottori, Japan; Chromosomal Engineering Research Center, Tottori University, Yonago, Tottori, Japan
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Trosko JE. The Concept of "Cancer Stem Cells" in the Context of Classic Carcinogenesis Hypotheses and Experimental Findings. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:1308. [PMID: 34947839 PMCID: PMC8708536 DOI: 10.3390/life11121308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In this Commentary, the operational definition of cancer stem cells or cancer initiating cells includes the ability of certain cells, found in a heterogeneous mixture of cells within a tumor, which are able to sustain growth of that tumor. However, that concept of cancer stem cells does not resolve the age-old controversy of two opposing hypotheses of the origin of the cancer, namely the stem cell hypothesis versus the de-differentiation or re-programming hypothesis. Moreover, this cancer stem concept has to take into account classic experimental observations, techniques, and concepts, such as the multi-stage, multi-mechanism process of carcinogenesis; roles of mutagenic, cytotoxic and epigenetic mechanisms; the important differences between errors of DNA repair and errors of DNA replication in forming mutations; biomarkers of known characteristics of normal adult organ-specific stem cells and of cancer stem cells; and the characteristics of epigenetic mechanisms involved in the carcinogenic process. In addition, vague and misleading terms, such as carcinogens, immortal and normal cells have to be clarified in the context of current scientific facts. The ultimate integration of all of these historic factors to provide a current understanding of the origin and characteristics of a cancer stem cell, which is required for a rational strategy for prevention and therapy for cancer, does not follow a linear path. Lastly, it will be speculated that there exists evidence of two distinct types of cancer stem cells, one that has its origin in an organ-specific adult stem cell that is 'initiated' in the stem cell stage, expressing the Oct4A gene and not expressing any connexin gene or having functional gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC). The other cancer stem cell is derived from a stem cell that is initiated early after the Oct4A gene is suppressed and the connexin gene is expressed, which starts early differentiation, but it is blocked from terminal differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E Trosko
- Department of Pediatrics/Human Development, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 048864, USA
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3
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Trosko JE. On the potential origin and characteristics of cancer stem cells. Carcinogenesis 2021; 42:905-912. [PMID: 34014276 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgab042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The 'cancer stem cell' hypothesis has pointed to a specific target for new cancer therapies. The hypothesis is based on the observation that only the 'cancer stem cell' among the other heterogeneous cancer cells can sustain the growth of the cancer. The goal is to identify biomarkers of 'cancer stem cells' to distinguish them from the 'cancer non-stem cells' and normal adult tissue-specific stem cells. This analyst posits a hypothesis that, although all cancers originated from a single cell, there exist two types of 'cancer stem cells' either by the 'Stem Cell hypothesis' or from the 'De-differentiation hypothesis'. It is proposed that there exist two different 'cancer stem cells'. Some 'cancer stem cells' (a) lack the expression of connexins or gap junction genes and lack any form of gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) or (b) they have the expressed connexin-coded proteins for functional GJIC but are dysfunctional by some expressed oncogene. This is consistent with the Loewenstein hypothesis that a universal characteristic of cancer cells is they do not have growth control, nor terminally differentiate. This review speculates the normal organ-specific adult stem cell, that is 'initiated', is the origin of the 'cancer stem cells' with expressed Oct4A gene and no expressed connexin genes; whereas the other cancer stem cell has no expressed Oct4A genes but expressed connexin gene, whose coded protein is dysfunctional. Hence. both types of 'cancer stem cells' lack GJIC, for two different reasons, the selective therapies have to be different for these different cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E Trosko
- Department of Pediatrics/Human Development, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
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Chen S, Li D, Zhang H, Yu D, Chen R, Zhang B, Tan Y, Niu Y, Duan H, Mai B, Chen S, Yu J, Luan T, Chen L, Xing X, Li Q, Xiao Y, Dong G, Niu Y, Aschner M, Zhang R, Zheng Y, Chen W. The development of a cell-based model for the assessment of carcinogenic potential upon long-term PM2.5 exposure. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2019; 131:104943. [PMID: 31295644 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.104943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2019] [Revised: 06/08/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
To assess the carcinogenic potential of PM2.5 exposure, we developed a cell-based experimental protocol to examine the cell transformation activity of PM2.5 samples from different regions in China. The seasonal ambient PM2.5 samples were collected from three megacities, Beijing (BJ), Wuhan (WH), and Guangzhou (GZ), from November 2016 to October 2017. The mean concentrations of PM2.5 were much higher in the winter season (BJ: 109.64 μg/m3, WH: 79.99 μg/m3, GZ: 49.99 μg/m3) than that in summer season (BJ: 42.40 μg/m3, WH: 25.82 μg/m3, GZ: 19.82 μg/m3). The organic extracts (OE) of PM2.5 samples from combined summer (S) (June, July, August) or winter (W) (November, December, January) seasons were subjected to characterization of chemical components. We treated human bronchial epithelial (HBE) cells expressing CYP1A1 (HBE-1A1) with PM2.5 samples at doses ranging from 0 to 100 μg/mL (0, 1.563, 3.125, 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50, 100 μg/mL) and determined the phenotype of malignant cell transformation. A dose-response relationship was analyzed by benchmark dose (BMD) modeling, and the potential were indicated by BMDL10. The order of the carcinogenic risk of seasonal PM2.5 samples from high to low was BJ-W, WH-W, GZ-W, WH-S, BJ-S, and GZ-S. Notably, we found that the alteration in the lung cancer-related biomarkers, KRAS, PTEN, p53, c-Myc, PCNA, pAKT/AKT, and pERK/ERK was congruent with the activity of cell transformation and the content of specific components of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) bound to PM2.5. Taken together, we have successfully developed a cell-based alternative model for the evaluation of potent carcinogenicity upon long-term PM2.5 exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shen Chen
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Daochuan Li
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Haiyan Zhang
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Dianke Yu
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266021, China
| | - Rui Chen
- Department of Toxicology and Sanitary Chemistry, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Bin Zhang
- Wuhan Children's Hospital & Wuhan Maternal and Child Healthcare Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430015, China
| | - Yafei Tan
- Wuhan Children's Hospital & Wuhan Maternal and Child Healthcare Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430015, China
| | - Yong Niu
- Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety and Health, National Institute for Occupational Health and Poison Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Huawei Duan
- Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety and Health, National Institute for Occupational Health and Poison Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Bixian Mai
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Shejun Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Jianzhen Yu
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Tiangang Luan
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Liping Chen
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Xiumei Xing
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Qiong Li
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Yongmei Xiao
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Guanghui Dong
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Yujie Niu
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China
| | - Michael Aschner
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Forchheimer 209, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Rong Zhang
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China
| | - Yuxin Zheng
- Department of Toxicology and Sanitary Chemistry, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Wen Chen
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China.
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Trosko JE. What Can Chemical Carcinogenesis Shed Light on the LNT Hypothesis in Radiation Carcinogenesis? Dose Response 2019; 17:1559325819876799. [PMID: 31565039 PMCID: PMC6755642 DOI: 10.1177/1559325819876799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
To protect the public’s health from exposure to physical, chemical, and microbiological
agents, it is important that any policy be based on rigorous scientifically based
research. The concept of “linear no-threshold” (LNT) has been implemented to provide
guideline exposures to these agents. The practical limitation to testing this hypothesis
is to provide sufficient samples for experimental or epidemiological studies. While there
is no universally accepted understanding of most human diseases, there seems to be better
understanding of cancer that might help resolve the “LNT” model. The public’s concern,
after being exposed to radiation, is the potential of producing cancer. The most rigorous
hypothesis of human carcinogenesis is the “multistage, multimechanism” chemical
carcinogenesis model. The radiation carcinogenesis LNT model, rarely, if ever, built it
into their support. It will be argued that this multistage, multimechanism model of
carcinogenesis, involving the “initiation” of a single cell by a mutagen event, followed
by chronic exposure to threshold levels of epigenetic agents or conditions that stimulate
the clonal expansion of the “initiated” cell, can convert these benign cells to become
invasive and metastatic. This “promotion” process can be interrupted, thereby preventing
these initiated cells from transitioning to the “progression” process of invasion and
metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E Trosko
- Department Pediatrics and Human Development, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
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Trosko JE, Lenz HJ. What roles do colon stem cells and gap junctions play in the left and right location of origin of colorectal cancers? J Cell Commun Signal 2017; 11:79-87. [PMID: 28220297 PMCID: PMC5362582 DOI: 10.1007/s12079-017-0381-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
This "Commentary" examines an important clinical observation that right-sided colorectal cancers appear less treatable than the left-sided cancers. The concepts of (a) the "initiation/promotion/progression" process, (b) the stem cell hypothesis, (c) the role gap junctional intercellular communication, (d) cancer cells lacking GJIC either because of the non-expression of connexin genes or of non-functional gap junction proteins, and (e) the role of the microbiome in promoting initiated colon stem cells to divide symmetrically or asymmetrically are examined to find an explanation. It has been speculated that "embryonic-like" lesions in the ascending colon are initiated stem cells, promoted via symmetrical cell division, while the polyp-type lesions in the descending colon are initiated stem cells stimulated to divide asymmetrically. To test this hypothesis, experiments could be designed to examine if right-sided lesions might express Oct4A and ABCG2 genes but not any connexin genes, whereas the left-sided lesions might express a connexin gene, but not Oct4A or the ABCG2 genes. Treatment of the right sided lesions might include transcriptional regulators, whereas the left-sided lesions would need to restore the posttranslational status of the connexin proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E Trosko
- Department Pediatrics and Human Development, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, 1129 Farm Lane, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA.
| | - Heinz-Josef Lenz
- University of California Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Trosko JE. Human adult stem cells as the target cells for the initiation of carcinogenesis and for the generation of "cancer stem cells". Int J Stem Cells 2014; 1:8-26. [PMID: 24855504 DOI: 10.15283/ijsc.2008.1.1.8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/01/2008] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The inference to stem cells has been found in ancient myths and the concept of stem cells has existed in the fields of plant biology, developmental biology and embryology for decades. In the field of cancer research, the stem cell theory was one of the earliest hypotheses on the origin of a cancer from a single cell. However, an opposing hypothesis had it that an adult differentiated somatic cell could "de-differentiate" to become a cancer cell. Only within the last decade, via the "cloning" of Dolly, the sheep, did the field of stem cell biology really trigger an exciting revolution in biological research. The isolation of human embryonic stem cells has created a true revolution in the life sciences that has led to the hope that these human stem cells could lead to (a) basic science understanding of gene regulation during differentiation and development; (b) stem cell therapy; (c) gene therapy via stem cells; (d) the use of stem cells for drug discovery; (e) screening for toxic effects of chemicals; and (f) understand the aging and diseases of aging processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E Trosko
- Department of Pediatrics/Human Development, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
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Sattayakhom A, Chunglok W, Ittarat W, Chamulitrat W. Study designs to investigate Nox1 acceleration of neoplastic progression in immortalized human epithelial cells by selection of differentiation resistant cells. Redox Biol 2013; 2:140-7. [PMID: 24494188 PMCID: PMC3909263 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2013.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2013] [Revised: 12/10/2013] [Accepted: 12/11/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
To investigate the role of NADPH oxidase homolog Nox1 at an early step of cell transformation, we utilized human gingival mucosal keratinocytes immortalized by E6/E7 of human papillomavirus (HPV) type 16 (GM16) to generate progenitor cell lines either by chronic ethanol exposure or overexpression with Nox1. Among several cobblestone epithelial cell lines obtained, two distinctive spindle cell lines - FIB and NuB1 cells were more progressively transformed exhibiting tubulogenesis and anchorage-independent growth associated with increased invasiveness. These spindle cells acquired molecular markers of epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) including mesenchymal vimentin and simple cytokeratins (CK) 8 and 18 as well as myogenic alpha-smooth muscle actin and caldesmon. By overexpression and knockdown experiments, we showed that Nox1 on a post-translational level regulated the stability of CK18 in an ROS-, phosphorylation- and PKCepilon-dependent manner. PKCepilon may thus be used as a therapeutic target for EMT inhibition. Taken together, Nox1 accelerates neoplastic progression by regulating structural intermediate filaments leading to EMT of immortalized human gingival epithelial cells.
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Key Words
- AIG, anchorage-independent growth
- CK, cytokeratin
- Cobblestone cells
- Cytokeratins
- EGF, epidermal growth factor
- EMT
- EMT, epithelial mesenchymal transition
- GM, gingival mucosal
- HPV, human papillomavirus
- IAP, inhibitor of apoptosis protein
- Immortalized gingival keratinocytes
- Intermediate filaments
- Invasion
- MEF2, myocyte enhancing factor 2
- MMP, matrix metalloproteinases
- Nox, NAD(P)H oxidase
- PMA, 12-O- tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
- Spindle cells
- iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase
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Affiliation(s)
- Apsorn Sattayakhom
- School of Allied Health Sciences and Public Health, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
| | - Warangkana Chunglok
- School of Allied Health Sciences and Public Health, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
| | - Wanida Ittarat
- Faculty of Medical Technology, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Walee Chamulitrat
- Department of Internal Medicine IV, University Heidelberg Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
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Trosko JE, Kang KS. Evolution of energy metabolism, stem cells and cancer stem cells: how the warburg and barker hypotheses might be linked. Int J Stem Cells 2013; 5:39-56. [PMID: 24298354 DOI: 10.15283/ijsc.2012.5.1.39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/02/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The evolutionary transition from single cells to the metazoan forced the appearance of adult stem cells and a hypoxic niche, when oxygenation of the environment forced the appearance of oxidative phosphorylation from that of glycolysis. The prevailing paradigm in the cancer field is that cancers start from the "immortalization" or "re-programming" of a normal, differentiated cell with many mitochondria, that metabolize via oxidative phosphorylation. This paradigm has been challenged with one that assumes that the target cell for carcinogenesis is the normal, immortal adult stem cell, with few mitochondria. This adult organ-specific stem cell is blocked from "mortalizing" or from "programming" to be terminally differentiated. Two hypotheses have been offered to explain cancers, namely, the "stem cell theory" and the "de-differentiation" or "re-programming" theory. This Commentary postulates that the paleochemistry of the oceans, which, initially, provided conditions for life' s energy to arise via glycolysis, changed to oxidative phosphorylation for life' s processes. In doing so, stem cells evolved, within hypoxic niches, to protect the species germinal and somatic genomes. This Commentary provides support for the "stem cell theory", in that cancer cells, which, unlike differentiated cells, have few mitochondria and metabolize via glycolysis. The major argument against the "de-differentiation theory" is that, if re-programming of a differentiated cell to an "induced pluri-potent stem cell" happened in an adult, teratomas, rather than carcinomas, should be the result.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E Trosko
- Department of Pediatrics and Human Development, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, Eas Lansing, Michigan, USA
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Trosko JE. Induction of iPS cells and of cancer stem cells: the stem cell or reprogramming hypothesis of cancer? Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2013; 297:161-73. [PMID: 24293264 DOI: 10.1002/ar.22793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 09/13/2013] [Accepted: 09/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
This article as designed to examine whether the "stoichiometric" or "elite models" of the origin of the "induced pluripotent stem" (iPS) cells fits some experiment facts from the developmental biology of adult stem cells and from the field of cancer research. In brief, since the evidence presented to support the stoichiometric model failed to recognize the factual existence of adult organ specific stem cells, the model has not been rigorously tested. In addition, the demonstration of a subset of cells (MUSE cells) in normal primary in vitro cultures of human fibroblasts (the usual source of iPS cells) seems to be the origin of the iPS cells. Moreover, from the field of carcinogenesis, the "stem cell" versus "de-differentiation" or "reprogramming" hypotheses were examined. Again, using the role of glycolysis, known to be associated with the Warburg effect in cancer cells, a list of experiments showing that (a) normal stem cells, which have few mitochondria, metabolize via glycolysis; (b) the stem cells are targets for "initiation" or "immortalization" or the blockage of differentiation and apoptosis of the stem cells by "immortalizing viruses"; (c) Lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA), when expressed, is associated with glycolysis and therefore, must be expressed in normal adult stem cells, as well as in cancer cells; and (d) p53, depleted or rendered dysfunctional by SV40 Large T antigen, is associated with the reduction of mitochondrial function and mass and is associated with the Warburg effect. Together, these observations from the iPS and "cancer stem cell" fields support the idea that both iPS cells and cancer stem cell are derived from adult organ-specific stem cells that do not restore or switch their metabolism of glucose from oxidative metabolism to glycolysis but, rather, in both cases, the adult stem cell, which metabolizes by glycolysis, is prevented from differentiation or from metabolizing by oxidative phosphorylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E Trosko
- Department of Pediatrics/Human Development, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
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Yang SR, Rahman I, Trosko JE, Kang KS. Oxidative stress-induced biomarkers for stem cell-based chemical screening. Prev Med 2012; 54 Suppl:S42-9. [PMID: 22197760 DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2011] [Accepted: 11/30/2011] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Stem cells have been considered for their potential in pharmaceutical research, as well as for stem cell-based therapy for many diseases. Despite the potential for their use, the challenge remains to examine the safety and efficacy of stem cells for their use in therapies. Recently, oxidative stress has been strongly implicated in the functional regulation of cell behavior of stem cells. Therefore, development of rapid and sensitive biomarkers, related to oxidative stress is of growing importance in stem cell-based therapies for treating various diseases. Since stem cells have been implicated as targets for carcinogenesis and might be the origin of "cancer stem cells", understanding of how oxidative stress-induced signaling, known to be involved in the carcinogenic process could lead to potential screening of cancer chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic agents. An evaluation of antioxidant states reducing equivalents like GSH and superoxide dismutase (SOD), as well as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) generation, can be effective markers in stem cell-based therapies. In addition, oxidative adducts, such as 4-hydroxynonenal, can be reliable markers to detect cellular changes during self-renewal and differentiation of stem cells. This review highlights the biomarker development to monitor oxidative stress response for stem cell-based chemical screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Se-Ran Yang
- Adult Stem Cell Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Yang Y, Cai S, Yang L, Yu S, Jiang J, Yan X, Zhang H, Liu L, Liu Q, Du J, Cai S, Sung KP. Targeting eradication of malignant cells derived from human bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells. Exp Cell Res 2010; 316:3329-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2010.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2009] [Revised: 11/26/2009] [Accepted: 02/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Trosko JE, Chang CC. Factors to consider in the use of stem cells for pharmaceutic drug development and for chemical safety assessment. Toxicology 2009; 270:18-34. [PMID: 19948204 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2009.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2009] [Accepted: 11/23/2009] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Given the reality of the inadequacies of current concepts of the mechanisms of chemical toxicities, of the various assays to predict toxicities from current molecular, biochemical, in vitro and animal bioassays, and of the failure to generate efficacious and safe chemicals for medicines, food supplements, industrial, consumer and agricultural chemicals, the recent NAS Report, "Toxicity Testing in the 21st Century: A Vision and a Strategy", has drawn attention to a renewed examination of what needs to be done to improve our current approach for better assessment of potential risk to human health. This "Commentary" provides a major paradigm challenge to the current concepts of how chemicals induce toxicities and how these various mechanisms of toxicities can contribute to the pathogenesis of some human diseases, such as birth defects and cancer. In concordance with the NAS Report to take "... advantage of the on-going revolution in biology and biotechnology", this "Commentary" supports the use of human embryonic and adult stem cells, grown in vitro under simulated "in vivo niche conditions". The human being should be viewed "as greater than the sum of its parts". Homeostatic control of the "emergent properties" of the human hierarchy, needed to maintain human health, requires complex integration of endogenous and exogenous signaling molecules that control cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis and senescence of stem, progenitor and differentiated cells. Currently, in vitro toxicity assays (mutagenesis, cytotoxicity, epigenetic modulation), done on 2-dimensional primary rodent or human cells (which are always mixtures of cells), on immortalized or tumorigenic rodent or human cell lines do not represent normal human cells in vivo [which do not grow on plastic and which are in micro-environments representing 3 dimensions and constantly interacting factors]. In addition, with the known genetic, gender, and developmental state of cells in vivo, any in vitro toxicity assay will need to mimic these conditions in vitro. More specifically, while tissues contain a few stem cells, many progenitor/transit cells and terminally differentiated cells, it should be obvious that both embryonic and adult stem cells would be critical "target" cells for toxicity testing. The ultimate potential for in vitro testing of human stem cells will to try to mimic a 3-D in vitro micro-environment on multiple "organ-specific and multiple genotypic/gender "adult stem cells. The role of stem cells in many chronic diseases, such as cancer, birth defects, and possibly adult diseases after pre-natal and early post-natal exposures (Barker hypothesis), demands toxicity studies of stem cells. While alteration of gene expression ("toxico-epigenomics") is a legitimate endpoint of these toxicity studies, alteration of the quantity of stem cells during development must be serious considered. If the future utility of human stem cells proves to be valid, the elimination of less relevant, expensive and time-consuming rodent and 2-D human in vitro assays will be eliminated.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Edward Trosko
- Center for Integrative Toxicology, Food Safety and Toxicology Center, Department of Pediatrics and Human Development, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
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Trosko JE. Review Paper: Cancer Stem Cells and Cancer Nonstem Cells: From Adult Stem Cells or from Reprogramming of Differentiated Somatic Cells. Vet Pathol 2009; 46:176-93. [DOI: 10.1354/vp.46-2-176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Two opposing hypotheses of the origin of cancer have existed for many decades. One hypothesis postulates that the adult stem cell is needed to initiate the carcinogenic process, whereas the other claims a somatic differentiated cell can dedifferentiate or be reprogrammed to regain properties associated with cancer cells. Recent reemergence of the cancer stem cell hypothesis and the isolation of presumptive cancer stem cells from many types of cancer have forced a reexamination of these 2 hypotheses of the origin of cancer. In addition, normal embryonic and adult stem cells have now been isolated and partially characterized. Furthermore, the demonstration of embryonic-like stem cells, being isolated from adult-differentiated skin fibroblast cells of mice, monkey, and human beings, provides a newer opportunity to determine which of these 2 hypotheses might explain the cell type for initiating the carcinogenic process. The goal of this review is to integrate these recent findings, concerning the isolation of normal and cancer stem cells, with several of the classical concepts of carcinogenesis (initiation/promotion/progression; mutation/epigenetic; stem cell theory/dedifferentiation hypotheses; oncogenetumor suppressor theory). Although the weight of the evidence in this review seems to support the stem cell hypothesis, only future studies, probably using comparative animal and human oncologic studies, will determine if targeting the cancer stem cell, with individualized medical approaches, will improve cancer prevention and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. E. Trosko
- Center for Integrative Toxicology, National Food Safety Toxicology Center, Department of Pediatrics/Human Development, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Mi
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Commentary: “Re-Programming or Selecting Adult Stem Cells?”. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 4:81-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s12015-008-9017-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/31/2008] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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17
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Fabarius A, Li R, Yerganian G, Hehlmann R, Duesberg P. Specific clones of spontaneously evolving karyotypes generate individuality of cancers. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 180:89-99. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cancergencyto.2007.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2007] [Accepted: 10/05/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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18
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Trosko JE. Dietary modulation of the multistage, multimechanisms of human carcinogenesis: effects on initiated stem cells and cell-cell communication. Nutr Cancer 2006; 54:102-10. [PMID: 16800778 DOI: 10.1207/s15327914nc5401_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Diet can influence the risk to cancer in both negative and positive ways. Worldwide, more than 10 million persons develop cancer annually. Diet could prevent many cancers. Carcinogenesis is a multistage, multimechanism process, consisting of "initiation," "promotion," and "progression" phases. Although diet could affect each phase, an efficacious strategy for dietary chemoprevention would be intervention during the promotion phase. The tumor-promotion process requires sustained exposure to agents that stimulate the growth and inhibition of apoptosis of initiated cells in the absence of antipromoters. Chronic inflammation has been associated with the promotion process. The mechanism affecting the promotion process appears to be the inhibition of cell-cell communication between normal and initiated cells. Most, if not all, tumor-promoting agents and conditions, reversibly, inhibit cell-cell communication, whereas antipromoters, antioxidants, and anti-inflammatory agents have been shown to ameliorate the effects of tumor promoters on cell-cell communication. Additionally, adult stem cells are hypothesized to be the target cells for initiating the carcinogenic process. A new paradigm has been presented that postulates the first function of the carcinogenic process is to block the "mortalization" of a normal, "immortal" adult stem cell rather than the induction of "immortalization" of a normal mortal cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E Trosko
- 246 National Food Safety Toxicology Center, Department of Pediatrics and Human Development, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48824, USA.
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19
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Drexler HG, MacLeod RAF. Mantle cell lymphoma-derived cell lines: unique research tools. Leuk Res 2006; 30:911-3. [PMID: 16563503 DOI: 10.1016/j.leukres.2006.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2006] [Revised: 02/02/2006] [Accepted: 02/02/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Chunglok W, Ittarat W, Tomakidi P, Schmidt R, Stremmel W, Chamulitrat W. Human gingival mucosal keratinocytes exhibiting anchorage-independent growth express increased inducible nitric oxide synthase: regulation by MAP kinases. Nitric Oxide 2005; 11:237-46. [PMID: 15566970 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2004.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2004] [Revised: 08/16/2004] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) has been implicated in cancer formation because of its vast presence cancer tissues. Studies to support such a role during transformation of human cells are very limited. We have developed a cell culture system, which renders a more transformed epithelial phenotype. The model cells generated from immortalized human gingival mucosal (GM) keratinocytes are consisted of less transformed epithelial-like (EPI) cells and more transformed fibroblast-like (FIB) cells. The latter exhibit anchorage independent growth (AIG). Our data showed that iNOS at mRNA and protein levels was up-regulated in more transformed FIB cells in comparison with less transformed EPI cells. FIB cells at low passages (p<22) were unstable being able to morphologically and functionally revert back to EPI phenotype, while no reversion was observed in FIB cells at high passages (p>43). The morphological reversion of FIB cells was associated with the reversal of vimentin expression as well as AIG. More importantly, these revertants showed reduced levels of iNOS mRNA as well as MAP kinase ERK and phospho-ERK protein expression, while FIB cells without reversion maintained the expression. Furthermore, the MEK1/2 inhibitor U0126 could reduce detectable iNOS mRNA levels suggesting that MAP kinases were upstream regulators of iNOS transcription. U0126 caused both morphological and functional reversion of FIB cells indicating involvement of MAP kinases in these functions. Taken together, we provide evidence for an up-regulation of iNOS in cultured human keratinocytes which exhibit AIG. This up-regulation may reflect progressive transformation which still requires further changes to reach tumorigenic conversion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Warangkana Chunglok
- Department of Internal Medicine IV, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 410, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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21
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Abstract
Long-standing difficulties in the in vitro transformation of human cells have been overcome. Using telomerase, several successful oncogene-mediated transformations of human cells have been reported and the following cellular requirements for human cell transformation have been proposed: the maintenance of telomere sequences, the inactivation of Rb and p53 pathways, the perturbation of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) and the expression of activated Ras. Even when all of these requirements are fulfilled, however, the transformed phenotypes of human cells seem to be much less malignant than those of rodent cells meeting the same requirements. This suggests the existence of undefined cell-autonomous mechanisms that render human cells resistant to malignant transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsuyoshi Akagi
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Osaka Bioscience Institute, 6-2-4 Furuedai, Suita, Osaka 565-0874, Japan.
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Akagi T, Sasai K, Hanafusa H. Refractory nature of normal human diploid fibroblasts with respect to oncogene-mediated transformation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003; 100:13567-72. [PMID: 14597713 PMCID: PMC263854 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1834876100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Human cells are known to be more refractory than rodent cells against oncogenic transformation in vitro. To date, the molecular mechanisms underlying such resistance remain largely unknown. The combination of simian virus 40 early region and H-Ras V12 has been effective for transformation of rat embryo fibroblasts, but not for human cells. However, the additional ectopic expression of the telomerase catalytic subunit (hTERT) was reported to be capable of causing transformation of normal human cells. In this study, however, we demonstrate that the combined expression of the above-mentioned three genetic elements is not always sufficient to transform normal human diploid fibroblasts (HDF). Although the expression and function of these introduced genetic elements were essentially the same, among four HDF, TIG-1 and TIG-3 were resistant to transformation. The other two (BJ and IMR-90) showed transformed phenotypes, but they were much restricted compared with rat embryo fibroblasts in expressing simian virus 40 early region and H-Ras V12. In correlation with these phenotypes, TIG-1 and TIG-3 remained diploid after the introduction of these genetic elements, whereas BJ and IMR-90 became highly aneuploid. These results strongly suggest that the lack of telomerase is not the sole reason for the refractory nature of HDF against transformation and that normal human cells have still undefined intrinsic mechanisms rendering them resistant to oncogenic transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsuyoshi Akagi
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Osaka Bioscience Institute, 6-2-4 Furuedai, Suita, Osaka 565-0874, Japan.
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Chamulitrat W, Schmidt R, Tomakidi P, Stremmel W, Chunglok W, Kawahara T, Rokutan K. Association of gp91phox homolog Nox1 with anchorage-independent growth and MAP kinase-activation of transformed human keratinocytes. Oncogene 2003; 22:6045-53. [PMID: 12955083 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1206654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Among five members of the NADPH oxidase (Nox) family, Nox1 confers mitogenic properties and is implicated to participate in the process of cell transformation. We have established two phenotypes of carcinogenesis model by ethanol treatment of human gingival keratinocytes immortalized with E6/E7 oncogenes of human papillomavirus type16: immortalized (EPI) nontransformed cells with epithelium-like morphology and more advanced transformed (FIB) cells with spindle fibroblastic-shape morphology. FIB membranes possessed a 63-kDa Nox1 protein at higher levels and exhibited 2.8-fold higher capability for superoxide and hydroxyl radical generation, compared with EPI membranes. Both EPI and FIB cells expressed more abundant Nox1 protein at a proliferating stage than that at a quiescent confluent phase. Immunofluorescence staining with an anti-Nox1 antibody showed that immunoreactive materials were distributed in the whole interior of both types of cells, while they were preferentially localized in the nuclei of FIB cells. Nuclei isolated from EPI and FIB cells contained a 63 kDa-Nox1 protein. Compared with EPI cells, FIB cells expressed elevated levels of Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase proteins. Furthermore, JNK2 was constitutively phosphorylated in FIB cells. Together, our data strongly implicate Nox1 in redox-mediated signaling related to cellular activation of human keratinocytes at a more advanced stage of transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walee Chamulitrat
- Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum, Department of Applied Tumorvirology, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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24
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Harms W, Rothämel T, Miller K, Harste G, Grassmann M, Heim A. Characterization of human myocardial fibroblasts immortalized by HPV16 E6--E7 genes. Exp Cell Res 2001; 268:252-61. [PMID: 11478851 DOI: 10.1006/excr.2001.5274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Human myocardial fibroblasts (HMF) have proved to be useful as a species specific cell culture system in various studies on myocarditis and cardiac remodelling. However, their use is limited, since they are hard to obtain and lifespan is short due to replicative senescence. To overcome these disadvantages, we transfected primary HMF with the E6 and E7 genes of the oncogenic human papillomavirus (HPV) 16. Successful transfection was demonstrated in 3 of 12 experiments by detection of E6-E7 gene transcription with nucleic acid sequence based amplification (NASBA). No significant change of phenotype was noted in the emerging cell lines (HMF(1226D), HMF(1321D), HMF(1226K)), but their in vitro lifespan was increased by 20 to 30 population doublings until cells entered crisis. A single subclone of HMF(1226K) had a transformed phenotype and continued to proliferate indefinitely. This subclone (HMF(1226K/I)) was considered to be immortalized and telomerase activity was detected. Despite the increased risk of mutations due to abrogation of p53 function, HMF(1226K/I) and the HMF lines with an increased lifespan retained the properties of primary HMF cells, as they expressed fibroblast markers (prolyl-4-hydroxylase, vimentin), cytokines (interleukin 1 alpha, 6, 8), and angiotensin II receptors and still were permissive for coxsackievirus B3 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Harms
- Institut für Virologie, Medizinische Hochschule, Hannover, Germany
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25
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Gillio-Meina C, Swan CL, Crellin NK, Stocco DM, Chedrese PJ. Generation of stable cell lines by spontaneous immortalization of primary cultures of porcine granulosa cells. Mol Reprod Dev 2000; 57:366-74. [PMID: 11066066 DOI: 10.1002/1098-2795(200012)57:4<366::aid-mrd9>3.0.co;2-b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
We report the generation of stable cell lines obtained by spontaneous immortalization of primary cultures of porcine granulosa cells. Three hundred stable cell lines were obtained from three independent immortalization trials. Two of these cell lines retained the steroidogenic capabilities characteristic of granulosa cells, such as de novo synthesis of progesterone and conversion of androstenedione into estradiol-17beta. All the stable cell lines expressed the P450arom and 3betaHSD genes, confirming their granulosa origin. Moreover, the steroidogenic stable granulosa cells also expressed StAR and P450scc genes. Stable cells were developed in cultures using Medium 199 supplemented with 5% newborn calf serum (NBCS). The surviving cells overcame the senescent phase and entered a stage of continuous growth for over one hundred generations. No stable colonies were obtained from cultures grown in MEM or DMEM or media supplemented with 10% NBCS or 5 and 10% fetal calf serum (FCS). Medium 199 is a formulation richer in nutrients compared to MEM or DMEM and the cell growth capability of NBCS is lower than that of FCS, probably due to deficiency of growth factors. We speculate that spontaneous immortalization of granulosa cells may be facilitated by using a rich culture formulation supplemented with low concentrations of serum deficient in growth factors. We have validated the stable cell lines for studying the effect of hormonal steroids on granulosa cell steroidogenesis and the expression of the steroidogenic genes. Therefore, we believe that they are useful models to study the molecular mechanism involved in granulosa cell differentiation and steroidogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Gillio-Meina
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
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26
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Ishino K, Shibanuma M, Nose K. Specific decrease in the level of Hic-5, a focal adhesion protein, during immortalization of mouse embryonic fibroblasts, and its association with focal adhesion kinase. J Cell Biochem 2000; 76:411-9. [PMID: 10649439 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-4644(20000301)76:3<411::aid-jcb9>3.0.co;2-j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Hic-5 is a paxillin homologue with four LIM domains in its C-terminal region, localized mainly in focal adhesions in normal fibroblasts. Hic-5 is also known to associate with focal adhesion kinase (FAK) or the related CAKbeta, and with vinculin. In the present study, we examined changes in Hic-5 and paxillin protein levels in primary mouse embryo fibroblasts (MEF) during mortal and immortal stages. The Hic-5 level was markedly decreased when cells became immortalized, whereas that of paxillin was increased. The vinculin level was not changed significantly. Hic-5 was mainly localized in focal adhesion plaques of mortal MEF but was localized in the nuclear periphery in the immortalized MEF; the number of focal adhesion plaques was decreased in these cells. Mouse Hic-5 contains three LD domains in its N-terminal half, and the first LD domain (LD1) appears to be involved in interaction with FAK. However, this interaction was not essential for recruitment of Hic-5 to focal adhesions, since its subcellular localization was similar in FAK(-/-) cells. Forced expression of Hic-5 decreased colony forming ability of MEF from FAK(+/+) mice, but not of FAK(-/-) cells. These observations suggested the involvement of Hic-5 in determination of cellular proliferative capacity in collaboration with other cytoskeletal components.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Ishino
- Department of Microbiology, Showa University School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hatanodai, Tokyo, Japan
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27
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Affiliation(s)
- H O Jauregui
- Department of Pathology, Brown University School of Medicine, Providence, Rhode Island 02903, USA
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28
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Abstract
The tumorigenicity of adenovirus (Ad) 12-transformed mouse cells was evaluated by analyzing the relationship of tumor cell dose to tumor incidence and tumor latency. The tumor producing dose 50% endpoint values used to define these relationships remained stable during 52 weeks of serial passage in tissue culture and were not determined by low frequency events within the cell population. The data from these analyses suggest that the phenotype of Ad12-transformed mouse cells is influenced by two set of traits--those traits that determine the threshold number of cells required for tumor formation and those that extend the cell dose-dependent tumor latency period. Both traits are established independently of cell immortalization, and both can be influenced by the immunological status of tumor-challenged animals. These observations were verified by using mouse cells transformed by Ad5 and SV40. The biological and molecular processes that contribute to these traits remain to be determined. The approach developed by this analysis provides a reliable, quantitative means of evaluating endogenous traits that determine transformed cell tumorigenicity. This method can also be used to test the effects of tumor cell manipulations or changes in host response that could alter expression or detection of these neoplastic cell traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Lewis
- Viral Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Immunopathology National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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29
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Sasaki K, Mironov N, Yilmaz A, Lahm H, Odartchenko N, Yamasaki H. Malignant transformation of simian virus 40–immortalized human milk epithelial cells by chemical carcinogenesis accompanied by loss of heterozygosity on chromosome 1 but not microsatellite instability. Mol Carcinog 1998. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1098-2744(199809)23:1<20::aid-mc3>3.0.co;2-l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Abstract
Mouse telomeres are on average longer than those of man, raising questions regarding the link between telomere loss and replicative senescence in mice and the requirement for telomerase activity for mouse cell immortalisation. However, the emerging data on telomerase activity during tumorigenesis in the mouse must be interpreted in the context of the very different structure of mouse telomeres. It will be argued here that the evidence for a casual link between telomere loss and replicative senescence is weak in the mouse, with the observed upregulation of telomerase activity in mouse tumours perhaps instead reflecting co-ordinated regulatory changes in tumour cells. Its absence would be consistent with evolutionary considerations, which hypothesise that such a link is an additional layer of control against tumour formation that has evolved in man. The very different genomic substrates for telomerase in humans and mice mean that the initial phenotype of a telomerase knock-out mouse does not necessarily critically address the existence of a link between telomerase and tumorigenesis in man.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Kipling
- Department of Pathology, University of Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff, U.K
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Shibanuma M, Mochizuki E, Maniwa R, Mashimo J, Nishiya N, Imai S, Takano T, Oshimura M, Nose K. Induction of senescence-like phenotypes by forced expression of hic-5, which encodes a novel LIM motif protein, in immortalized human fibroblasts. Mol Cell Biol 1997; 17:1224-35. [PMID: 9032249 PMCID: PMC231847 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.17.3.1224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The hic-5 gene encodes a novel protein with Zn finger-like (LIM) motifs, the expression of which increases during cellular senescence. The ectopic expression of hic-5 in nontumorigenic immortalized human fibroblasts, whose expression levels of hic-5 were significantly reduced in comparison with those of mortal cells, decreased colony-forming efficiency. Stable clones expressing high levels of hic-5 mRNA showed higher levels of mRNAs for several extracellular matrix-related proteins, along with the alteration of an alternative splicing as seen in senescent cells and decreased c-fos inducibility. Furthermore, these clones acquired a senescence-like phenotype, such as growth retardation; senescence-like morphology; and increased expression of Cip1/WAF1/sdi1 after 20 to 40 population doublings. On the other hand, antisense RNA expression of hic-5 in human normal diploid fibroblasts delayed the senescence process. HIC-5 was localized in nuclei and had affinity for DNA. Based on these observations, we speculated that HIC-5 affected the expression of senescence-related genes through interacting with DNA and thereby induced the senescence-like phenotypes. To our knowledge, hic-5 is the first single gene that could induce senescence-like phenotypes in a certain type of immortalized human cell and mediate the normal process of senescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Shibanuma
- Department of Microbiology, Showa University School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, Japan
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Abstract
Long-term cultivation of primary human fetal brain cells has yielded a homogeneous population of glial progenitors of extended life span. These human astrocyte precursor (HAP-1) cells have been in culture for greater than 1 year, are diploid, and do not form colonies in soft agar. The culture was established in 10% fetal calf serum (FCS), although cells greatly increase their proliferative rate when both basic fibroblast growth factor and FCS are present in the culture media. HAP-1 cells express the cytoskeletal proteins glial fibrillary acidic protein, vimentin, and nestin. HAP-1 cells express the AMPA/kainate receptor subunit genes GluRs 1, 3, and 4 and the kainate receptor subunit genes GluR6, KA1, and KA2. Immunohistochemistry confirms the expression of GluR subunit proteins. HAP-1 cells demonstrate a kainate-responsive current found to be blockable by CNQX. HAP-1 cells will serve in the study of human glial cells and ligand-gated ion channels and in the identification of compounds which might act as agonists or antagonists at these receptor-ion channel complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Cauley
- Signal Pharmaceuticals, Inc., San Diego, California
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Honda T, Sadamori N, Oshimura M, Horikawa I, Omura H, Komatsu K, Watanabe M. Spontaneous immortalization of cultured skin fibroblasts obtained from a high-dose atomic bomb survivor. Mutat Res 1996; 354:15-26. [PMID: 8692202 DOI: 10.1016/0027-5107(96)00003-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Two immortal fibroblastic cell strains (substrains) were established by culturing healthy skin cells obtained from a high-dose atomic bomb survivor (female, age 76 years, 5.14 Gy) for more than 4 years. Designated FM-U and FM-M, the two substrains share the same marker chromosome, t(5q-;6p+), but are karyotypically different, possessing hypodiploid chromosome numbers (39-43) in the former and hypertriploid (69-76) in the latter. Thus far, the two strains have passed through 117 and 156 subcultures or more than 230 and 310 cumulative population doublings, respectively, each passage requiring 4-6 days in the former and 3-4 days in the latter. In the process of immortalization, sequential rearrangement among various chromosomes presumably due to telomeric and interstitial telomeric fusions took place following the telomere shortening, particularly in the senescence and postsenescence phase cells. Of particular interest is the fact that loss of heterozygosity (LOH) of the p53 gene was demonstrated in these immortalized cell populations. In addition, the allelic patterns of the LOH of p53 differed. Further evidence indicative of infinite proliferation was demonstrated in both strains, such as the telomere elongation and the significantly low frequency of cells possessing dicentric chromosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Honda
- Department of Radiobiology, Radiation Effects Research Foundation, Nagasaki, Japan
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