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Alexander LE, Winkelman D, Stenback KE, Lane M, Campbell KR, Trost E, Flyckt K, Schelling MA, Rizhsky L, Yandeau-Nelson MD, Nikolau BJ. The impact of the GLOSSY2 and GLOSSY2-LIKE BAHD-proteins in affecting the product profile of the maize fatty acid elongase. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2024; 15:1403779. [PMID: 39055356 PMCID: PMC11269236 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2024.1403779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
The maize glossy2 and glossy2-like genes are homologs, which encode proteins that belong to the BAHD family of acyltransferases. In planta genetic studies have demonstrated that these genes may be involved in the elongation of very long chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) that are precursors of the cuticular wax fraction of the plant cuticle. VLCFAs are synthesized by a fatty acyl-CoA elongase complex (FAE) that consists of four component enzymes. Previously, we functionally identified the maize FAE component enzymes by their ability to complement haploid Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains that carry lethal deletion alleles for each FAE component enzyme. In this study we used these complemented haploid strains and wild-type diploid strains to evaluate whether the co-expression of either GLOSSY2 or GLOSSY2-LIKE with individual maize FAE component enzymes affects the VLCFA product-profile of the FAE system. Wild-type diploid strains produced VLCFAs of up to 28-carbon chain length. Co-expression of GLOSSY2 or GLOSSY2-LIKE with a combination of maize 3-ketoacyl-CoA synthases stimulated the synthesis of longer VLCFAs, up to 30-carbon chain lengths. However, such results could not be recapitulated when these co-expression experiments were conducted in the yeast haploid mutant strains that lacked individual components of the endogenous FAE system. Specifically, lethal yeast mutant strains that are genetically complemented by the expression of maize FAE-component enzymes produce VLCFAs that range between 20- and 26-carbon chain lengths. However, expressing either GLOSSY2 or GLOSSY2-LIKE in these complemented strains does not enable the synthesis of longer chain VLCFAs. These results indicate that the apparent stimulatory role of GLOSSY2 or GLOSSY2-LIKE to enable the synthesis of longer chain VLCFAs in diploid yeast cells may be associated with mixing plant enzyme components with the endogenous FAE complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liza Esther Alexander
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
- Center for Metabolic Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Dirk Winkelman
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
- Center for Metabolic Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
- Department of Genetics, Development, and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Kenna E. Stenback
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
- Center for Metabolic Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Madison Lane
- Department of Genetics, Development, and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Katelyn R. Campbell
- Department of Genetics, Development, and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Elysse Trost
- Department of Genetics, Development, and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Kayla Flyckt
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
- Center for Metabolic Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Michael A. Schelling
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Ludmila Rizhsky
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
- Center for Metabolic Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Marna D. Yandeau-Nelson
- Center for Metabolic Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
- Department of Genetics, Development, and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Basil J. Nikolau
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
- Center for Metabolic Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
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2
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Su J, Xu Y, Lei M, Meng Y, Zhang S, Liu H, Zhu C, Chen J, Zhang T, Liu J, Lin Y, Yan Z, Li W, Wang J, Chen X, He M. A fatty acid elongase complex regulates cell membrane integrity and septin-dependent host infection by the rice blast fungus. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2024; 25:e13494. [PMID: 39003585 PMCID: PMC11246601 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Revised: 06/21/2024] [Accepted: 06/26/2024] [Indexed: 07/15/2024]
Abstract
Very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) regulate biophysical properties of cell membranes to determine growth and development of eukaryotes, such as the pathogenesis of the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae. The fatty acid elongase Elo1 regulates pathogenesis of M. oryzae by modulating VLCFA biosynthesis. However, it remains unknown whether and how Elo1 associates with other factors to regulate VLCFA biosynthesis in fungal pathogens. Here, we identified Ifa38, Phs1 and Tsc13 as interacting proteins of Elo1 by proximity labelling in M. oryzae. Elo1 associated with Ifa38, Phs1 and Tsc13 on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane to control VLCFA biosynthesis. Targeted gene deletion mutants Δifa38, Δphs1 and Δtsc13 were all similarly impaired as Δelo1 in vegetative growth, conidial morphology, stress responses in ER, cell wall and membrane. These deletion mutants also displayed severe damage in cell membrane integrity and failed to organize the septin ring that is essential for penetration peg formation and pathogenicity. Our study demonstrates that M. oryzae employs a fatty acid elongase complex to regulate VLCFAs for maintaining or remodelling cell membrane structure, which is important for septin-mediated host penetration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Su
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Youpin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- College of Life Sciences, China West Normal University, Nanchong, Sichuan, China
| | - Mingliang Lei
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Yingying Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Siqi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Hongrui Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Caicun Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jinhua Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Tianxin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jiawei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Yunxiang Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Zhaorui Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Weitao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xuewei Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Min He
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
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3
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Xu L, Hao J, Lv M, Liu P, Ge Q, Zhang S, Yang J, Niu H, Wang Y, Xue Y, Lu X, Tang J, Zheng J, Gou M. A genome-wide association study identifies genes associated with cuticular wax metabolism in maize. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2024; 194:2616-2630. [PMID: 38206190 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiae007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
The plant cuticle is essential in plant defense against biotic and abiotic stresses. To systematically elucidate the genetic architecture of maize (Zea mays L.) cuticular wax metabolism, 2 cuticular wax-related traits, the chlorophyll extraction rate (CER) and water loss rate (WLR) of 389 maize inbred lines, were investigated and a genome-wide association study (GWAS) was performed using 1.25 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). In total, 57 nonredundant quantitative trait loci (QTL) explaining 5.57% to 15.07% of the phenotypic variation for each QTL were identified. These QTLs contained 183 genes, among which 21 strong candidates were identified based on functional annotations and previous publications. Remarkably, 3 candidate genes that express differentially during cuticle development encode β-ketoacyl-CoA synthase (KCS). While ZmKCS19 was known to be involved in cuticle wax metabolism, ZmKCS12 and ZmKCS3 functions were not reported. The association between ZmKCS12 and WLR was confirmed by resequencing 106 inbred lines, and the variation of WLR was significant between different haplotypes of ZmKCS12. In this study, the loss-of-function mutant of ZmKCS12 exhibited wrinkled leaf morphology, altered wax crystal morphology, and decreased C32 wax monomer levels, causing an increased WLR and sensitivity to drought. These results confirm that ZmKCS12 plays a vital role in maize C32 wax monomer synthesis and is critical for drought tolerance. In sum, through GWAS of 2 cuticular wax-associated traits, this study reveals comprehensively the genetic architecture in maize cuticular wax metabolism and provides a valuable reference for the genetic improvement of stress tolerance in maize.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liping Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crops Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
- The Shennong Laboratory, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Jiaxin Hao
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crops Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Mengfan Lv
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crops Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Peipei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crops Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Qidong Ge
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crops Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Sainan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crops Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Jianping Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crops Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Hongbin Niu
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crops Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Yiru Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Resources and Breeding, Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Yadong Xue
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crops Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Xiaoduo Lu
- Institute of Advanced Agricultural Technology, Qilu Normal University, Jinan 250200, China
| | - Jihua Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crops Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
- The Shennong Laboratory, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Jun Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Resources and Breeding, Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Mingyue Gou
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crops Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
- The Shennong Laboratory, Zhengzhou 450002, China
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4
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Liu J, Li L, Xiong Z, Robert CAM, Li B, He S, Chen W, Bi J, Zhai G, Guo S, Zhang H, Li J, Zhou S, Zhang X, Song CP. Trade-offs between the accumulation of cuticular wax and jasmonic acid-mediated herbivory resistance in maize. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2024; 66:143-159. [PMID: 37975264 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.13586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Plants have evolved complex physical and chemical defense systems that allow them to withstand herbivory infestation. Composed of a complex mixture of very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) and their derivatives, cuticular wax constitutes the first physical line of defense against herbivores. Here, we report the function of Glossy 8 (ZmGL8), which encodes a 3-ketoacyl reductase belonging to the fatty acid elongase complex, in orchestrating wax production and jasmonic acid (JA)-mediated defenses against herbivores in maize (Zea mays). The mutation of GL8 enhanced chemical defenses by activating the JA-dependent pathway. We observed a trade-off between wax accumulation and JA levels across maize glossy mutants and 24 globally collected maize inbred lines. In addition, we demonstrated that mutants defective in cuticular wax biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana and maize exhibit enhanced chemical defenses. Comprehensive transcriptomic and lipidomic analyses indicated that the gl8 mutant confers chemical resistance to herbivores by remodeling VLCFA-related lipid metabolism and subsequent JA biosynthesis and signaling. These results suggest that VLCFA-related lipid metabolism has a critical role in regulating the trade-offs between cuticular wax and JA-mediated chemical defenses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiong Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Lu Li
- School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- State Key Laboratory of Cotton Bio-Breeding and Integrated Utilization, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Zhilong Xiong
- School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- State Key Laboratory of Cotton Bio-Breeding and Integrated Utilization, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- Sanya Institute of Henan University, Sanya, 572025, China
| | | | - Baozhu Li
- School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- Sanya Institute of Henan University, Sanya, 572025, China
| | - Shan He
- School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- State Key Laboratory of Cotton Bio-Breeding and Integrated Utilization, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Wenjie Chen
- School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- State Key Laboratory of Cotton Bio-Breeding and Integrated Utilization, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Jiasheng Bi
- School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- State Key Laboratory of Cotton Bio-Breeding and Integrated Utilization, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Guanqing Zhai
- School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- State Key Laboratory of Cotton Bio-Breeding and Integrated Utilization, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- Sanya Institute of Henan University, Sanya, 572025, China
| | - Siyi Guo
- School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- Sanya Institute of Henan University, Sanya, 572025, China
| | - Hui Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Jieping Li
- School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Shutang Zhou
- School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- State Key Laboratory of Cotton Bio-Breeding and Integrated Utilization, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- Sanya Institute of Henan University, Sanya, 572025, China
| | - Xi Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- State Key Laboratory of Cotton Bio-Breeding and Integrated Utilization, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- Sanya Institute of Henan University, Sanya, 572025, China
| | - Chun-Peng Song
- School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
- Sanya Institute of Henan University, Sanya, 572025, China
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5
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Ma P, Liu E, Zhang Z, Li T, Zhou Z, Yao W, Chen J, Wu J, Xu Y, Zhang H. Genetic variation in ZmWAX2 confers maize resistance to Fusarium verticillioides. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2023; 21:1812-1826. [PMID: 37293701 PMCID: PMC10440989 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.14093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Revised: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Fusarium verticillioides (F. verticillioides) is a widely distributed phytopathogen that incites multiple destructive diseases in maize, posing a grave threat to corn yields and quality worldwide. However, there are few reports of resistance genes to F. verticillioides. Here, we reveal that a combination of two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) corresponding to ZmWAX2 gene associates with quantitative resistance variations to F. verticillioides in maize through a genome-wide association study. A lack of ZmWAX2 compromises maize resistance to F. verticillioides-caused seed rot, seedling blight and stalk rot by reducing cuticular wax deposition, while the transgenic plants overexpressing ZmWAX2 show significantly increased immunity to F. verticillioides. A natural occurrence of two 7-bp deletions within the promoter increases ZmWAX2 transcription, thus enhancing maize resistance to F. verticillioides. Upon Fusarium stalk rot, ZmWAX2 greatly promotes the yield and grain quality of maize. Our studies demonstrate that ZmWAX2 confers multiple disease resistances caused by F. verticillioides and can serve as an important gene target for the development of F. verticillioides-resistant maize varieties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peipei Ma
- College of Life SciencesHenan Agricultural UniversityZhengzhouChina
- College of Agronomy, Synergetic Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops and National Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crop ScienceHenan Agricultural UniversityZhengzhouChina
| | - Enpeng Liu
- College of Life SciencesHenan Agricultural UniversityZhengzhouChina
| | - Zhirui Zhang
- College of Life SciencesHenan Agricultural UniversityZhengzhouChina
| | - Tao Li
- College of Life SciencesHenan Agricultural UniversityZhengzhouChina
| | - Zijian Zhou
- College of Life SciencesHenan Agricultural UniversityZhengzhouChina
| | - Wen Yao
- College of Life SciencesHenan Agricultural UniversityZhengzhouChina
| | - Jiafa Chen
- College of Life SciencesHenan Agricultural UniversityZhengzhouChina
| | - Jianyu Wu
- College of Life SciencesHenan Agricultural UniversityZhengzhouChina
- College of Agronomy, Synergetic Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops and National Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crop ScienceHenan Agricultural UniversityZhengzhouChina
| | - Yufang Xu
- College of Life SciencesHenan Agricultural UniversityZhengzhouChina
| | - Huiyong Zhang
- College of Life SciencesHenan Agricultural UniversityZhengzhouChina
- College of Agronomy, Synergetic Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops and National Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crop ScienceHenan Agricultural UniversityZhengzhouChina
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6
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Wang L, Tonsager AJ, Zheng W, Wang Y, Stessman D, Fang W, Stenback KE, Campbell A, Tanvir R, Zhang J, Cothron S, Wan D, Meng Y, Spalding MH, Nikolau BJ, Li L. Single-cell genetic models to evaluate orphan gene function: The case of QQS regulating carbon and nitrogen allocation. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1126139. [PMID: 37051080 PMCID: PMC10084940 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1126139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate two synthetic single-cell systems that can be used to better understand how the acquisition of an orphan gene can affect complex phenotypes. The Arabidopsis orphan gene, Qua-Quine Starch (QQS) has been identified as a regulator of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) partitioning across multiple plant species. QQS modulates this important biotechnological trait by replacing NF-YB (Nuclear Factor Y, subunit B) in its interaction with NF-YC. In this study, we expand on these prior findings by developing Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains, to refactor the functional interactions between QQS and NF-Y subunits to affect modulations in C and N allocation. Expression of QQS in C. reinhardtii modulates C (i.e., starch) and N (i.e., protein) allocation by affecting interactions between NF-YC and NF-YB subunits. Studies in S. cerevisiae revealed similar functional interactions between QQS and the NF-YC homolog (HAP5), modulating C (i.e., glycogen) and N (i.e., protein) allocation. However, in S. cerevisiae both the NF-YA (HAP2) and NF-YB (HAP3) homologs appear to have redundant functions to enable QQS and HAP5 to affect C and N allocation. The genetically tractable systems that developed herein exhibit the plasticity to modulate highly complex phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, United States
| | - Andrew J. Tonsager
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics, and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
- Engineering Research Center for Biorenewable Chemicals, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
- Center for Metabolic Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Wenguang Zheng
- Department of Genetics, Development and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Yingjun Wang
- Department of Genetics, Development and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Dan Stessman
- Department of Genetics, Development and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Wei Fang
- Department of Genetics, Development and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Kenna E. Stenback
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics, and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
- Engineering Research Center for Biorenewable Chemicals, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
- Center for Metabolic Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Alexis Campbell
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics, and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
- Engineering Research Center for Biorenewable Chemicals, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
- Center for Metabolic Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Rezwan Tanvir
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, United States
| | - Jinjiang Zhang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, United States
- Mississippi School for Mathematics and Science, Columbus, MS, United States
| | - Samuel Cothron
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, United States
| | - Dongli Wan
- Institute of Grassland Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hohhot, China
| | - Yan Meng
- Department of Agriculture, Alcorn State University, Lorman, MS, United States
| | - Martin H. Spalding
- Department of Genetics, Development and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Basil J. Nikolau
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics, and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
- Engineering Research Center for Biorenewable Chemicals, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
- Center for Metabolic Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Ling Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, United States
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7
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Hamilton K, Rahman T, Sadowski J, Karunakaran C, Tanino K. Identification of ultrastructural and biochemical cuticular markers influencing temperature of ice nucleation in selected genotypes of corn. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2023; 175:e13902. [PMID: 36999192 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.13902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Corn is an economically important yet frost-sensitive crop, injured at the moment of ice nucleation. However, the influence of autumn temperatures on subsequent ice nucleation temperature is unknown. A 10-day chilling treatment under phytotron conditions ("mild", 18/6°C) or ("extreme", 10/5°C) generated no-visible damage but induced changes in the cuticle of the four genotypes in this study. The putatively more cold hardy Genotypes 884 and 959 leaves nucleated at colder temperatures compared to the more sensitive Genotypes 675 and 275. After chilling treatment, all four genotypes displayed warmer ice nucleation temperatures, with Genotype 884 expressing the largest shift to warmer nucleation temperatures. Cuticular hydrophobicity reduced while cuticular thickness remained unchanged under the chilling treatment. By contrast, under five-week field conditions, cuticle thickness increased in all genotypes, with Genotype 256 expressing a significantly thinner cuticle. FTIR spectroscopy revealed increases in the spectral regions of cuticular lipids in all genotypes after phytotron chilling treatment, while those spectral regions decreased under field conditions. A total of 142 molecular compounds were detected, with 28 compounds significantly induced under either phytotron or field conditions. Of these, seven compounds were induced under both conditions (Alkanes C31-C33, Ester C44, C46, β-amyrin, and triterpene). While clear differential responses were observed, chilling conditions preceding a frost modified physical and biochemical properties of the leaf cuticle under both phytotron and field conditions indicating this response is dynamic and could be a factor in selecting corn genotypes better adapted to avoiding frost with lower ice nucleation temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaila Hamilton
- Department of Plant Sciences, College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada, S7N 5A8
| | - Tawhidur Rahman
- Department of Plant Sciences, College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada, S7N 5A8
| | - Jason Sadowski
- Department of Plant Sciences, College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada, S7N 5A8
| | | | - Karen Tanino
- Department of Plant Sciences, College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada, S7N 5A8
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8
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Stenback KE, Flyckt KS, Hoang T, Campbell AA, Nikolau BJ. Modifying the yeast very long chain fatty acid biosynthetic machinery by the expression of plant 3-ketoacyl CoA synthase isozymes. Sci Rep 2022; 12:13235. [PMID: 35918413 PMCID: PMC9346008 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-17080-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Eukaryotes express a multi-component fatty acid elongase to produce very long chain fatty acids (VLCFAs), which are building blocks of diverse lipids. Elongation is achieved by cyclical iteration of four reactions, the first of which generates a new carbon-carbon bond, elongating the acyl-chain. This reaction is catalyzed by either ELONGATION DEFECTIVE LIKE (ELO) or 3-ketoacyl-CoA synthase (KCS) enzymes. Whereas plants express both ELO and KCS enzymes, other eukaryotes express only ELOs. We explored the Zea mays KCS enzymatic redundancies by expressing each of the 26 isozymes in yeast strains that lacked endogenous ELO isozymes. Expression of the 26 maize KCS isozymes in wild-type, scelo2 or scelo3 single mutants did not affect VLCFA profiles. However, a complementation screen of each of the 26 KCS isozymes revealed five that were capable of complementing the synthetically lethal scelo2; scelo3 double mutant. These rescued strains express novel VLCFA profiles reflecting the different catalytic capabilities of the KCS isozymes. These novel strains offer a platform to explore the relationship between VLCFA profiles and cellular physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenna E Stenback
- Roy J Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA.,Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School Blavatnik Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Kayla S Flyckt
- Roy J Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA.,Corteva Agriscience, Johnston, IA, USA
| | - Trang Hoang
- Roy J Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA.,Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Alexis A Campbell
- Roy J Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA.,School of Education, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Basil J Nikolau
- Roy J Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA. .,Center for Metabolic Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA.
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9
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Zhukov A, Popov V. Synthesis of C 20-38 Fatty Acids in Plant Tissues. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23094731. [PMID: 35563119 PMCID: PMC9101283 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23094731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Revised: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFA) are involved in a number of important plant physiological functions. Disorders in the expression of genes involved in the synthesis of VLCFA lead to a number of phenotypic consequences, ranging from growth retardation to the death of embryos. The elongation of VLCFA in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is carried out by multiple elongase complexes with different substrate specificities and adapted to the synthesis of a number of products required for a number of metabolic pathways. The information about the enzymes involved in the synthesis of VLCFA with more than 26 atoms of Carbon is rather poor. Recently, genes encoding enzymes involved in the synthesis of both regular-length fatty acids and VLCFA have been discovered and investigated. Polyunsaturated VLCFA in plants are formed mainly by 20:1 elongation into new monounsaturated acids, which are then imported into chloroplasts, where they are further desaturated. The formation of saturated VLCFA and their further transformation into a number of aliphatic compounds included in cuticular waxes and suberin require the coordinated activity of a large number of different enzymes.
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10
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Liu D, Guo W, Guo X, Yang L, Hu W, Kuang L, Huang Y, Xie J, Liu Y. Ectopic Overexpression of CsECR From Navel Orange Increases Cuticular Wax Accumulation in Tomato and Enhances Its Tolerance to Drought Stress. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:924552. [PMID: 35865286 PMCID: PMC9294922 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.924552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Drought stress often occurred in citrus to limit its growth, distribution, and fruit quality. Cuticular waxes play an important role in regulating plant tolerance to drought stress. Plant enoyl-CoA reductase (ECR) is involved in the biosynthesis of cuticular waxes and catalyzes the last step of very long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) elongation. In this study, a putative ECR gene, named CsECR, was cloned from "Newhall" navel orange. CsECR protein has high identities with other plant ECR proteins and contained a conserved NADP/NAD-binding motif and three conserved functional sites. The highest expression of CsECR was observed in leaves, followed by stems, flavedos, ovaries, juice sacs, stigmas, stamens, albedos, and petals. Besides, the expression of CsECR was significantly induced by PEG6000 and ABA treatments. Ectopic overexpression of CsECR increased the contents of total waxes and aliphatic wax fractions (n-fatty acids, unsaturated fatty acids, n-alkanes, alkenes, iso-, and anteiso-alkanes) in the leaves and fruits of the transgenic tomato. Furthermore, ectopic overexpression of CsECR reduced the cuticle permeability in the leaves and fruits of the transgenic tomato and increased its tolerance to drought stress. Taken together, our results revealed that CsECR plays an important role in plant response to drought stresses by regulating cuticular wax biosynthesis.
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11
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Batsale M, Bahammou D, Fouillen L, Mongrand S, Joubès J, Domergue F. Biosynthesis and Functions of Very-Long-Chain Fatty Acids in the Responses of Plants to Abiotic and Biotic Stresses. Cells 2021; 10:1284. [PMID: 34064239 PMCID: PMC8224384 DOI: 10.3390/cells10061284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Very-long-chain fatty acids (i.e., fatty acids with more than 18 carbon atoms; VLCFA) are important molecules that play crucial physiological and structural roles in plants. VLCFA are specifically present in several membrane lipids and essential for membrane homeostasis. Their specific accumulation in the sphingolipids of the plasma membrane outer leaflet is of primordial importance for its correct functioning in intercellular communication. VLCFA are found in phospholipids, notably in phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylethanolamine, where they could play a role in membrane domain organization and interleaflet coupling. In epidermal cells, VLCFA are precursors of the cuticular waxes of the plant cuticle, which are of primary importance for many interactions of the plant with its surrounding environment. VLCFA are also major components of the root suberin barrier, which has been shown to be fundamental for nutrient homeostasis and plant adaptation to adverse conditions. Finally, some plants store VLCFA in the triacylglycerols of their seeds so that they later play a pivotal role in seed germination. In this review, taking advantage of the many studies conducted using Arabidopsis thaliana as a model, we present our current knowledge on the biosynthesis and regulation of VLCFA in plants, and on the various functions that VLCFA and their derivatives play in the interactions of plants with their abiotic and biotic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Frédéric Domergue
- University of Bordeaux, CNRS, Laboratoire de Biogenèse Membranaire, UMR 5200, F-33140 Villenave d’Ornon, France; (M.B.); (D.B.); (L.F.); (S.M.); (J.J.)
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12
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Li L, Du Y, He C, Dietrich CR, Li J, Ma X, Wang R, Liu Q, Liu S, Wang G, Schnable PS, Zheng J. Maize glossy6 is involved in cuticular wax deposition and drought tolerance. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2019; 70:3089-3099. [PMID: 30919902 PMCID: PMC6598097 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erz131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Cuticular waxes, long-chain hydrocarbon compounds, form the outermost layer of plant surfaces in most terrestrial plants. The presence of cuticular waxes protects plants from water loss and other environmental stresses. Cloning and characterization of genes involved in the regulation, biosynthesis, and extracellular transport of cuticular waxes onto the surface of epidermal cells have revealed the molecular basis of cuticular wax accumulation. However, intracellular trafficking of synthesized waxes to the plasma membrane for cellular secretion is poorly understood. Here, we characterized a maize glossy (gl6) mutant that exhibited decreased epicuticular wax load, increased cuticle permeability, and reduced seedling drought tolerance relative to wild-type. We combined an RNA-sequencing-based mapping approach (BSR-Seq) and chromosome walking to identify the gl6 candidate gene, which was confirmed via the analysis of multiple independent mutant alleles. The gl6 gene represents a novel maize glossy gene containing a conserved, but uncharacterized, DUF538 domain. This study suggests that the GL6 protein may be involved in the intracellular trafficking of cuticular waxes, opening the door to elucidating the poorly understood process by which cuticular wax is transported from its site of biosynthesis to the plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Li
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, P. R. China
- Department of Agronomy, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
- Seed Science and Technology Research Center, Beijing Innovation Research Center on the Whole Process of Crop Seeds, China Agricultural University, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Yicong Du
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Cheng He
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, P. R. China
- Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Charles R Dietrich
- Department of Agronomy, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
- Present address: Monsanto, Chesterfield, MO 63005-63017, USA
| | - Jiankun Li
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Xiaoli Ma
- College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, P. R. China
- Present address: Center for Plant Molecular Biology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany
| | - Rui Wang
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Qiang Liu
- Department of Agronomy, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
- College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Sanzhen Liu
- Department of Agronomy, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
- Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Guoying Wang
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Patrick S Schnable
- Department of Agronomy, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
- College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, P. R. China
- Correspondence: or
| | - Jun Zheng
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, P. R. China
- Correspondence: or
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13
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Li D, Cheng Y, Guan J. Effects of 1-methylcyclopropene on surface wax and related gene expression in cold-stored 'Hongxiangsu' pears. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2019; 99:2438-2446. [PMID: 30362118 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.9452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Revised: 10/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/22/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Surface wax protects fruit from dehydration and pathogen erosion during storage. The surface wax of pears changes greatly during storage. In this work, the effect of ethylene action inhibitor 1-methylcyclopropene on wax accumulation and related gene expression in 'Hongxiangsu' pears during cold storage was investigated. RESULTS The alkanes, alkenes, fatty acids, esters, aldehydes and triterpenoids on the fruit surface accumulated and peaked at day 180, but fatty alcohols decreased before day 90 and then increased in the control. Treatment with 1-MCP (1.0 µL L-1 ) reduced surface wax at day 180 of storage. Compared with the control, the wax crystals became smaller in 1-MCP-treated fruit on days 90 and 270. The 1-MCP decreased the expression levels of ethylene synthesis, perception and signal genes ACS1, ACO1, ERS1, ETR2, ERF1 and wax-related genes (LACS1, LACS2, KCS2, KCS9, KCS20, FDH, CER6, CER10, LTPG1, LTP3, LTP4, ABCG11 and ABCG12). CONCLUSION These results suggested that 1-MCP suppressed ethylene synthesis and signal-pathway and wax-related gene expression; it also reduced the wax and the size of crystals on the fruit surface in cold-stored 'Hongxiangsu' pears. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Li
- College of Life Science, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
- Institute of Genetics and Physiology, Hebei Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
| | - Yudou Cheng
- Institute of Genetics and Physiology, Hebei Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
- Plant Genetic Engineering Center of Hebei Province, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
| | - Junfeng Guan
- Institute of Genetics and Physiology, Hebei Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
- Plant Genetic Engineering Center of Hebei Province, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
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14
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Campbell AA, Stenback KE, Flyckt K, Hoang T, Perera MADN, Nikolau BJ. A single-cell platform for reconstituting and characterizing fatty acid elongase component enzymes. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0213620. [PMID: 30856216 PMCID: PMC6411113 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0213620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Fatty acids of more than 18-carbons, generally known as very long chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) are essential for eukaryotic cell viability, and uniquely in terrestrial plants they are the precursors of the cuticular lipids that form the organism's outer barrier to the environment. VLCFAs are synthesized by fatty acid elongase (FAE), which is an integral membrane enzyme system with multiple components. The genetic complexity of the FAE system, and its membrane association has hampered the biochemical characterization of FAE. In this study we computationally identified Zea mays genetic sequences that encode the enzymatic components of FAE and developed a heterologous expression system to evaluate their functionality. The ability of the maize components to genetically complement Saccharomyces cerevisiae lethal mutants confirmed the functionality of ZmKCS4, ZmELO1, ZmKCR1, ZmKCR2, ZmHCD and ZmECR, and the VLCFA profiles of the resulting strains were used to infer the ability of each enzyme component to determine the product profile of FAE. These characterizations indicate that the product profile of the FAE system is an attribute shared among the KCS, ELO, and KCR components of FAE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis A. Campbell
- Roy J Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- Center for Metabolic Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- NSF-Engineering Research Center for Biorenewable Chemicals, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Kenna E. Stenback
- Roy J Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- NSF-Engineering Research Center for Biorenewable Chemicals, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Kayla Flyckt
- Roy J Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- NSF-Engineering Research Center for Biorenewable Chemicals, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Trang Hoang
- Roy J Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- NSF-Engineering Research Center for Biorenewable Chemicals, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - M Ann DN Perera
- W.M. Keck Metabolomics Research Laboratory, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Basil J. Nikolau
- Roy J Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- Center for Metabolic Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- NSF-Engineering Research Center for Biorenewable Chemicals, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- W.M. Keck Metabolomics Research Laboratory, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
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15
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Zheng J, He C, Qin Y, Lin G, Park WD, Sun M, Li J, Lu X, Zhang C, Yeh CT, Gunasekara CJ, Zeng E, Wei H, Schnable PS, Wang G, Liu S. Co-expression analysis aids in the identification of genes in the cuticular wax pathway in maize. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2019; 97:530-542. [PMID: 30375131 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.14140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2018] [Revised: 10/09/2018] [Accepted: 10/22/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Epicuticular waxes provide a hydrophobic barrier that protects land plants from environmental stresses. To elucidate the molecular functions of maize glossy mutants that reduce the accumulation of epicuticular waxes, eight non-allelic glossy mutants were subjected to transcriptomic comparisons with their respective wild-type siblings. Transcriptomic comparisons identified 2279 differentially expressed (DE) genes. Other glossy genes tended to be down-regulated in glossy mutants; by contrast stress-responsive pathways were induced in mutants. Gene co-expression network (GCN) analysis found that glossy genes were clustered, suggestive of co-regulation. Genes that potentially regulate the accumulation of glossy gene transcripts were identified via a pathway level co-expression analysis. Expression data from diverse organs showed that maize glossy genes are generally active in young leaves, silks, and tassels, while largely inactive in seeds and roots. Through reverse genetics, a DE gene homologous to Arabidopsis CER8 and co-expressed with known glossy genes was confirmed to participate in epicuticular wax accumulation. GCN data-informed forward genetics approach enabled cloning of the gl14 gene, which encodes a putative membrane-associated protein. Our results deepen understanding of the transcriptional regulation of the genes involved in the accumulation of epicuticular wax, and provide two maize glossy genes and a number of candidate genes for further characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Zheng
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Cheng He
- Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA
| | - Yang Qin
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Guifang Lin
- Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA
| | - Woojun D Park
- Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA
| | - Minghao Sun
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
- College of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin, 130118, China
| | - Jian Li
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
- College of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin, 130118, China
| | - Xiaoduo Lu
- Institute of Molecular Breeding for Maize, Qilu Normal University, Jinan, 250200, China
| | - Chunyi Zhang
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Cheng-Ting Yeh
- Department of Agronomy, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, 50011-3605, USA
| | - Chathura J Gunasekara
- USDA/ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Erliang Zeng
- Division of Biostatistics and Computational Biology, College of Dentistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Hairong Wei
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Tree Breeding by Molecular Design, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China
- School of Forest Resources and Environmental Science, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, 49931, USA
| | - Patrick S Schnable
- Department of Agronomy, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, 50011-3605, USA
| | - Guoying Wang
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Sanzhen Liu
- Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA
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16
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Mimura M, Kudo T, Wu S, McCarty DR, Suzuki M. Autonomous and non-autonomous functions of the maize Shohai1 gene, encoding a RWP-RK putative transcription factor, in regulation of embryo and endosperm development. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 95:892-908. [PMID: 29901832 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.13996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Revised: 05/30/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
In plants, establishment of the basic body plan during embryogenesis involves complex processes of axis formation, cell fate specification and organ differentiation. While molecular mechanisms of embryogenesis have been well studied in the eudicot Arabidopsis, only a small number of genes regulating embryogenesis has been identified in grass species. Here, we show that a RKD-type RWP-RK transcription factor encoded by Shohai1 (Shai1) is indispensable for embryo and endosperm development in maize. Loss of Shai1 function causes variable morphological defects in the embryo including small scutellum, shoot axis bifurcation and arrest during early organogenesis. Analysis of molecular markers in mutant embryos reveals disturbed patterning of gene expression and altered polar auxin transport. In contrast with typical embryo-defective (emb) mutants that expose a vacant embryo pocket in the endosperm, the endosperm of shai1 kernels conforms to the varied size and shape of the embryo. Furthermore, genetic analysis confirms that Shai1 is required for autonomous formation of the embryo pocket in endosperm of emb mutants. Analyses of genetic mosaic kernels generated by B-A translocation revealed that expression of Shai1 in the endosperm could partially rescue a shai1 mutant embryo and suggested that Shai1 is involved in non-cell autonomous signaling from endosperm that supports normal embryo growth. Taken together, we propose that the Shai1 gene functions in regulating embryonic patterning during grass embryogenesis partly by endosperm-to-embryo interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manaki Mimura
- Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Toru Kudo
- Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Shan Wu
- Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Donald R McCarty
- Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Masaharu Suzuki
- Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
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17
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Liu D, Dong X, Liu Z, Tang J, Zhuang M, Zhang Y, Lv H, Liu Y, Li Z, Fang Z, Yang L. Fine Mapping and Candidate Gene Identification for Wax Biosynthesis Locus, BoWax1 in Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:309. [PMID: 29760714 PMCID: PMC5937124 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.00309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Cuticular waxes play important roles in plant protection against various biotic and abiotic environmental stresses. The cuticular wax covering gives normal cabbage a glaucous appearance, but the appearance of waxless mutant is glossy green. Based on the present study, inheritance of the glossy green character of mutant HUAYOU2 follows a simple recessive pattern. Genetic analysis of an F2 population comprising 808 recessive individuals derived from HUAYOU2 (P1, maternal parent) and M36 (P2, paternal parent) revealed that a single recessive locus, BoWax1 (Brassica oleracea Wax 1), controls glossy green trait in B. oleracea. This locus was mapped to a region of 158.5 kb on chromosome C01. Based on nucleotide sequence analysis, Bol013612 was identified as the candidate gene for BoWax1. Sequencing results demonstrated that there is a deletion mutation of two nucleotides in the cDNA of Bol013612 of HUAYOU2, which may account for its glossy green trait. These results lay the foundation for functional analysis of BoWax1 and may accelerate research on wax metabolism in cabbage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongming Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, The Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Open Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Physiology and Genetic Improvement, High School of Henan Province, College of Horticulture, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
- Institute of Horticulture, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xin Dong
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, The Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zezhou Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, The Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jun Tang
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, The Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Mu Zhuang
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, The Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yangyong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, The Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Honghao Lv
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, The Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yumei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, The Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhansheng Li
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, The Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhiyuan Fang
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, The Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Limei Yang
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, The Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
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18
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Li C, Haslam TM, Krüger A, Schneider LM, Mishina K, Samuels L, Yang H, Kunst L, Schaffrath U, Nawrath C, Chen G, Komatsuda T, von Wettstein-Knowles P. The β-Ketoacyl-CoA Synthase HvKCS1, Encoded by Cer-zh, Plays a Key Role in Synthesis of Barley Leaf Wax and Germination of Barley Powdery Mildew. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 59:806-822. [PMID: 29401261 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcy020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2018] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The cuticle coats the primary aerial surfaces of land plants. It consists of cutin and waxes, which provide protection against desiccation, pathogens and herbivores. Acyl cuticular waxes are synthesized via elongase complexes that extend fatty acyl precursors up to 38 carbons for downstream modification pathways. The leaves of 21 barley eceriferum (cer) mutants appear to have less or no epicuticular wax crystals, making these mutants excellent tools for identifying elongase and modification pathway biosynthetic genes. Positional cloning of the gene mutated in cer-zh identified an elongase component, β-ketoacyl-CoA synthase (CER-ZH/HvKCS1) that is one of 34 homologous KCSs encoded by the barley genome. The biochemical function of CER-ZH was deduced from wax and cutin analyses and by heterologous expression in yeast. Combined, these experiments revealed that CER-ZH/HvKCS1 has a substrate specificity for C16-C20, especially unsaturated, acyl chains, thus playing a major role in total acyl chain elongation for wax biosynthesis. The contribution of CER-ZH to water barrier properties of the cuticle and its influence on the germination of barley powdery mildew fungus were also assessed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Li
- Laboratory of Plant Stress Ecophysiology and Biotechnology, Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
- National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8602 Japan
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai 201602, China
| | - Tegan M Haslam
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Anna Krüger
- Department of Plant Physiology, Rheinisch-Westfaelische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, D-52056 Aachen, Germany
| | - Lizette M Schneider
- Section for Biomolecular Sciences, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, DK-2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark
- Department of Biology, University of Lund, SW-22362 Lund, Sweden
| | - Kohei Mishina
- National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8602 Japan
| | - Lacey Samuels
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Hongxing Yang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai 201602, China
| | - Ljerka Kunst
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Ulrich Schaffrath
- Department of Plant Physiology, Rheinisch-Westfaelische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, D-52056 Aachen, Germany
| | - Christiane Nawrath
- Department of Plant Molecular Biology, University of Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Guoxiong Chen
- Laboratory of Plant Stress Ecophysiology and Biotechnology, Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Takao Komatsuda
- National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8602 Japan
| | - Penny von Wettstein-Knowles
- Section for Biomolecular Sciences, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, DK-2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark
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Liu D, Tang J, Liu Z, Dong X, Zhuang M, Zhang Y, Lv H, Sun P, Liu Y, Li Z, Ye Z, Fang Z, Yang L. Cgl2 plays an essential role in cuticular wax biosynthesis in cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata). BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2017; 17:223. [PMID: 29179675 PMCID: PMC5704555 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-017-1162-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aerial parts of most land plants are covered with cuticular wax which is important for plants to avoid harmful factors. There is still no cloning study about wax synthesis gene of the alcohol-forming pathway in Brassica species. RESULTS Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that, compared with wild type (WT), wax crystal are severely reduced in both the adaxial and abaxial sides of cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata L.) leaves from the LD10GL mutant. Genetic analysis results revealed that the glossy trait of LD10GL is controlled by a single recessive gene, and fine mapping results revealed that the target gene Cgl2 (Cabbage glossy 2) is located within a physical region of 170 kb on chromosome 1. Based on sequence analysis of the genes in the mapped region, the gene designated Bol013612 was speculated to be the candidate gene. Gene Bol013612 is homologous to Arabidopsis CER4, which encodes fatty acyl-coenzyme A reductase. Sequencing identified a single nucleotide substitution at an intron/exon boundary that results in an insertion of six nucleotides in the cDNA of Bol013612 in LD10GL. The phenotypic defect of LD10GL was confirmed by a functional complementation test with Arabidopsis mutant cer4. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicated that wax crystals of cabbage mutant LD10GL are severely reduced and mutation of gene Bol013612 causes a glossy phenotype in the LD10GL mutant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongming Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, MOA, the Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081 China
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, MOE, Key Laboratory of Horticultural Crop Biology and Genetic Improvement, MOA, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 China
| | - Jun Tang
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, MOA, the Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081 China
| | - Zezhou Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, MOA, the Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081 China
| | - Xin Dong
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, MOA, the Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081 China
| | - Mu Zhuang
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, MOA, the Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081 China
| | - Yangyong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, MOA, the Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081 China
| | - Honghao Lv
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, MOA, the Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081 China
| | - Peitian Sun
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, MOA, the Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081 China
| | - Yumei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, MOA, the Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081 China
| | - Zhansheng Li
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, MOA, the Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081 China
| | - Zhibiao Ye
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, MOE, Key Laboratory of Horticultural Crop Biology and Genetic Improvement, MOA, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 China
| | - Zhiyuan Fang
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, MOA, the Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081 China
| | - Limei Yang
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, MOA, the Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081 China
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Loneman DM, Peddicord L, Al-Rashid A, Nikolau BJ, Lauter N, Yandeau-Nelson MD. A robust and efficient method for the extraction of plant extracellular surface lipids as applied to the analysis of silks and seedling leaves of maize. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0180850. [PMID: 28700694 PMCID: PMC5507477 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Aerial plant organs possess a diverse array of extracellular surface lipids, including both non-polar and amphipathic constituents that collectively provide a primary line of defense against environmental stressors. Extracellular surface lipids on the stigmatic silks of maize are composed primarily of saturated and unsaturated linear hydrocarbons, as well as fatty acids, and aldehydes. To efficiently extract lipids of differing polarities from maize silks, five solvent systems (hexanes; hexanes:diethyl ether (95:5); hexanes:diethyl ether (90:10); chloroform:hexanes (1:1) and chloroform) were tested by immersing fresh silks in solvent for different extraction times. Surface lipid recovery and the relative composition of individual constituents were impacted to varying degrees depending on solvent choice and duration of extraction. Analyses were performed using both silks and leaves to demonstrate the utility of the solvent- and time-optimized protocol in comparison to extraction with the commonly used chloroform solvent. Overall, the preferred solvent system was identified as hexanes:diethyl ether (90:10), based on its effectiveness in extracting surface hydrocarbons and fatty acids as well as its reduced propensity to extract presumed internal fatty acids. Metabolite profiling of wildtype and glossy1 seedlings, which are impaired in surface lipid biosynthesis, demonstrated the ability of the preferred solvent to extract extracellular surface lipids rich in amphipathic compounds (aldehydes and alcohols). In addition to the expected deficiencies in dotriacontanal and dotriacontan-1-ol for gl1 seedlings, an unexpected increase in fatty acid recovery was observed in gl1 seedlings extracted in chloroform, suggesting that chloroform extracts lipids from internal tissues of gl1 seedlings. This highlights the importance of extraction method when evaluating mutants that have altered cuticular lipid compositions. Finally, metabolite profiling of silks from maize inbreds B73 and Mo17, exposed to different environments and harvested at different ages, revealed differences in hydrocarbon and fatty acid composition, demonstrating the dynamic nature of surface lipid accumulation on silks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek M. Loneman
- Department of Genetics, Development & Cell Biology, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- NSF-Engineering Research Center for Biorenewable Chemicals, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Layton Peddicord
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- Interdepartmental Genetics & Genomics Graduate Program, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Amani Al-Rashid
- Department of Genetics, Development & Cell Biology, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- Young Engineers and Scientists Research Program for high school students, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Basil J. Nikolau
- NSF-Engineering Research Center for Biorenewable Chemicals, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- Interdepartmental Genetics & Genomics Graduate Program, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics & Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- Center for Metabolic Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Nick Lauter
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- Interdepartmental Genetics & Genomics Graduate Program, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- USDA-ARS, Corn Insects and Crop Genetics Research Unit, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Marna D. Yandeau-Nelson
- Department of Genetics, Development & Cell Biology, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- NSF-Engineering Research Center for Biorenewable Chemicals, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- Interdepartmental Genetics & Genomics Graduate Program, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- Center for Metabolic Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Yu H, Zhang Y, Xie Y, Wang Y, Duan L, Zhang M, Li Z. Ethephon improved drought tolerance in maize seedlings by modulating cuticular wax biosynthesis and membrane stability. JOURNAL OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2017; 214:123-133. [PMID: 28482333 DOI: 10.1016/j.jplph.2017.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2016] [Revised: 04/17/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Cuticular wax is the outermost thin hydrophobic layer covering the surface of aerial plant parts, which provides a primary waterproof barrier and protection against different environmental stresses. The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of ethephon, as an ethylene-releasing compound, in counteracting drought stress by modulating cuticular wax biosynthesis, water balance, and antioxidant regulation in maize seedlings. Our results showed that ethephon significantly increased the ethylene evolution rate, regulate the expression of cuticular wax synthesis regulatory gene ZmERE and the wax biosynthetic genes ZmGL1, ZmGL15, ZmFDH1, and ZmFAE1, and promote cuticular wax accumulation in maize seedlings under normal or drought stress conditions. Moreover, ethephon was shown to might markedly reduce water loss and chlorophyll leaching in leaves, and maintain higher relative water content and leaf water potential under drought stress. Ethephon significantly decreased malondialdehyde and hydrogen peroxide concentrations and electrolyte leakage, but increased the accumulation of proline and the activities of SOD, POD, and CAT. In addition, ethephon resulted in an increase in the ratio of root and shoot under drought stress. These results indicated that ethephon could improve maize performance under drought stress by modulating cuticular wax synthesis to maintain water status and membrane stability for plant growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiyue Yu
- Engineering Research Center of Plant Growth Regulator, Ministry of Education, Department of Agronomy, College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, No.2 Yuanmingyuanxilu, Haidian, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Yushi Zhang
- Engineering Research Center of Plant Growth Regulator, Ministry of Education, Department of Agronomy, College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, No.2 Yuanmingyuanxilu, Haidian, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Yan Xie
- Engineering Research Center of Plant Growth Regulator, Ministry of Education, Department of Agronomy, College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, No.2 Yuanmingyuanxilu, Haidian, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Yubin Wang
- Engineering Research Center of Plant Growth Regulator, Ministry of Education, Department of Agronomy, College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, No.2 Yuanmingyuanxilu, Haidian, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Liusheng Duan
- Engineering Research Center of Plant Growth Regulator, Ministry of Education, Department of Agronomy, College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, No.2 Yuanmingyuanxilu, Haidian, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Mingcai Zhang
- Engineering Research Center of Plant Growth Regulator, Ministry of Education, Department of Agronomy, College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, No.2 Yuanmingyuanxilu, Haidian, Beijing 100193, PR China.
| | - Zhaohu Li
- Engineering Research Center of Plant Growth Regulator, Ministry of Education, Department of Agronomy, College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, No.2 Yuanmingyuanxilu, Haidian, Beijing 100193, PR China
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Mustafa G, Sakata K, Komatsu S. Proteomic analysis of soybean root exposed to varying sizes of silver nanoparticles under flooding stress. J Proteomics 2016; 148:113-25. [PMID: 27469891 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2016.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2016] [Revised: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 07/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) are excessively used as antibacterial agents; however, environmental interaction specifically with the plants remain uncertain. To study the size-dependent effects of Ag-NPs on soybean under flooding, a proteomic technique was used. Morphological analysis revealed that treatment with Ag-NPs of 15nm promoted soybean growth under flooding compared to 2 and 50-80nm. A total of 228 common proteins that significantly changed in abundance under flooding without and with Ag-NPs of 2, 15, and 50-80nm. Under varying sizes of Ag-NPs, number of protein synthesis related proteins decreased compared to flooding while number of amino acid synthesis related proteins were increased under Ag-NPs of 15nm. Hierarchical clustering identified the ribosomal proteins that increased under Ag-NPs of 15nm while decreased under other sizes. In silico protein-protein interaction indicated the beta ketoacyl reducatse 1 as the most interacted protein under Ag-NPs of 15nm while least interacted under other sizes. The beta ketoacyl reductase 1 was up-regulated under Ag-NPs of 15nm while its enzyme activity was decreased. These results suggest that the different sizes of Ag-NPs might affect the soybean growth under flooding by regulating the proteins related to amino acid synthesis and wax formation. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE This study highlighted the response of soybean proteins towards varying sizes of Ag NPs under flooding stress using gel-free proteomic technique. The Ag NPs of 15nm improved the length of root including hypocotyl of soybean. The proteins related to protein metabolism, cell division/organization, and amino acid metabolism were differentially changed under the varying sizes of Ag NPs. The protein synthesis-related proteins were decreased while amino acid metabolism-related proteins were increased under varying sizes of Ag NPs. The ribosomal proteins were increased under Ag NPs of 15nm. The beta ketoacyl reductase 1 was identified as the most interacted protein under varying sizes of Ag NPs. The mRNA expression level of beta ketoacyl reductase was up-regulated under Ag NPs of 15nm while its activity was decreased. These results suggest that the Ag NPs of 15nm improved the soybean growth under flooding stress by increasing the proteins related to amino acid synthesis and waxes formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghazala Mustafa
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Science, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba 305-8572, Japan; National Institute of Crop Science, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba 305-8518, Japan
| | - Katsumi Sakata
- Department of Life Science and Informatics, Maebashi Institute of Technology, Maebashi 371-0816, Japan
| | - Setsuko Komatsu
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Science, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba 305-8572, Japan; National Institute of Crop Science, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba 305-8518, Japan.
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Gan L, Wang X, Cheng Z, Liu L, Wang J, Zhang Z, Ren Y, Lei C, Zhao Z, Zhu S, Lin Q, Wu F, Guo X, Wang J, Zhang X, Wan J. Wax crystal-sparse leaf 3 encoding a β-ketoacyl-CoA reductase is involved in cuticular wax biosynthesis in rice. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2016; 35:1687-98. [PMID: 27106031 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-016-1983-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
WSL3 encodes β-ketoacyl-CoA reductase (KCR) in rice, in a similar way to YBR159w in yeast, and is essential for VLCFA biosynthesis and leaf wax accumulation. Cuticular waxes on plant surfaces limit non-stomatal water loss, protect plants against deposits of dust and impose a physical barrier to pathogen infection. We identified a wax-deficient mutant of rice, wax crystal-sparse leaf 3 (wsl3), which exhibits a pleiotropic phenotype that includes reduced epicuticular wax crystals on the leaf surface and altered wax composition. Map-based cloning demonstrated that defects in the mutant were caused by two adjacent single-nucleotide changes in a gene encoding β-ketoacyl-CoA reductase (KCR) that catalyzes the second step of the fatty acid elongation reaction. The identity of WSL3 was further confirmed by genetic complementation. Transient assays of fluorescent protein-tagged WSL3 in tobacco protoplasts showed that WSL3 localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum, the compartment of fatty acid elongation in cells. Quantitative PCR and histochemical staining indicated that WSL3 is universally expressed in tissues. RNA interference of WSL3 caused a phenotype that mimicked the wsl3 mutant. Very long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) 20:0 and 22:0, or 20:1Δ(11) and 22:1Δ(13), were detected when WSL3 and Arabidopsis fatty acid elongation 1 (FAE1) were co-expressed in a yeast ybr159wΔ mutant strain. Our results indicated that WSL3 affects rice cuticular wax production by participating in VLCFA elongation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Gan
- National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Xiaole Wang
- National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Zhijun Cheng
- National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Linglong Liu
- National Key Laboratory for Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Jiangsu Plant Gene Engineering Research Center, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Jiulin Wang
- National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Zhe Zhang
- National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yulong Ren
- National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Cailin Lei
- National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Zhichao Zhao
- National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Shanshan Zhu
- National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Qibing Lin
- National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Fuqing Wu
- National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Xiuping Guo
- National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Jie Wang
- National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Jianmin Wan
- National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China.
- National Key Laboratory for Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Jiangsu Plant Gene Engineering Research Center, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China.
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CFLAP1 and CFLAP2 Are Two bHLH Transcription Factors Participating in Synergistic Regulation of AtCFL1-Mediated Cuticle Development in Arabidopsis. PLoS Genet 2016; 12:e1005744. [PMID: 26745719 PMCID: PMC4706423 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1005744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 11/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
The cuticle is a hydrophobic lipid layer covering the epidermal cells of terrestrial plants. Although many genes involved in Arabidopsis cuticle development have been identified, the transcriptional regulation of these genes is largely unknown. Previously, we demonstrated that AtCFL1 negatively regulates cuticle development by interacting with the HD-ZIP IV transcription factor HDG1. Here, we report that two bHLH transcription factors, AtCFL1 associated protein 1 (CFLAP1) and CFLAP2, are also involved in AtCFL1-mediated regulation of cuticle development. CFLAP1 and CFLAP2 interact with AtCFL1 both in vitro and in vivo. Overexpression of either CFLAP1 or CFLAP2 led to expressional changes of genes involved in fatty acids, cutin and wax biosynthesis pathways and caused multiple cuticle defective phenotypes such as organ fusion, breakage of the cuticle layer and decreased epicuticular wax crystal loading. Functional inactivation of CFLAP1 and CFLAP2 by chimeric repression technology caused opposite phenotypes to the CFLAP1 overexpressor plants. Interestingly, we find that, similar to the transcription factor HDG1, the function of CFLAP1 in cuticle development is dependent on the presence of AtCFL1. Furthermore, both HDG1 and CFLAP1/2 interact with the same C-terminal C4 zinc finger domain of AtCFL1, a domain that is essential for AtCFL1 function. These results suggest that AtCFL1 may serve as a master regulator in the transcriptional regulation of cuticle development, and that CFLAP1 and CFLAP2 are involved in the AtCFL1-mediated regulation pathway, probably through competing with HDG1 to bind to AtCFL1. The cuticle is a continuous lipid layer covering the aerial parts of land plants. It is very important for the plants, especially for those in the drought area. The biosynthesis of cuticle have been studied well in past decades, however, the transcriptional regulation is still largely unknown. Here we found two new bHLH transcription factors, AtCFL1 associated protein 1 (CFLAP1) and its homolog CFLAP2, which could interact with AtCFL1, a previously identified negative regulator of Arabidopsis cuticle formation. Overexpression of CFLAP1 and CFLAP2 caused cuticle developmental defects, which are similar to the phenotypes of AtCFL1 overexpression plants. Functional inactivation of CFLAP1 in Arabidopsis presents opposite phenotypes to those of its overexpressor. Interestingly, the function of CFLAP1 is dependent on the presence of AtCFL1. These results suggest that CFLAP1 and CFLAP2 regulate cuticle development by interacting with AtCFL1, and that AtCFL1 may work as a master regulator in the transcriptional regulation network.
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Zhang Z, Wei W, Zhu H, Challa GS, Bi C, Trick HN, Li W. W3 Is a New Wax Locus That Is Essential for Biosynthesis of β-Diketone, Development of Glaucousness, and Reduction of Cuticle Permeability in Common Wheat. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0140524. [PMID: 26468648 PMCID: PMC4607432 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0140524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The cuticle plays important roles in plant development, growth and defense against biotic and abiotic attacks. Crystallized epicuticular wax, the outermost layer of cuticle, is visible as white-bluish glaucousness. In crops like barley and wheat, glaucousness is trait of adaption to the dry and hot cultivation conditions, and hentriacontane-14,16-dione (β-diketone) and its hydroxy derivatives are the major and unique components of cuticular wax in the upper parts of adult plants. But their biosynthetic pathway and physiological role largely remain unknown. In the present research, we identified a novel wax mutant in wheat cultivar Bobwhite. The mutation is not allelic to the known wax production gene loci W1 and W2, and designated as W3 accordingly. Genetic analysis localized W3 on chromosome arm 2BS. The w3 mutation reduced 99% of β-diketones, which account for 63.3% of the total wax load of the wild-type. W3 is necessary for β-diketone synthesis, but has a different effect on β-diketone hydroxylation because the hydroxy-β-diketones to β-diketone ratio increased 11-fold in the w3 mutant. Loss of β-diketones caused failure to form glaucousness and significant increase of cuticle permeability in terms of water loss and chlorophyll efflux in the w3 mutant. Transcription of 23 cuticle genes from five functional groups was altered in the w3 mutant, 19 down-regulated and four up-regulated, suggesting a possibility that W3 encodes a transcription regulator coordinating expression of cuticle genes. Biosynthesis of β-diketones in wheat and their implications in glaucousness formation and drought and heat tolerance were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengzhi Zhang
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, 57007, United States of America
| | - Wenjie Wei
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, 57007, United States of America
| | - Huilan Zhu
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, 57007, United States of America
| | - Ghana S. Challa
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, 57007, United States of America
| | - Caili Bi
- Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, 66506, United States of America
| | - Harold N. Trick
- Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, 66506, United States of America
| | - Wanlong Li
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, 57007, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Xu C, Tai H, Saleem M, Ludwig Y, Majer C, Berendzen KW, Nagel KA, Wojciechowski T, Meeley RB, Taramino G, Hochholdinger F. Cooperative action of the paralogous maize lateral organ boundaries (LOB) domain proteins RTCS and RTCL in shoot-borne root formation. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2015; 207:1123-33. [PMID: 25902765 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2015] [Accepted: 03/18/2015] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The paralogous maize (Zea mays) LBD (Lateral Organ Boundaries Domain) genes rtcs (rootless concerning crown and seminal roots) and rtcl (rtcs-like) emerged from an ancient whole-genome duplication. RTCS is a key regulator of crown root initiation. The diversity of expression, molecular interaction and phenotype of rtcs and rtcl were investigated. The rtcs and rtcl genes display highly correlated spatio-temporal expression patterns in roots, despite the significantly higher expression of rtcs. Both RTCS and RTCL proteins bind to LBD downstream promoters and act as transcription factors. In line with its auxin inducibility and binding to auxin response elements of rtcs and rtcl promoters, ARF34 (AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR 34) acts as transcriptional activator. Yeast two-hybrid screening combined with bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) experiments revealed conserved and unique interaction partners of RTCS and RTCL. The rtcl mutation leads to defective shoot-borne root elongation early in development. Cooperative action of RTCS and RTCL during shoot-borne root formation was demonstrated by rtcs-dependent repression of rtcl transcription in coleoptilar nodes. Although RTCS is instrumental in shoot-borne root initiation, RTCL controls shoot-borne root elongation early in development. Their conserved role in auxin signaling, but diverse function in shoot-borne root formation, is underscored by their conserved and unique interaction partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changzheng Xu
- INRES, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation, Crop Functional Genomics, University of Bonn, 53113, Bonn, Germany
- RCBB, Research Center of Bioenergy and Bioremediation, College of Resources and Environment, Southwest University, 400716, Chongqing, China
| | - Huanhuan Tai
- INRES, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation, Crop Functional Genomics, University of Bonn, 53113, Bonn, Germany
| | - Muhammad Saleem
- INRES, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation, Crop Functional Genomics, University of Bonn, 53113, Bonn, Germany
| | - Yvonne Ludwig
- INRES, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation, Crop Functional Genomics, University of Bonn, 53113, Bonn, Germany
| | - Christine Majer
- ZMBP, Center for Plant Molecular Biology, General Genetics, University of Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Kenneth W Berendzen
- ZMBP, Center for Plant Molecular Biology, Central Facilities, University of Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Kerstin A Nagel
- IBG-2, Plant Sciences, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425, Jülich, Germany
| | | | - Robert B Meeley
- DuPont Pioneer Ag Biotech Research, Johnston, IA, 50131-1004, USA
| | - Graziana Taramino
- DuPont Crop Genetics Research, Experimental Station, Wilmington, DE, 19880-0353, USA
| | - Frank Hochholdinger
- INRES, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation, Crop Functional Genomics, University of Bonn, 53113, Bonn, Germany
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Lee SB, Suh MC. Advances in the understanding of cuticular waxes in Arabidopsis thaliana and crop species. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2015; 34:557-72. [PMID: 25693495 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-015-1772-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2015] [Accepted: 02/10/2015] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The aerial parts of plants are covered with a cuticle, a hydrophobic layer consisting of cutin polyester and cuticular waxes that protects them from various environmental stresses. Cuticular waxes mainly comprise very long chain fatty acids and their derivatives such as aldehydes, alkanes, secondary alcohols, ketones, primary alcohols, and wax esters that are also important raw materials for the production of lubricants, adhesives, cosmetics, and biofuels. The major function of cuticular waxes is to control non-stomatal water loss and gas exchange. In recent years, the in planta roles of many genes involved in cuticular wax biosynthesis have been characterized not only from model organisms like Arabidopsis thaliana and saltwater cress (Eutrema salsugineum), but also crop plants including maize, rice, wheat, tomato, petunia, Medicago sativa, Medicago truncatula, rapeseed, and Camelina sativa through genetic, biochemical, molecular, genomic, and cell biological approaches. In this review, we discuss recent advances in the understanding of the biological functions of genes involved in cuticular wax biosynthesis, transport, and regulation of wax deposition from Arabidopsis and crop species, provide information on cuticular wax amounts and composition in various organs of nine representative plant species, and suggest the important issues that need to be investigated in this field of study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saet Buyl Lee
- Department of Bioenergy Science and Technology, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Korea
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29
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Liu Q, Wen C, Zhao H, Zhang L, Wang J, Wang Y. RNA-Seq reveals leaf cuticular wax-related genes in Welsh onion. PLoS One 2014; 9:e113290. [PMID: 25415343 PMCID: PMC4240658 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0113290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2014] [Accepted: 10/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The waxy cuticle plays a very important role in plant resistance to various biotic and abiotic stresses and is an important characteristic of Welsh onions. Two different types of biangan Welsh onions (BG) were selected for this study: BG, a wild-type covered by wax, which forms a continuous lipid membrane on its epidermal cells, and GLBG, a glossy mutant of BG whose epidermal cells are not covered by wax. To elucidate the waxy cuticle-related gene expression changes, we used RNA-Seq to compare these two Welsh onion varieties with distinct differences in cuticular wax. The de novo assembly yielded 42,881 putative unigenes, 25.41% of which are longer than 1,000 bp. Among the high-quality unique sequences, 22,289 (52.0%) had at least one significant match to an existing gene model. A total of 798 genes, representing 1.86% of the total putative unigenes, were differentially expressed between these two Welsh onion varieties. The expression patterns of four important unigenes that are related to waxy cuticle biosynthesis were confirmed by RT-qPCR and COG class annotation, which demonstrated that these genes play an important role in defense mechanisms and lipid transport and metabolism. To our knowledge, this study is the first exploration of the Welsh onion waxy cuticle. These results may help to reveal the molecular mechanisms underlying the waxy cuticle and will be useful for waxy gene cloning, genetics and breeding as well as phylogenetic and evolutionary studies of the Welsh onion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianchun Liu
- Beijing Vegetable Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences/Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (North China), Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100097, P.R. China
| | - Changlong Wen
- Beijing Vegetable Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences/Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (North China), Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100097, P.R. China
| | - Hong Zhao
- Beijing Vegetable Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences/Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (North China), Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100097, P.R. China
| | - Liying Zhang
- Beijing Vegetable Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences/Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (North China), Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100097, P.R. China
| | - Jian Wang
- Beijing Vegetable Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences/Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (North China), Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100097, P.R. China
| | - Yongqin Wang
- Beijing Vegetable Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences/Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (North China), Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100097, P.R. China
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30
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Mertz RA, Brutnell TP. Bundle sheath suberization in grass leaves: multiple barriers to characterization. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2014; 65:3371-80. [PMID: 24659485 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eru108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
High-yielding, stress-tolerant grass crops are essential to meet future food and energy demands. Efforts are underway to engineer improved varieties of the C3 cereal crop rice by introducing NADP-malic enzyme C4 photosynthesis using maize as a model system. However, several modifications to the rice leaf vasculature are potentially necessary, including the introduction of suberin lamellae into the bundle sheath cell walls. Suberized cell walls are ubiquitous in the root endodermis of all grasses, and developmental similarities are apparent between endodermis and bundle sheath cell walls. Nonetheless, there is considerable heterogeneity in sheath cell development and suberin composition both within and between grass taxa. The effect of this variation on physiological function remains ambiguous over forty years after suberin lamellae were initially proposed to regulate solute and photoassimilate fluxes and C4 gas exchange. Interspecies variation has confounded efforts to ascribe physiological differences specifically to the presence or absence of suberin lamellae. Thus, specific perturbation of suberization within a uniform genetic background is needed, but, until recently, the genetic resources to manipulate suberin composition in the grasses were largely unavailable. The recent dissection of the suberin biosynthesis pathway in model dicots and the identification of several promising candidate genes in model grasses will facilitate the characterization of the first suberin biosynthesis genes in a monocot. Much remains to be learned about the role of bundle sheath suberization in leaf physiology, but the stage is set for significant advances in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel A Mertz
- Department of Plant Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St Louis, MO 63132, USA
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Putative megaenzyme DWA1 plays essential roles in drought resistance by regulating stress-induced wax deposition in rice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:17790-5. [PMID: 24127586 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1316412110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Drought stress is a major limiting factor for crop production. Cuticular wax plays an important role in preventing water loss from drought stress. However, the genetic control of cuticular wax deposition under drought stress conditions has not been characterized. Here, we identified a rice gene Drought-Induced Wax Accumulation 1 (DWA1) encoding a very large protein (2,391 aa in length) containing multiple enzymatic structures, including an oxidoreductase-like domain; a prokaryotic nonribosomal peptide synthetase-like module, including an AMP-binding domain; and an allene oxide synthase-like domain. This previously unreported putative megaenzyme is conserved in vascular plants. A dwa1 KO mutant was highly sensitive to drought stress relative to the WT. DWA1 was preferentially expressed in vascular tissues and epidermal layers and strongly induced by drought stress. The dwa1 mutant was impaired in cuticular wax accumulation under drought stress, which significantly altered the cuticular wax composition of the plant, resulting in increased drought sensitivity. The mutant had reduced levels of very-long-chain fatty acids, and plants overexpressing DWA1 showed elevated levels of very-long-chain fatty acids relative to the WT. The expression of many wax-related genes was significantly suppressed in dwa1 under drought conditions. The AMP-binding domain exhibited in vitro enzymatic activity in activating long-chain fatty acids to form acyl-CoA. Our results suggest that DWA1 controls drought resistance by regulating drought-induced cuticular wax deposition in rice. This finding may have significant implications for improving the drought resistance of crop varieties.
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32
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Haslam TM, Kunst L. Extending the story of very-long-chain fatty acid elongation. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2013; 210:93-107. [PMID: 23849117 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2013.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2013] [Revised: 05/01/2013] [Accepted: 05/03/2013] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) are essential molecules produced by all plant cells, and are components or precursors of numerous specialized metabolites synthesized in specific cell types. VLCFAs are elongated by an endoplasmic reticulum-localized fatty acid elongation complex of four core enzymes, which sequentially add two carbon units to a growing acyl chain. Identification and characterization of these enzymes in Arabidopsis thaliana has revealed that three of the four enzymes act as generalists, contributing to all metabolic pathways that require VLCFAs. A fourth component, the condensing enzyme, provides substrate specificity and determines the amount of product synthesized by the entire complex. Land plants have two families of condensing enzymes, FATTY ACID ELONGATION 1 (FAE1)-type ketoacyl-CoA synthases (KCSs) and ELONGATION DEFECTIVE-LIKEs (ELO-LIKEs). Our current knowledge of the specific roles of different condensing enzymes is incomplete, as is our understanding of the biological function of a recently characterized family of proteins, CER2-LIKEs, which contribute to condensing enzyme function. More broadly, the stoichiometry and quaternary structure of the fatty acid elongase complex remains poorly understood, and specific phylogenetic and biochemical questions persist for each component of the complex. Investigation of VLCFA elongation in different organisms, structural biochemistry, and cell biology approaches stand to greatly benefit this field of plant biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tegan M Haslam
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, 3529-6270 University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Zhou L, Ni E, Yang J, Zhou H, Liang H, Li J, Jiang D, Wang Z, Liu Z, Zhuang C. Rice OsGL1-6 is involved in leaf cuticular wax accumulation and drought resistance. PLoS One 2013; 8:e65139. [PMID: 23741473 PMCID: PMC3669293 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0065139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 04/23/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cuticular wax is a class of organic compounds that comprises the outermost layer of plant surfaces. Plant cuticular wax, the last barrier of self-defense, plays an important role in plant growth and development. The OsGL1-6 gene, a member of the fatty aldehyde decarbonylase gene family, is highly homologous to Arabidopsis CER1, which is involved in cuticular wax biosynthesis. However, whether OsGL1-6 participates in cuticular wax biosynthesis remains unknown. In this study, an OsGL1-6 antisense-RNA vector driven by its own promoter was constructed and introduced into the rice variety Zhonghua11 by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation to obtain several independent transgenic plants with decreased OsGL1-6 expression. These OsGL1-6 antisense-RNA transgenic plants showed droopy leaves at the booting stage, significantly decreased leaf cuticular wax deposition, thinner cuticle membrane, increased chlorophyll leaching and water loss rates, and enhanced drought sensitivity. The OsGL1-6 gene was constitutively expressed in all examined organs and was very highly expressed in leaf epidermal cells and vascular bundles. The transient expression of OsGL1-6-GFP fusion indicated that OsGL1-6 is localized in the endoplasmic reticulum. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of the wax composition using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry revealed a significantly reduced total cuticular wax load on the leaf blades of the OsGL1-6 antisense-RNA transgenic plants as well as markedly decreased alkane and aldehyde contents. Their primary alcohol contents increased significantly compared with those in the wild type plants, suggesting that OsGL1-6 is associated with the decarbonylation pathways in wax biosynthesis. We propose that OsGL1-6 is involved in the accumulation of leaf cuticular wax and directly impacts drought resistance in rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingyan Zhou
- Laboratory Center of Basic Biology and Biotechnology, Education Department of Guangdong Province, College of Life Sciences, Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
| | - Erdong Ni
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jiawei Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hai Zhou
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hong Liang
- Laboratory Center of Basic Biology and Biotechnology, Education Department of Guangdong Province, College of Life Sciences, Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jing Li
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
| | - Dagang Jiang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhonghua Wang
- College of Agronomy, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shanxi, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhenlan Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chuxiong Zhuang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
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Tsuda K, Akiba T, Kimura F, Ishibashi M, Moriya C, Nakagawa K, Kurata N, Ito Y. ONION2 fatty acid elongase is required for shoot development in rice. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2013; 54:209-17. [PMID: 23220821 PMCID: PMC3583024 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcs169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
A plant's surface is covered with epicuticular wax, which protects plants from inappropriate environmental conditions such as drought and pathogen attack. Very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) are the main component of epicuticular wax on the surface of above-ground organs. Here we show that a fatty acid elongase catalyzing an elongation reaction of VLCFAs is required for shoot development in rice. onion2 (oni2) mutants produced very small shoots in which leaves were fused to each other, and ceased growing after germination. The midrib of oni2 leaf blades was not developed correctly. Molecular cloning showed that ONI2 encodes a fatty acid elongase, which catalyzes the first step of elongation reactions of a carbon chain of VLCFAs, and oni2 had a reduced amount of VLCFAs. Expression analysis showed that ONI2 is specifically expressed in the outermost cell layer of young lateral organs. These results suggest that ONI2 is a layer 1-specific gene required for development of the entire shoot and that VLCFAs play an essential role in normal shoot development in rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsutoshi Tsuda
- Plant Genetics Laboratory, National Institute of Genetics, 1111 Yata, Mishima, Shizuoka-ken, 411-8540 Japan
- Present address: Plant Gene Expression Center, US Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Plant and Microbial Biology Department, University of California, Albany, CA 94710, USA
| | - Takafumi Akiba
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 1-1 Tsutsumidori-Amamiyamachi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 981-8555 Japan
| | - Fumiko Kimura
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 1-1 Tsutsumidori-Amamiyamachi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 981-8555 Japan
| | - Mayu Ishibashi
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 1-1 Tsutsumidori-Amamiyamachi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 981-8555 Japan
- Present address: Miyagi Prefecture Furukawa Agricultural Experiment Station, 88 Fukoku Osaki, Furukawa, Osaki, Miyagi-ken, 989-6227 Japan
| | - Chihiro Moriya
- Sendai Shirayuri Gakuen High School, 1-2-1 Murasakiyama, Izumi-ku, Sendai, 981-3205 Japan
| | - Kiyotaka Nakagawa
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 1-1 Tsutsumidori-Amamiyamachi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 981-8555 Japan
| | - Nori Kurata
- Plant Genetics Laboratory, National Institute of Genetics, 1111 Yata, Mishima, Shizuoka-ken, 411-8540 Japan
- Department of Genetics, School of Life Science, Graduate University for Advanced Studies, 1111 Yata, Mishima, Shizuoka-ken, 411-8540 Japan
- *Corresponding authors: Yukihiro Ito, E-mail, ; Fax, +81-22-717-8834; Nori Kurata, E-mail, ; Fax: +81-55-981-6872
| | - Yukihiro Ito
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 1-1 Tsutsumidori-Amamiyamachi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 981-8555 Japan
- *Corresponding authors: Yukihiro Ito, E-mail, ; Fax, +81-22-717-8834; Nori Kurata, E-mail, ; Fax: +81-55-981-6872
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Zhang Z, Wang W, Li W. Genetic interactions underlying the biosynthesis and inhibition of β-diketones in wheat and their impact on glaucousness and cuticle permeability. PLoS One 2013; 8:e54129. [PMID: 23349804 PMCID: PMC3547958 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0054129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2012] [Accepted: 12/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Cuticular wax composition greatly impacts plant responses to dehydration. Two parallel pathways exist in Triticeae for manipulating wax composition: the acyl elongation, reduction, and decarbonylation pathway that is active at the vegetative stage and yields primary alcohols and alkanes, and the β-diketone pathway that predominates at the reproductive stage and synthesizes β-diketones. Variation in glaucousness during the reproductive stage of wheat is mainly controlled by the wax production genes, W1 and W2, and wax inhibitor genes, Iw1 and Iw2. Little is known about the metabolic and physiological effects of the genetic interactions among these genes and their roles in shifting wax composition during plant development. We characterized the effect of W1, W2, Iw1, and Iw2 and analyzed their interaction using a set of six near-isogenic lines (NILs) by metabolic, molecular and physiological approaches. Loss of functional alleles of both W genes or the presence of either Iw gene depletes β-diketones and results in the nonglaucous phenotype. Elimination of β-diketones is compensated for by an increase in aldehydes and primary alcohols in the Iw NILs. Accordingly, transcription of CER4-6, which encodes an alcohol-forming fatty acyl-CoA reductase, was elevated 120-fold in iw1Iw2. CER4-6 was transcribed at much higher levels in seedlings than in adult plants, and showed little difference between the glaucous and nonglaucous NILs, suggesting that Iw2 counteracts the developmental repression of CER4-6 at the reproductive stage. While W1 and W2 redundantly function in β-diketone biosynthesis, a combination of both functional alleles led to the β-diketone hydroxylation. Consistent with this, transcription of MAH1-9, which encodes a mid-chain alkane hydroxylase, increased seven-fold only in W1W2. In parallel with the hydroxyl-β-diketone production patterns, glaucousness was intensified and cuticle permeability was reduced significantly in W1W2 compared to the other NILs. This suggests that both W1 and W2 are required for enhancing drought tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengzhi Zhang
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, United States of America
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, United States of America
| | - Wanlong Li
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, United States of America
- Department of Plant Science, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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36
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Bernard A, Joubès J. Arabidopsis cuticular waxes: advances in synthesis, export and regulation. Prog Lipid Res 2012; 52:110-29. [PMID: 23103356 DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2012.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2012] [Revised: 10/17/2012] [Accepted: 10/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Cuticular waxes and cutin form the cuticle, a hydrophobic layer covering the aerial surfaces of land plants and acting as a protective barrier against environmental stresses. Very-long-chain fatty acid derived compounds that compose the cuticular waxes are produced in the endoplasmic reticulum of epidermal cells before being exported to the environmental face of the epidermis. Twenty years of genetic studies on Arabidopsis thaliana have led to the molecular characterization of enzymes catalyzing major steps in fatty acid elongation and wax biosynthesis. Although transporters required for wax export from the plasma membrane have been identified, intracellular and extracellular traffic remains largely unknown. In accordance with its major function in producing an active waterproof barrier, wax metabolism is up-regulated at the transcriptional level in response to water deficiency. However its developmental regulation is still poorly described. Here, we discuss the present knowledge of wax functions, biosynthesis and transport as well as the regulation of these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amélie Bernard
- Université de Bordeaux, Laboratoire de Biogenèse Membranaire, UMR5200, F-33000 Bordeaux, France.
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Kim H, Lee SB, Kim HJ, Min MK, Hwang I, Suh MC. Characterization of Glycosylphosphatidylinositol-Anchored Lipid Transfer Protein 2 (LTPG2) and Overlapping Function between LTPG/LTPG1 and LTPG2 in Cuticular Wax Export or Accumulation in Arabidopsis thaliana. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 53:1391-403. [DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcs083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Kirienko DR, Luo A, Sylvester AW. Reliable transient transformation of intact maize leaf cells for functional genomics and experimental study. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2012; 159:1309-18. [PMID: 22706447 PMCID: PMC3425180 DOI: 10.1104/pp.112.199737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2012] [Accepted: 06/07/2012] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Maize (Zea mays) transformation routinely produces stable transgenic lines essential for functional genomics; however, transient expression of target proteins in maize cells is not yet routine. Such techniques are critical for rapid testing of transgene constructs and for experimental studies. Here, we report bombardment methods that depend on leaf developmental stage and result in successful expression with broad applications. Fluorescent marker genes were constructed and bombarded into five developmental regions in a growing maize leaf. Expression efficiency was highest in the basal-most 3 cm above the ligule of an approximately 50-cm growing adult leaf. Straightforward dissection procedures provide access to the receptive leaf regions, increasing efficiency from less than one transformant per cm(2) to over 21 transformants per cm(2). Successful expression was routine for proteins from full genomic sequences driven by native regulatory regions and from complementary DNA sequences driven by the constitutive maize polyubiquitin promoter and a heterologous terminator. Four tested fusion proteins, maize PROTEIN DISULFIDE ISOMERASE-Yellow Fluorescent Protein, GLOSSY8a-monomeric Red Fluorescent Protein and maize XYLOSYLTRANSFERASE, and maize Rho-of-Plants7-monomeric Teal Fluorescent Protein, localized as predicted in the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, and plasma membrane, respectively. Localization patterns were similar between transient and stable modes of expression, and cotransformation was equally successful. Coexpression was also demonstrated by transiently transforming cells in a stable line expressing a second marker protein, thus increasing the utility of a single stable transformant. Given the ease of dissection procedures, this method replaces heterologous expression assays with a more direct, native, and informative system, and the techniques will be useful for localization, colocalization, and functional studies.
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Qin BX, Tang D, Huang J, Li M, Wu XR, Lu LL, Wang KJ, Yu HX, Chen JM, Gu MH, Cheng ZK. Rice OsGL1-1 is involved in leaf cuticular wax and cuticle membrane. MOLECULAR PLANT 2011; 4:985-95. [PMID: 21511810 DOI: 10.1093/mp/ssr028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Cuticular wax forms a hydrophobic barrier on aerial plant organs; it plays an important role in protecting a plant from damage caused by many forms of environmental stress. In the present study, we characterized a rice leaf wax-deficient mutant osgl1-1 derived from a spontaneous mutation, which exhibited a wax-deficient and highly hydrophilic leaf phenotype. We cloned the OsGL1-1 gene by the map-based cloning method and performed a complementation test to confirm the function of the candidate gene. Molecular studies revealed that OsGL1-1 was a member of the OsGL1 family, and contained regions that were homologous to some regions in sterol desaturases and short-chain dehydrogenases/reductases. Compared to the wild-type, the osgl1-1 mutant showed decreased cuticular wax deposition, thinner cuticular membrane, decreased chlorophyll leaching, increased rate of water loss, and enhanced sensitivity to drought. OsGL1-1 is expressed ubiquitously in rice. The transient expression of OsGL1-1-green fluorescent protein fusion protein indicated that OsGL1-1 is localized in the cytoplasm, plasma membrane, and nucleus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bao-Xiang Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics and Center for Plant Gene Research, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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40
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Ito Y, Kimura F, Hirakata K, Tsuda K, Takasugi T, Eiguchi M, Nakagawa K, Kurata N. Fatty acid elongase is required for shoot development in rice. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2011; 66:680-8. [PMID: 21309865 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2011.04530.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Organisms are covered extracellularly with cuticular waxes that consist of various fatty acids. In higher plants, extracellular waxes act as indispensable barriers to protect the plants from physical and biological stresses such as drought and pathogen attacks. However, the effect of fatty acid composition on plant development under normal growth conditions is not well understood. Here we show that the ONION1 (ONI1) gene, which encodes a fatty acid elongase (β-ketoacyl CoA synthase) involved in the synthesis of very-long-chain fatty acids, is required for correct fatty acid composition and normal shoot development in rice. oni1 mutants containing a reduced amount of very-long-chain fatty acids produced very small shoots, with an aberrant outermost epidermal cell layer, and ceased to grow soon after germination. These mutants also showed abnormal expression of a KNOX family homeobox gene. ONI1 was specifically expressed in the outermost cell layer of the shoot apical meristem and developing lateral organs. These results show that fatty acid elongase is required for formation of the outermost cell layer, and this layer is indispensable for entire shoot development in rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukihiro Ito
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 1-1 Tsutsumidori-Amamiyamachi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 981-8555, Japan.
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41
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Qin YM, Zhu YX. How cotton fibers elongate: a tale of linear cell-growth mode. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2011; 14:106-11. [PMID: 20943428 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2010.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2010] [Revised: 09/02/2010] [Accepted: 09/10/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Cotton fibers (cotton lint) are single-celled trichomes that differentiate from the ovule epidermis. Unidirectional and fast-growing cells generally expand at the dome-shaped apical zone (tip-growth mode); however, previous studies suggest that elongating fiber cells expand via a diffuse-growth mode. Tip-localized Ca(2+) gradient and active secretary vesicle trafficking are two important phenomena of tip-growth. Recently, a high Ca(2+) gradient is found in the cytoplasm of fast-elongating cotton fiber cells near the growing tip. Several protein coding genes participating in vesicle coating and transport are highly expressed in elongating fiber cells. Taken together with the observation that ethylene acts as a positive regulator for cotton fiber and several Arabidopsis tissues that are known to elongate via tip growth prompted us to propose a linear-growth mode for similar cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Mei Qin
- The National Laboratory of Protein Engineering and Plant Genetic Engineering, College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
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42
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Li X, Ilarslan H, Brachova L, Qian HR, Li L, Che P, Wurtele ES, Nikolau BJ. Reverse-genetic analysis of the two biotin-containing subunit genes of the heteromeric acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase in Arabidopsis indicates a unidirectional functional redundancy. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2011; 155:293-314. [PMID: 21030508 PMCID: PMC3075786 DOI: 10.1104/pp.110.165910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2010] [Accepted: 10/26/2010] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The heteromeric acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase catalyzes the first and committed reaction of de novo fatty acid biosynthesis in plastids. This enzyme is composed of four subunits: biotin carboxyl-carrier protein (BCCP), biotin carboxylase, α-carboxyltransferase, and β-carboxyltransferase. With the exception of BCCP, single-copy genes encode these subunits in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Reverse-genetic approaches were used to individually investigate the physiological significance of the two paralogous BCCP-coding genes, CAC1A (At5g16390, codes for BCCP1) and CAC1B (At5g15530, codes for BCCP2). Transfer DNA insertional alleles that completely eliminate the accumulation of BCCP2 have no perceptible effect on plant growth, development, and fatty acid accumulation. In contrast, transfer DNA insertional null allele of the CAC1A gene is embryo lethal and deleteriously affects pollen development and germination. During seed development the effect of the cac1a null allele first becomes apparent at 3-d after flowering, when the synchronous development of the endosperm and embryo is disrupted. Characterization of CAC1A antisense plants showed that reducing BCCP1 accumulation to 35% of wild-type levels, decreases fatty acid accumulation and severely affects normal vegetative plant growth. Detailed expression analysis by a suite of approaches including in situ RNA hybridization, promoter:reporter transgene expression, and quantitative western blotting reveal that the expression of CAC1B is limited to a subset of the CAC1A-expressing tissues, and CAC1B expression levels are only about one-fifth of CAC1A expression levels. Therefore, a likely explanation for the observed unidirectional redundancy between these two paralogous genes is that whereas the BCCP1 protein can compensate for the lack of BCCP2, the absence of BCCP1 cannot be tolerated as BCCP2 levels are not sufficient to support heteromeric acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase activity at a level that is required for normal growth and development.
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MESH Headings
- Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase/genetics
- Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase/metabolism
- Alleles
- Arabidopsis/embryology
- Arabidopsis/enzymology
- Arabidopsis/genetics
- Arabidopsis/growth & development
- Arabidopsis/ultrastructure
- Arabidopsis Proteins/genetics
- Arabidopsis Proteins/metabolism
- Biotin/metabolism
- DNA, Bacterial
- Endosperm/enzymology
- Endosperm/growth & development
- Endosperm/ultrastructure
- Fatty Acid Synthase, Type II/genetics
- Fatty Acid Synthase, Type II/metabolism
- Fatty Acids/metabolism
- Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic
- Gene Expression Regulation, Plant
- Gene Knockout Techniques
- Genes, Plant/genetics
- Genes, Recessive/genetics
- Genetic Complementation Test
- Genetic Techniques
- Germination
- Mutation/genetics
- Pollen Tube/enzymology
- Pollen Tube/growth & development
- Pollen Tube/ultrastructure
- Protein Subunits/genetics
- Protein Subunits/metabolism
- RNA, Antisense/metabolism
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
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Javelle M, Vernoud V, Rogowsky PM, Ingram GC. Epidermis: the formation and functions of a fundamental plant tissue. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2011; 189:17-39. [PMID: 21054411 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03514.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Epidermis differentiation and maintenance are essential for plant survival. Constant cross-talk between epidermal cells and their immediate environment is at the heart of epidermal cell fate, and regulates epidermis-specific transcription factors. These factors in turn direct epidermal differentiation involving a whole array of epidermis-specific pathways including specialized lipid metabolism necessary to build the protective cuticle layer. An intact epidermis is crucial for certain key processes in plant development, shoot growth and plant defence. Here, we discuss the control of epidermal cell fate and the function of the epidermal cell layer in the light of recent advances in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Javelle
- Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, UMR 5667, ENS/CNRS/INRA/Université Lyon 1, Lyon, France
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44
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Perera MADN, Qin W, Yandeau-Nelson M, Fan L, Dixon P, Nikolau BJ. Biological origins of normal-chain hydrocarbons: a pathway model based on cuticular wax analyses of maize silks. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2010; 64:618-32. [PMID: 21070415 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2010.04355.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Long-chain normal hydrocarbons (e.g. alkanes, alkenes and dienes) are rare biological molecules and their biosynthetic origins are obscure. Detailed analyses of the surface lipids that accumulate on maize silks have revealed that these hydrocarbons constitute a large portion (>90%) of the cuticular waxes that coat this organ, which contrasts with the situation on maize seedling leaves, where the cuticular waxes are primary alcohols and aldehydes. The normal hydrocarbons that occur on silks are part of a homologous series of alkanes, alkenes and dienes of odd-number carbon atoms, ranging between 19 and 33 in number. The alkenes and dienes consist of a homologous series, each of which has double bonds situated at defined positions of the alkyl chains: alkenes have double bonds situated at the sixth, ninth or 12th positions, and dienes have double bonds situated at the sixth and ninth, or ninth and twelfth positions. Finding a homologous series of unsaturated aldehydes and fatty acids suggests that these alkenes and dienes are biosynthesized by a series of parallel pathways of fatty-acid elongation and desaturation reactions, which are followed by sequential reduction and decarbonylation. In addition, the silk cuticular waxes contain metabolically related unsaturated long-chain methylketones, which probably arise via a decarboxylation mechanism. Finally, metabolite profiling analyses of the cuticular waxes of two maize inbred lines (B73 and Mo17), and their genetic hybrids, have provided insights into the genetic control network of these biosynthetic pathways, and that the genetic regulation of these pathways display best-parent heterotic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ann D N Perera
- Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, 50011, USA
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45
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Pang Y, Song WQ, Chen FY, Qin YM. A new cotton SDR family gene encodes a polypeptide possessing aldehyde reductase and 3-ketoacyl-CoA reductase activities. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2010; 75:320-6. [PMID: 20370610 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297910030089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
To understand regulatory mechanisms of cotton fiber development, microarray analysis has been performed for upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). Based on this, a cDNA (GhKCR3) encoding a polypeptide belonging to short-chain alcohol dehydrogenase/reductase family was isolated and cloned. It contains an open reading frame of 987 bp encoding a polypeptide of 328 amino acid residues. Following its overexpression in bacterial cells, the purified recombinant protein specifically uses NADPH to reduce a variety of short-chain aldehydes. A fragment between Gly180 and Gly191 was found to be essential for its catalytic activity. Though the GhKCR3 gene shares low sequence similarities to the ortholog of Saccharomyces cerevisiae YBR159w that encodes 3-ketoacyl-CoA reductase (KCR) catalyzing the second step of fatty acid elongation, it was surprisingly able to complement the yeast ybr159wDelta mutant. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis showed that very long-chain fatty acids, especially C26:0, were produced in the ybr159wDelta mutant cells expressing GhKCR3. Applying palmitoyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA as substrates, GhKCR3 showed KCR activity in vitro. Quantitative real time-PCR analysis indicated GhKCR3 transcripts accumulated in rapidly elongating fibers, roots, and stems. Our results suggest that GhKCR3 is probably a novel KCR contributing to very long-chain fatty acid biosynthesis in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Pang
- National Laboratory of Protein Engineering and Plant Genetic Engineering, College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
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46
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Field JJ, Carriles R, Sheetz KE, Chandler EV, Hoover EE, Tillo SE, Hughes TE, Sylvester AW, Kleinfeld D, Squier JA. Optimizing the fluorescent yield in two-photon laser scanning microscopy with dispersion compensation. OPTICS EXPRESS 2010; 18:13661-72. [PMID: 20588500 PMCID: PMC4151303 DOI: 10.1364/oe.18.013661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
A challenge for nonlinear imaging in living tissue is to maximize the total fluorescent yield from each fluorophore. We investigated the emission rates of three fluorophores-rhodamine B, a red fluorescent protein, and CdSe quantum dots-while manipulating the phase of the laser excitation pulse at the focus. In all cases a transform-limited pulse maximized the total yield to insure the highest signal-to-noise ratio. Further, we find evidence of fluorescence antibleaching in quantum dot samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey J Field
- Center for Microintegrated Optics for Advanced Bioimaging and Control, and Department of Physics, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, USA.
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47
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Bach L, Faure JD. Role of very-long-chain fatty acids in plant development, when chain length does matter. C R Biol 2010; 333:361-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crvi.2010.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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48
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Lee SB, Go YS, Bae HJ, Park JH, Cho SH, Cho HJ, Lee DS, Park OK, Hwang I, Suh MC. Disruption of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored lipid transfer protein gene altered cuticular lipid composition, increased plastoglobules, and enhanced susceptibility to infection by the fungal pathogen Alternaria brassicicola. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2009; 150:42-54. [PMID: 19321705 PMCID: PMC2675750 DOI: 10.1104/pp.109.137745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2009] [Accepted: 03/19/2009] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
All aerial parts of vascular plants are covered with cuticular waxes, which are synthesized by extensive export of intracellular lipids from epidermal cells to the surface. Although it has been suggested that plant lipid transfer proteins (LTPs) are involved in cuticular lipid transport, the in planta evidence is still not clear. In this study, a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored LTP (LTPG1) showing higher expression in epidermal peels of stems than in stems was identified from an Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) genome-wide microarray analysis. The expression of LTPG1 was observed in various tissues, including the epidermis, stem cortex, vascular bundles, mesophyll cells, root tips, pollen, and early-developing seeds. LTPG1 was found to be localized in the plasma membrane. Disruption of the LTPG1 gene caused alterations of cuticular lipid composition, but no significant changes on total wax and cutin monomer loads were seen. The largest reduction (10 mass %) in the ltpg1 mutant was observed in the C29 alkane, which is the major component of cuticular waxes in the stems and siliques. The reduced content was overcome by increases of the C29 secondary alcohols and C29 ketone wax loads. The ultrastructure analysis of ltpg1 showed a more diffuse cuticular layer structure, protrusions of the cytoplasm into the vacuole in the epidermis, and an increase of plastoglobules in the stem cortex and leaf mesophyll cells. Furthermore, the ltpg1 mutant was more susceptible to infection by the fungus Alternaria brassicicola than the wild type. Taken together, these results indicated that LTPG1 contributed either directly or indirectly to cuticular lipid accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saet Buyl Lee
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Agricultural Plant Stress Research Center, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, Republic of Korea
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49
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Franke R, Höfer R, Briesen I, Emsermann M, Efremova N, Yephremov A, Schreiber L. The DAISY gene from Arabidopsis encodes a fatty acid elongase condensing enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of aliphatic suberin in roots and the chalaza-micropyle region of seeds. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2009; 57:80-95. [PMID: 18786002 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2008.03674.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Suberin is a hydrophobic polyester found in the cell walls of various plant-environment interfaces, including shoot and root peridermal tissue, and the root hypodermis and endodermis. Suberin deposits form apoplastic barriers that control water and nutrient transport, protect against pathogens and seal wounded tissue. Despite this physiological importance, and the detailed information on the suberin composition of many plants, there is a great gap in our knowledge of the molecular mechanism of suberin biosynthesis, caused in part by a lack of mutants in suberin formation. Here, we report the characterization of daisy, an Arabidopsis mutant that is defective in a fatty acid elongase condensing enzyme. The daisy mutant roots exhibit disturbed growth, and the suberin level is reduced in C(22) and C(24) very long chain fatty acid derivatives, whereas C(16), C(18) and C(20) derivatives accumulate, compared with wild-type suberin, indicating that DAISY functions as a docosanoic acid synthase. Consistent with a significantly increased level of suberin in the roots of NaCl-stressed plants, DAISY is transcriptionally activated by NaCl application, and also by polyethylene glycol-induced drought stress and wounding. Expression analysis using RT-PCR and promoter-GUS fusions demonstrated a distinct DAISY expression pattern in the root stele, senescing sepals, siliques abscission zones and the chalaza-micropyle region of seeds. Together, these results indicate that DAISY is involved in suberin biosynthesis and in the formation of protective layers in these tissues, and in the response to unfavourable environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rochus Franke
- Institute of Cellular and Molecular Botany, University of Bonn, Kirschallee 1, Bonn, Germany.
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50
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Quist TM, Sokolchik I, Shi H, Joly RJ, Bressan RA, Maggio A, Narsimhan M, Li X. HOS3, an ELO-like gene, inhibits effects of ABA and implicates a S-1-P/ceramide control system for abiotic stress responses in Arabidopsis thaliana. MOLECULAR PLANT 2009; 2:138-51. [PMID: 19529829 PMCID: PMC2639740 DOI: 10.1093/mp/ssn085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2008] [Accepted: 11/03/2008] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
A hyper-osmotically sensitive mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana, designated hos3-1 (high expression of osmotically responsive genes), was identified based on its hyper-luminescence of RD29A:LUC promoter fusion plants upon treatment with NaCl and ABA. These responses implicate the disrupted gene as a direct or indirect negative regulator of the RD29A stress-responsive pathway. By sequencing the flanking regions of the T-DNA borders, it was determined that the disrupted gene is at locus At4g36830, annotated as encoding a putative protein with high homology to CIG30 (ELO2/FEN1). CIG30 has been implicated in synthesis of very long chain fatty acids (VLCFA), which are essential precursors for sphingolipids and ceramides. Altered stress responses characteristic of ABA-hypersensitivity, including reduced root growth inhibition and reduced germination with ABA treatment and reduced water loss from leaves, were exhibited by allelic hos3-1 and hos3-2 mutants. The hos3-2 mutant is partially suppressed in its transcript abundance and is inherited as a recessive trait. Further, the HOS3 ORF under the control of the 35SCaMV promoter restored wild-type NaCl- and ABA-root growth sensitivity as well as RD29A:LUC luminescence in mutant plants. We also show here that the HOS3 wild-type gene functionally complements the sensitivity of elo2 and elo3 yeast mutants to monensin. Furthermore, both hos3-1 and hos3-2 alleles shared increased sensitivity to the herbicide Metolachlor, which inhibits acyl chain elongation in synthesis of VLCFA, and HOS3 functionally complemented both elo2 and elo3 and restored levels of VLCFA. Together, these data establish that HOS3 inhibits ABA-mediated stress responses and implicate the VLCFA pathway and products as control points for several aspects of abiotic stress signaling and responses. The results also provide support for a role of ceramide in the control of stomatal behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanya M. Quist
- Center for Plant Environmental Stress Physiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2010, USA
| | - Irina Sokolchik
- Center for Plant Environmental Stress Physiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2010, USA
| | - Huazhong Shi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409-1061, USA
| | - Robert J. Joly
- Center for Plant Environmental Stress Physiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2010, USA
| | - Ray A. Bressan
- Center for Plant Environmental Stress Physiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2010, USA
| | - Albino Maggio
- Department of Agricultural Engineering and Agronomy, University of Naples Federico II, Via Università 100, Portici (NA), Italy 80055
| | - Meena Narsimhan
- Center for Plant Environmental Stress Physiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2010, USA
| | - Xia Li
- The Key Laboratory of Plant Cell and Chromosome Engineering, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, 050021 China
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail , tel. 86-0311-85871744
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