1
|
Rubio AO, Stuckert AMM, Geralds B, Nielsen R, MacManes MD, Summers K. What Makes a Mimic? Orange, Red, and Black Color Production in the Mimic Poison Frog (Ranitomeya imitator). Genome Biol Evol 2024; 16:evae123. [PMID: 38874406 PMCID: PMC11255871 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evae123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Aposematic organisms rely on their conspicuous appearance to signal that they are defended and unpalatable. Such phenotypes are strongly tied to survival and reproduction. Aposematic colors and patterns are highly variable; however, the genetic, biochemical, and physiological mechanisms producing this conspicuous coloration remain largely unidentified. Here, we identify genes potentially affecting color variation in two color morphs of Ranitomeya imitator: the orange-banded Sauce and the redheaded Varadero morphs. We examine gene expression in black and orange skin patches from the Sauce morph and black and red skin patches from the Varadero morph. We identified genes differentially expressed between skin patches, including those that are involved in melanin synthesis (e.g. mlana, pmel, tyrp1), iridophore development (e.g. paics, ppat, ak1), pteridine synthesis (e.g. gch1, pax3-a, xdh), and carotenoid metabolism (e.g. dgat2, rbp1, scarb2). In addition, using weighted correlation network analysis, we identified the top 50 genes with high connectivity from the most significant network associated with gene expression differences between color morphs. Of these 50 genes, 13 were known to be related to color production (gch1, gmps, gpr143, impdh1, mc1r, pax3-a, pax7, ppat, rab27a, rlbp1, tfec, trpm1, xdh).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew O Rubio
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Adam M M Stuckert
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - BreAnn Geralds
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA
- School of Biological Sciences, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA
| | - Rasmus Nielsen
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Matthew D MacManes
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA
| | - Kyle Summers
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Martins ARP, Warren NB, McMillan WO, Barrett RDH. Spatiotemporal dynamics in butterfly hybrid zones. INSECT SCIENCE 2024; 31:328-353. [PMID: 37596954 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.13262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/21/2023]
Abstract
Evaluating whether hybrid zones are stable or mobile can provide novel insights for evolution and conservation biology. Butterflies exhibit high sensitivity to environmental changes and represent an important model system for the study of hybrid zone origins and maintenance. Here, we review the literature exploring butterfly hybrid zones, with a special focus on their spatiotemporal dynamics and the potential mechanisms that could lead to their movement or stability. We then compare different lines of evidence used to investigate hybrid zone dynamics and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each approach. Our goal with this review is to reveal general conditions associated with the stability or mobility of butterfly hybrid zones by synthesizing evidence obtained using different types of data sampled across multiple regions and spatial scales. Finally, we discuss spatiotemporal dynamics in the context of a speciation/divergence continuum, the relevance of hybrid zones for conservation biology, and recommend key topics for future investigation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ananda R Pereira Martins
- Redpath Museum, McGill University, 859 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Gamboa, Panama City, Panama
| | - Natalie B Warren
- Redpath Museum, McGill University, 859 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - W Owen McMillan
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Gamboa, Panama City, Panama
| | - Rowan D H Barrett
- Redpath Museum, McGill University, 859 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Wright DS, Manel AN, Guachamin-Rosero M, Chamba-Vaca P, Bacquet CN, Merrill RM. Quantifying visual acuity in Heliconius butterflies. Biol Lett 2023; 19:20230476. [PMID: 38087940 PMCID: PMC10716659 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2023.0476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Heliconius butterflies are well-known for their colourful wing patterns, which advertise distastefulness to potential predators and are used during mate choice. However, the relative importance of different aspects of these signals will depend on the visual abilities of Heliconius and their predators. Previous studies have investigated colour sensitivity and neural anatomy, but visual acuity (the ability to perceive detail) has not been studied in these butterflies. Here, we provide the first estimate of visual acuity in Heliconius: from a behavioural optomotor assay, we found that mean visual acuity = 0.49 cycles-per-degree (cpd), with higher acuity in males than females. We also examined eye morphology and report more ommatidia in male eyes. Finally, we estimated how visual acuity affects Heliconius visual perception compared to a potential avian predator. Whereas the bird predator maintained high resolving power, Heliconius lost the ability to resolve detail at greater distances, though colours may remain salient. These results will inform future studies of Heliconius wing pattern evolution, as well as other aspects in these highly visual butterflies, which have emerged as an important system in studies of adaptation and speciation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Shane Wright
- Division of Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biology, LMU Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Anupama Nayak Manel
- Division of Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biology, LMU Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Michelle Guachamin-Rosero
- Division of Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biology, LMU Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
- Universidad Regional Amazónica IKIAM, Tena, Ecuador
| | - Pamela Chamba-Vaca
- Division of Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biology, LMU Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
- Universidad Regional Amazónica IKIAM, Tena, Ecuador
| | | | - Richard M. Merrill
- Division of Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biology, LMU Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Hausmann AE, Freire M, Alfthan SA, Kuo CY, Linares M, McMillan O, Pardo-Diaz C, Salazar C, Merrill RM. Does sexual conflict contribute to the evolution of novel warning patterns? J Evol Biol 2023; 36:563-578. [PMID: 36702779 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Why warning patterns are so diverse is an enduring evolutionary puzzle. Because predators associate particular patterns with unpleasant experiences, an individual's predation risk should decrease as the local density of its warning pattern increases, promoting pattern monomorphism. Distasteful Heliconius butterflies are known for their diversity of warning patterns. Here, we explore whether interlocus sexual conflict can contribute to their diversification. Male Heliconius use warning patterns as mating cues, but mated females may suffer costs if this leads to disturbance, favouring novel patterns. Using simulations, we show that under our model conditions drift alone is unlikely to cause pattern diversification, but that sexual conflict can assist such a process. We also find that genetic architecture influences the evolution of male preferences, which track changes in warning pattern due to sexual selection. When male attraction imposes costs on females, this affects the speed at which novel pattern alleles increase. In two experiments, females laid fewer eggs with males present. However, although males in one experiment showed less interest in females with manipulated patterns, we found no evidence that female colouration mitigates sex-specific costs. Overall, male attraction to conspecific warning patterns may impose an unrecognized cost on Heliconius females, but further work is required to determine this experimentally.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander E Hausmann
- Division of Evolutionary Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany
| | - Marília Freire
- Division of Evolutionary Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany
| | - Sara A Alfthan
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| | - Chi-Yun Kuo
- Division of Evolutionary Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany.,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| | - Mauricio Linares
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Owen McMillan
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| | - Carolina Pardo-Diaz
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Camilo Salazar
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Richard M Merrill
- Division of Evolutionary Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany.,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Pereira Martins AR, Martins LP, Ho W, McMillan WO, Ready JS, Barrett R. Scale-dependent environmental effects on phenotypic distributions in Heliconius butterflies. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e9286. [PMID: 36177141 PMCID: PMC9471044 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Identifying the relative importance of different mechanisms responsible for the emergence and maintenance of phenotypic diversity can be challenging, as multiple selective pressures and stochastic events are involved in these processes. Therefore, testing how environmental conditions shape the distribution of phenotypes can offer important insights on local adaptation, divergence, and speciation. The red-yellow Müllerian mimicry ring of Heliconius butterflies exhibits a wide diversity of color patterns across the Neotropics and is involved in multiple hybrid zones, making it a powerful system to investigate environmental drivers of phenotypic distributions. Using the distantly related Heliconius erato and Heliconius melpomene co-mimics and a multiscale distribution approach, we investigated whether distinct phenotypes of these species are associated with different environmental conditions. We show that Heliconius red-yellow phenotypic distribution is strongly driven by environmental gradients (especially thermal and precipitation variables), but that phenotype and environment associations vary with spatial scale. While co-mimics are usually predicted to occur in similar environments at large spatial scales, patterns at local scales are not always consistent (i.e., different variables are best predictors of phenotypic occurrence in different locations) or congruent (i.e., co-mimics show distinct associations with environment). We suggest that large-scale analyses are important for identifying how environmental factors shape broad mimetic phenotypic distributions, but that local studies are essential to understand the context-dependent biotic, abiotic, and historical mechanisms driving finer-scale phenotypic transitions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ananda R. Pereira Martins
- Redpath MuseumMcGill UniversityMontrealQuebecCanada
- Smithsonian Tropical Research InstitutePanama CityPanama
| | - Lucas P. Martins
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of CanterburyChristchurchNew Zealand
| | | | | | - Jonathan S. Ready
- Instituto de Ciências BiológicasUniversidade Federal do ParáBelémBrazil
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Rather PA, Herzog AE, Ernst DA, Westerman EL. Effect of experience on mating behaviour in male Heliconius melpomene butterflies. Anim Behav 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
7
|
Hill RI. Convergent flight morphology among Müllerian mimic mutualists. Evolution 2021; 75:2460-2479. [PMID: 34431522 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2020] [Revised: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Müllerian mimicry involves a signal mutualism between prey species, shaped by visually hunting predators, and recent work has emphasized the importance of color pattern. Predators respond to more than color pattern, however, and other traits are much less studied. This article examines the hypothesis of convergent evolution in flight-related morphology among eight mimicry complexes composed of 51 butterfly species (Nymphalidae, Danainae, Ithomiini) from a single community in Ecuador. Phylogenetic comparative analyses of 14 variables indicated strong morphological differences between mimicry complexes belonging to three clusters of morphological space ("large yellow transparent," "tiger," and "transparent"), not the eight predicted based on color pattern alone. Analyses found convergence within mimicry complexes, convergence between mimicry complexes within morphospace clusters, and divergence between mimicry complexes from different morphospace clusters. These three clusters differed in size, and body and wing shape, predicting that flight biomechanics also converge (i.e., locomotor mimicry). Potential constraints on evolution of morphological mimicry related to predator discrimination, and evolutionary rates, likely e xplain why flight-related morphology differences were limited to three clusters of morphological space. Finally, the added complexity that flight-related morphology brings to signals between predator and prey indicates that evolutionary switches in color pattern are not all equally likely, potentially limiting the evolution of color patterns if they do not match morphology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan I Hill
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, 94720.,Current Address: Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California, 95211
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Merrill AN, Hirzel GE, Murphy MJ, Imrie R, Westerman EL. Engaging the community in pollinator research: the effect of wing pattern and weather on butterfly behavior. Integr Comp Biol 2021; 61:1039-1054. [PMID: 34196361 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icab153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Community science, which engages students and the public in data collection and scientific inquiry, is often integrated into conservation and long-term monitoring efforts. However, it has the potential to also introduce the public to, and be useful for, sensory ecology and other fields of study. Here we describe a community science project that exposes participants to animal behavior and sensory ecology using the rich butterfly community of Northwest Arkansas, USA. Butterflies use visual signals to communicate and to attract mates. Brighter colors can produce stronger signals for mate attraction but can also unintentionally attract negative attention from predators. Environmental conditions such as weather can affect visual signaling as well, by influencing the wavelengths of light available and subsequent signal detection. However, we do not know whether the signals butterflies present correlate broadly with how they behave. In this study, we collaborated with hundreds of students and community members at the University of Arkansas (UARK) and the Botanical Gardens of the Ozarks (BGO) for over 3.5 years to examine relationships among wing pattern, weather, time of day, behavior, and flower choice. We found that both weather and wing color influenced general butterfly behavior. Butterflies were seen feeding more on cloudy days than on sunny or partly cloudy days. Brown butterflies fed or sat more often, while white butterflies flew more often relative to other butterfly colors. We also found that there was an interaction between the effects of weather and wing color on butterfly behavior. Furthermore, butterfly color predicted the choice of flower colors that butterflies visited, though this effect was influenced by observer group (UARK student or BGO participant). These results suggest that flower choice may be associated with butterfly wing pattern, and that different environmental conditions may influence butterfly behavior in wing-pattern-specific ways. They also illustrate one way that public involvement in behavioral studies can facilitate the identification of coarse-scale, community-wide behavioral patterns, and lay the groundwork for future studies of sensory niches.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abbigail N Merrill
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR
| | - Grace E Hirzel
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR
| | - Matthew J Murphy
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR
| | - Roslyn Imrie
- Botanical Gardens of the Ozarks, Fayetteville, AR
| | - Erica L Westerman
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Wilkins MR, Odom KJ, Benedict L, Safran RJ. Analysis of female song provides insight into the evolution of sex differences in a widely studied songbird. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
|
10
|
Rossi M, Hausmann AE, Thurman TJ, Montgomery SH, Papa R, Jiggins CD, McMillan WO, Merrill RM. Visual mate preference evolution during butterfly speciation is linked to neural processing genes. Nat Commun 2020; 11:4763. [PMID: 32958765 PMCID: PMC7506007 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18609-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Many animal species remain separate not because their individuals fail to produce viable hybrids but because they "choose" not to mate. However, we still know very little of the genetic mechanisms underlying changes in these mate preference behaviours. Heliconius butterflies display bright warning patterns, which they also use to recognize conspecifics. Here, we couple QTL for divergence in visual preference behaviours with population genomic and gene expression analyses of neural tissue (central brain, optic lobes and ommatidia) across development in two sympatric Heliconius species. Within a region containing 200 genes, we identify five genes that are strongly associated with divergent visual preferences. Three of these have previously been implicated in key components of neural signalling (specifically an ionotropic glutamate receptor and two regucalcins), and overall our candidates suggest shifts in behaviour involve changes in visual integration or processing. This would allow preference evolution without altering perception of the wider environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Rossi
- Division of Evolutionary Biology, LMU, Munich, Germany.
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama.
| | | | - Timothy J Thurman
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Montana, USA
| | | | - Riccardo Papa
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
- Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico
- Molecular Sciences and Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - Chris D Jiggins
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - W Owen McMillan
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| | - Richard M Merrill
- Division of Evolutionary Biology, LMU, Munich, Germany.
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Arias M, Elias M, Andraud C, Berthier S, Gomez D. Transparency improves concealment in cryptically coloured moths. J Evol Biol 2019; 33:247-252. [PMID: 31643116 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Predation is a ubiquitous and strong selective pressure on living organisms. Transparency is a predation defence widespread in water but rare on land. Some Lepidoptera display transparent patches combined with already cryptic opaque patches. A recent study showed that transparency reduced detectability of aposematic prey with conspicuous patches. However, whether transparency has any effect at reducing detectability of already cryptic prey is still unknown. We conducted field predation experiments with free avian predators where we monitored and compared survival of a fully opaque grey artificial form (cryptic), a form including transparent windows and a wingless artificial butterfly body. Survival of the transparent forms was similar to that of wingless bodies and higher than that of fully opaque forms, suggesting a reduction of detectability conferred by transparency. This is the first evidence that transparency decreases detectability in cryptic terrestrial prey. Future studies should explore the organization of transparent and opaque patches in animals and their interplay on survival, as well as the costs and other potential benefits associated with transparency on land.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Arias
- EPHE, IRD, CEFE, Univ. Montpellier, Univ. Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, Montpellier, France.,ISYEB, CNRS, MNHN, EPHE, Sorbonne Univ., Univ. Antilles, Paris, France
| | - Marianne Elias
- ISYEB, CNRS, MNHN, EPHE, Sorbonne Univ., Univ. Antilles, Paris, France
| | | | | | - Doris Gomez
- EPHE, IRD, CEFE, Univ. Montpellier, Univ. Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, Montpellier, France.,INSP, CNRS, Sorbonne Univ, Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Atsumi K, Kishida O, Koizumi I. Visual preference of males for conspecific mates in mutually ornamented fish: possible support for the species recognition hypothesis. J ETHOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10164-019-00610-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
|
13
|
Woelke JB, Fursov VN, Gumovsky AV, de Rijk M, Estrada C, Verbaarschot P, Huigens ME, Fatouros NE. Description and biology of two new egg parasitoid species (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) reared from eggs of Heliconiini butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Heliconiinae) in Panama. J NAT HIST 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2019.1606360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jozef B. Woelke
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
- Business Unit Greenhouse Horticulture, Wageningen University & Research, Bleiswijk, the Netherlands
| | - Viktor N. Fursov
- Schmalhausen Institute of Zoology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine
| | - Alex V. Gumovsky
- Schmalhausen Institute of Zoology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine
| | - Marjolein de Rijk
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
- Education Support Centre, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | | | - Patrick Verbaarschot
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
- Biosystematics group, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Martinus E. Huigens
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
- Education Institute, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Nina E. Fatouros
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
- Biosystematics group, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Arias M, Mappes J, Desbois C, Gordon S, McClure M, Elias M, Nokelainen O, Gomez D. Transparency reduces predator detection in mimetic clearwing butterflies. Funct Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Arias
- Univ Montpellier, Univ Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, EPHE, IRD; CEFE; Montpellier France
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions; University of Jyväskylä; Jyväskylä Finland
| | - Charlotte Desbois
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université, EPHE; Université des Antilles; Paris France
| | - Swanne Gordon
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions; University of Jyväskylä; Jyväskylä Finland
| | - Melanie McClure
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université, EPHE; Université des Antilles; Paris France
| | - Marianne Elias
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université, EPHE; Université des Antilles; Paris France
| | - Ossi Nokelainen
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions; University of Jyväskylä; Jyväskylä Finland
| | - Doris Gomez
- Univ Montpellier, Univ Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, EPHE, IRD; CEFE; Montpellier France
- INSP, Sorbonne Université; CNRS; Paris France
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Merrill RM, Rastas P, Martin SH, Melo MC, Barker S, Davey J, McMillan WO, Jiggins CD. Genetic dissection of assortative mating behavior. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e2005902. [PMID: 30730873 PMCID: PMC6366751 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2005902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of new species is made easier when traits under divergent ecological selection are also mating cues. Such ecological mating cues are now considered more common than previously thought, but we still know little about the genetic changes underlying their evolution or more generally about the genetic basis for assortative mating behaviors. Both tight physical linkage and the existence of large-effect preference loci will strengthen genetic associations between behavioral and ecological barriers, promoting the evolution of assortative mating. The warning patterns of Heliconius melpomene and H. cydno are under disruptive selection due to increased predation of nonmimetic hybrids and are used during mate recognition. We carried out a genome-wide quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis of preference behaviors between these species and showed that divergent male preference has a simple genetic basis. We identify three QTLs that together explain a large proportion (approximately 60%) of the difference in preference behavior observed between the parental species. One of these QTLs is just 1.2 (0-4.8) centiMorgans (cM) from the major color pattern gene optix, and, individually, all three have a large effect on the preference phenotype. Genomic divergence between H. cydno and H. melpomene is high but broadly heterogenous, and admixture is reduced at the preference-optix color pattern locus but not the other preference QTLs. The simple genetic architecture we reveal will facilitate the evolution and maintenance of new species despite ongoing gene flow by coupling behavioral and ecological aspects of reproductive isolation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard M. Merrill
- Division of Evolutionary Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, München, Germany
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| | - Pasi Rastas
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Simon H. Martin
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Maria C. Melo
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
- IST Austria, Klosterburg, Austria
| | - Sarah Barker
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - John Davey
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Biology, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | | | - Chris D. Jiggins
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Martin SH, Davey JW, Salazar C, Jiggins CD. Recombination rate variation shapes barriers to introgression across butterfly genomes. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e2006288. [PMID: 30730876 PMCID: PMC6366726 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2006288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Hybridisation and introgression can dramatically alter the relationships among groups of species, leading to phylogenetic discordance across the genome and between populations. Introgression can also erode species differences over time, but selection against introgression at certain loci acts to maintain postmating species barriers. Theory predicts that species barriers made up of many loci throughout the genome should lead to a broad correlation between introgression and recombination rate, which determines the extent to which selection on deleterious foreign alleles will affect neutral alleles at physically linked loci. Here, we describe the variation in genealogical relationships across the genome among three species of Heliconius butterflies: H. melpomene (mel), H. cydno (cyd), and H. timareta (tim), using whole genomes of 92 individuals, and ask whether this variation can be explained by heterogeneous barriers to introgression. We find that species relationships vary predictably at the chromosomal scale. By quantifying recombination rate and admixture proportions, we then show that rates of introgression are predicted by variation in recombination rate. This implies that species barriers are highly polygenic, with selection acting against introgressed alleles across most of the genome. In addition, long chromosomes, which have lower recombination rates, produce stronger barriers on average than short chromosomes. Finally, we find a consistent difference between two species pairs on either side of the Andes, which suggests differences in the architecture of the species barriers. Our findings illustrate how the combined effects of hybridisation, recombination, and natural selection, acting at multitudes of loci over long periods, can dramatically sculpt the phylogenetic relationships among species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simon H. Martin
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - John W. Davey
- Department of Biology, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Camilo Salazar
- Biology Program, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Universidad del Rosario, Bogota, Colombia
| | - Chris D. Jiggins
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Westerman EL, VanKuren NW, Massardo D, Tenger-Trolander A, Zhang W, Hill RI, Perry M, Bayala E, Barr K, Chamberlain N, Douglas TE, Buerkle N, Palmer SE, Kronforst MR. Aristaless Controls Butterfly Wing Color Variation Used in Mimicry and Mate Choice. Curr Biol 2018; 28:3469-3474.e4. [PMID: 30415702 PMCID: PMC6234856 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.08.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Revised: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 08/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Neotropical Heliconius butterflies display a diversity of warningly colored wing patterns, which serve roles in both Müllerian mimicry and mate choice behavior. Wing pattern diversity in Heliconius is controlled by a small number of unlinked, Mendelian "switch" loci [1]. One of these, termed the K locus, switches between yellow and white color patterns, important mimicry signals as well as mating cues [2-4]. Furthermore, mate preference behavior is tightly linked to this locus [4]. K controls the distribution of white versus yellow scales on the wing, with a dominant white allele and a recessive yellow allele. Here, we combine fine-scale genetic mapping, genome-wide association studies, gene expression analyses, population and comparative genomics, and genome editing with CRISPR/Cas9 to characterize the molecular basis of the K locus in Heliconius and to infer its evolutionary history. We show that white versus yellow color variation in Heliconius cydno is due to alternate haplotypes at a putative cis-regulatory element (CRE) downstream of a tandem duplication of the homeodomain transcription factor aristaless. Aristaless1 (al1) and aristaless2 (al2) are differentially regulated between white and yellow wings throughout development with elevated expression of al1 in developing white wings, suggesting a role in repressing pigmentation. Consistent with this, knockout of al1 causes white wings to become yellow. The evolution of wing color in this group has been marked by retention of the ancestral yellow color in many lineages, a single origin of white coloration in H. cydno, and subsequent introgression of white color from H. cydno into H. melpomene.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erica L Westerman
- Department of Ecology & Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | - Nicholas W VanKuren
- Department of Ecology & Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Darli Massardo
- Department of Ecology & Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | | | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Ecology & Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA; State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, and Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Ryan I Hill
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA
| | - Michael Perry
- Department of Biology, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA
| | - Erick Bayala
- Department of Ecology & Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Kenneth Barr
- Department of Ecology & Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA; Department of Medicine, Section of Genetic Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Nicola Chamberlain
- FAS Center for Systems Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Tracy E Douglas
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, TX 77251, USA
| | - Nathan Buerkle
- Department of Organismal Biology & Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Stephanie E Palmer
- Department of Organismal Biology & Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Marcus R Kronforst
- Department of Ecology & Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Dell'Aglio DD, Troscianko J, McMillan WO, Stevens M, Jiggins CD. The appearance of mimetic Heliconius butterflies to predators and conspecifics. Evolution 2018; 72:2156-2166. [PMID: 30129174 PMCID: PMC6221148 DOI: 10.1111/evo.13583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2017] [Revised: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Adaptive coloration is under conflicting selection pressures: choosing potential mates and warning signaling against visually guided predators. Different elements of the color signal may therefore be tuned by evolution for different functions. We investigated how mimicry in four pairs of Heliconius comimics is potentially seen both from the perspective of butterflies and birds. Visual sensitivities of eight candidate avian predators were predicted through genetic analysis of their opsin genes. Using digital image color analysis, combined with bird and butterfly visual system models, we explored how predators and conspecifics may visualize mimetic patterns. Ultraviolet vision (UVS) birds are able to discriminate between the yellow and white colors of comimics better than violet vision (VS) birds. For Heliconius vision, males and females differ in their ability to discriminate comimics. Female vision and red filtering pigments have a significant effect on the perception of the yellow forewing band and the red ventral forewing pattern. A behavioral experiment showed that UV cues are used in mating behavior; removal of such cues was associated with an increased tendency to approach comimics as compared to conspecifics. We have therefore shown that visual signals can act to both reduce the cost of confusion in courtship and maintain the advantages of mimicry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Denise Dalbosco Dell'Aglio
- Butterfly Genetics Group, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| | - Jolyon Troscianko
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, United Kingdom
| | - W Owen McMillan
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| | - Martin Stevens
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, United Kingdom
| | - Chris D Jiggins
- Butterfly Genetics Group, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Rosser N, Freitas AVL, Huertas B, Joron M, Lamas G, Mérot C, Simpson F, Willmott KR, Mallet J, Dasmahapatra KK. Cryptic speciation associated with geographic and ecological divergence in two Amazonian Heliconius butterflies. Zool J Linn Soc 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zly046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Neil Rosser
- Department of Biology, University of York, Wentworth Way, Heslington, UK
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - André V L Freitas
- Departamento de Biologia Animal and Museu de Zoologia, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Blanca Huertas
- Life Sciences Department, Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | - Mathieu Joron
- Centre d’Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, UMR 5175 CNRS - Université de Montpellier - Université Paul Valéry Montpellier - EPHE, Montpellier, France
| | - Gerardo Lamas
- Museo de Historia Natural, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru
| | | | - Fraser Simpson
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London, UK
| | - Keith R Willmott
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - James Mallet
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Kristiansen EB, Finkbeiner SD, Hill RI, Prusa L, Mullen SP. Testing the adaptive hypothesis of Batesian mimicry among hybridizing North American admiral butterflies. Evolution 2018; 72:1436-1448. [PMID: 29851081 DOI: 10.1111/evo.13488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Batesian mimicry is characterized by phenotypic convergence between an unpalatable model and a palatable mimic. However, because convergent evolution may arise via alternative evolutionary mechanisms, putative examples of Batesian mimicry must be rigorously tested. Here, we used artificial butterfly facsimiles (N = 4000) to test the prediction that (1) palatable Limenitis lorquini butterflies should experience reduced predation when in sympatry with their putative model, Adelpha californica, (2) protection from predation on L. lorquini should erode outside of the geographical range of the model, and (3) mimetic color pattern traits are more variable in allopatry, consistent with relaxed selection for mimicry. We find support for these predictions, implying that this convergence is the result of selection for Batesian mimicry. Additionally, we conducted mark-recapture studies to examine the effect of mimicry and found that mimics survive significantly longer at sites where the model is abundant. Finally, in contrast to theoretical predictions, we found evidence that the Batesian model (A. californica) is protected from predation outside of its geographic range. We discuss these results considering the ongoing hybridization between L. lorquini and its sister species, L. weidemeyerii, and growing evidence that selection for mimicry predictably leads to a reduction in gene flow between nascent species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Evan B Kristiansen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, 02215
| | - Susan D Finkbeiner
- Department of Biological Sciences, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, 02215
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
| | - Ryan I Hill
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California, 95211
| | - Louis Prusa
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California, 95211
| | - Sean P Mullen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, 02215
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Darragh K, Vanjari S, Mann F, Gonzalez-Rojas MF, Morrison CR, Salazar C, Pardo-Diaz C, Merrill RM, McMillan WO, Schulz S, Jiggins CD. Male sex pheromone components in Heliconius butterflies released by the androconia affect female choice. PeerJ 2017; 5:e3953. [PMID: 29134139 PMCID: PMC5680698 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex-specific pheromones are known to play an important role in butterfly courtship, and may influence both individual reproductive success and reproductive isolation between species. Extensive ecological, behavioural and genetic studies of Heliconius butterflies have made a substantial contribution to our understanding of speciation. Male pheromones, although long suspected to play an important role, have received relatively little attention in this genus. Here, we combine morphological, chemical and behavioural analyses of male pheromones in the Neotropical butterfly Heliconius melpomene. First, we identify putative androconia that are specialized brush-like scales that lie within the shiny grey region of the male hindwing. We then describe putative male sex pheromone compounds, which are largely confined to the androconial region of the hindwing of mature males, but are absent in immature males and females. Finally, behavioural choice experiments reveal that females of H. melpomene, H. erato and H. timareta strongly discriminate against conspecific males which have their androconial region experimentally blocked. As well as demonstrating the importance of chemical signalling for female mate choice in Heliconius butterflies, the results describe structures involved in release of the pheromone and a list of potential male sex pheromone compounds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kathy Darragh
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama
| | - Sohini Vanjari
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama
| | - Florian Mann
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Maria F. Gonzalez-Rojas
- Biology Program, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Universidad del Rosario, Bogota, Colombia
| | - Colin R. Morrison
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, United States of America
| | - Camilo Salazar
- Biology Program, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Universidad del Rosario, Bogota, Colombia
| | - Carolina Pardo-Diaz
- Biology Program, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Universidad del Rosario, Bogota, Colombia
| | - Richard M. Merrill
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama
- Division of Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Stefan Schulz
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Chris D. Jiggins
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Dalbosco Dell'Aglio D, Akkaynak D, McMillan WO, Jiggins CD. Estimating the age of Heliconius butterflies from calibrated photographs. PeerJ 2017; 5:e3821. [PMID: 28970967 PMCID: PMC5622606 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Accepted: 08/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mating behaviour and predation avoidance in Heliconius involve visual colour signals; however, there is considerable inter-individual phenotypic variation in the appearance of colours. In particular, the red pigment varies from bright crimson to faded red. It has been thought that this variation is primarily due to pigment fading with age, although this has not been explicitly tested. Previous studies have shown the importance of red patterns in mate choice and that birds and butterflies might perceive these small colour differences. Using digital photography and calibrated colour images, we investigated whether the hue variation in the forewing dorsal red band of Heliconius melpomene rosina corresponds with age. We found that the red hue and age were highly associated, suggesting that red colour can indeed be used as a proxy for age in the study of wild-caught butterflies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Denise Dalbosco Dell'Aglio
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| | - Derya Akkaynak
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| | - W Owen McMillan
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| | - Chris D Jiggins
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Scordato ESC, Wilkins MR, Semenov G, Rubtsov AS, Kane NC, Safran RJ. Genomic variation across two barn swallow hybrid zones reveals traits associated with divergence in sympatry and allopatry. Mol Ecol 2017; 26:5676-5691. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.14276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Revised: 07/19/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Matthew R. Wilkins
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology The University of Colorado Boulder CO USA
- School of Biological Sciences University of Nebraska‐Lincoln Lincoln NE USA
| | - Georgy Semenov
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology University of Arizona Tucson AZ USA
- Institute of Systematics and Ecology of Animals Novosibirsk Russia
| | | | - Nolan C. Kane
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology The University of Colorado Boulder CO USA
| | - Rebecca J. Safran
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology The University of Colorado Boulder CO USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Willmott KR, Robinson Willmott JC, Elias M, Jiggins CD. Maintaining mimicry diversity: optimal warning colour patterns differ among microhabitats in Amazonian clearwing butterflies. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 284:20170744. [PMID: 28539522 PMCID: PMC5454276 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.0744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mimicry is one of the best-studied examples of adaptation, and recent studies have provided new insights into the role of mimicry in speciation and diversification. Classical Müllerian mimicry theory predicts convergence in warning signal among protected species, yet tropical butterflies are exuberantly diverse in warning colour patterns, even within communities. We tested the hypothesis that microhabitat partitioning in aposematic butterflies and insectivorous birds can lead to selection for different colour patterns in different microhabitats and thus help maintain mimicry diversity. We measured distribution across flight height and topography for 64 species of clearwing butterflies (Ithomiini) and their co-mimics, and 127 species of insectivorous birds, in an Amazon rainforest community. For the majority of bird species, estimated encounter rates were non-random for the two most abundant mimicry rings. Furthermore, most butterfly species in these two mimicry rings displayed the warning colour pattern predicted to be optimal for anti-predator defence in their preferred microhabitats. These conclusions were supported by a field trial using butterfly specimens, which showed significantly different predation rates on colour patterns in two microhabitats. We therefore provide the first direct evidence to support the hypothesis that different mimicry patterns can represent stable, community-level adaptations to differing biotic environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Keith R Willmott
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | | | - Marianne Elias
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, ISYEB-UMR 7205-CNRS, MNHN, UPMC, EPHE, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, 57 rue Cuvier, CP50, Paris 75005, France
| | - Chris D Jiggins
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Yang Y, Richards-Zawacki CL, Devar A, Dugas MB. Poison frog color morphs express assortative mate preferences in allopatry but not sympatry. Evolution 2016; 70:2778-2788. [PMID: 27704539 DOI: 10.1111/evo.13079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2016] [Revised: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The concurrent divergence of mating traits and preferences is necessary for the evolution of reproductive isolation via sexual selection, and such coevolution has been demonstrated in diverse lineages. However, the extent to which assortative mate preferences are sufficient to drive reproductive isolation in nature is less clear. Natural contact zones between lineages divergent in traits and preferences provide exceptional opportunities for testing the predicted evolutionary consequences of such divergence. The strawberry poison frog (Oophaga pumilio) displays extreme color polymorphism in and around the young Bocas del Toro archipelago. In a transition zone between red and blue allopatric lineages, we asked whether female preferences diverged along with coloration, and whether any divergent preferences persist in a zone of sympatry. When choosing among red, blue and phenotypically intermediate males, females from monomorphic red and monomorphic blue populations both expressed assortative preferences. However, red, blue, and intermediate females from the contact zone all preferred red males, suggesting that divergent preferences may be insufficient to effect behavioral isolation. Our results highlight the complexity of behavioral isolation, and the need for studies that can reveal the circumstances under which divergent preferences do and do not contribute to speciation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yusan Yang
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, 70118.,Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 15260.,Current Address: Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, 2429 Fifth Ave, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 15260
| | - Corinne L Richards-Zawacki
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, 70118.,Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 15260.,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancon, Republica de Panama
| | - Anisha Devar
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, 70118
| | - Matthew B Dugas
- Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, 44106
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Rice AM, McQuillan MA, Seears HA, Warren JA. Population differentiation at a regional scale in spadefoot toads: contributions of distance and divergent selective environments. Curr Zool 2016; 62:193-206. [PMID: 29491906 PMCID: PMC5804232 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zow010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Accepted: 01/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The causes of population differentiation can provide insight into the origins of early barriers to gene flow. Two key drivers of population differentiation are geographic distance and local adaptation to divergent selective environments. When reproductive isolation arises because some populations of a species are under selection to avoid hybridization while others are not, population differentiation and even speciation can result. Spadefoot toad populations Spea multiplicata that are sympatric with a congener have undergone reinforcement. This reinforcement has resulted not only in increased reproductive isolation from the congener, but also in the evolution of reproductive isolation from nearby and distant conspecific allopatric populations. We used multiple approaches to evaluate the contributions of geographic distance and divergent selective environments to population structure across this regional scale in S. multiplicata, based on genotypes from six nuclear microsatellite markers. We compared groups of populations varying in both geographic location and in the presence of a congener. Hierarchical F-statistics and results from cluster analyses and discriminant analyses of principal components all indicate that geographic distance is the stronger contributor to genetic differentiation among S. multiplicata populations at a regional scale. However, we found evidence that adaptation to divergent selective environments also contributes to population structure. Our findings highlight how variation in the balance of evolutionary forces acting across a species' range can lead to variation in the relative contributions of geographic distance and local adaptation to population differentiation across different spatial scales.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amber M Rice
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA
| | - Michael A McQuillan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA
| | - Heidi A Seears
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA
| | - Joanna A Warren
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
The functional basis of wing patterning in Heliconius butterflies: the molecules behind mimicry. Genetics 2016; 200:1-19. [PMID: 25953905 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.114.172387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Wing-pattern mimicry in butterflies has provided an important example of adaptation since Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace proposed evolution by natural selection >150 years ago. The neotropical butterfly genus Heliconius played a central role in the development of mimicry theory and has since been studied extensively in the context of ecology and population biology, behavior, and mimicry genetics. Heliconius species are notable for their diverse color patterns, and previous crossing experiments revealed that much of this variation is controlled by a small number of large-effect, Mendelian switch loci. Recent comparative analyses have shown that the same switch loci control wing-pattern diversity throughout the genus, and a number of these have now been positionally cloned. Using a combination of comparative genetic mapping, association tests, and gene expression analyses, variation in red wing patterning throughout Heliconius has been traced back to the action of the transcription factor optix. Similarly, the signaling ligand WntA has been shown to control variation in melanin patterning across Heliconius and other butterflies. Our understanding of the molecular basis of Heliconius mimicry is now providing important insights into a variety of additional evolutionary phenomena, including the origin of supergenes, the interplay between constraint and evolvability, the genetic basis of convergence, the potential for introgression to facilitate adaptation, the mechanisms of hybrid speciation in animals, and the process of ecological speciation.
Collapse
|
28
|
Twomey E, Vestergaard JS, Venegas PJ, Summers K. Mimetic Divergence and the Speciation Continuum in the Mimic Poison Frog Ranitomeya imitator. Am Nat 2015; 187:205-24. [PMID: 26807748 DOI: 10.1086/684439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
While divergent ecological adaptation can drive speciation, understanding the factors that facilitate or constrain this process remains a major goal in speciation research. Here, we study two mimetic transition zones in the poison frog Ranitomeya imitator, a species that has undergone a Müllerian mimetic radiation to establish four morphs in Peru. We find that mimetic morphs are strongly phenotypically differentiated, producing geographic clines with varying widths. However, distinct morphs show little neutral genetic divergence, and landscape genetic analyses implicate isolation by distance as the primary determinant of among-population genetic differentiation. Mate choice experiments suggest random mating at the transition zones, although certain allopatric populations show a preference for their own morph. We present evidence that this preference may be mediated by color pattern specifically. These results contrast with an earlier study of a third transition zone, in which a mimetic shift was associated with reproductive isolation. Overall, our results suggest that the three known mimetic transition zones in R. imitator reflect a speciation continuum, which we have characterized at the geographic, phenotypic, behavioral, and genetic levels. We discuss possible explanations for variable progress toward speciation, suggesting that multifarious selection on both mimetic color pattern and body size may be responsible for generating reproductive isolation.
Collapse
|
29
|
Thurman TJ, Seymoure BM. A bird's eye view of two mimetic tropical butterflies: coloration matches predator's sensitivity. J Zool (1987) 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- T. J. Thurman
- Redpath Museum and Department of Biology; McGill University; Montreal QC
- The Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute; Panamá Panama
| | - B. M. Seymoure
- School of Life Sciences; Arizona State University; Tempe AZ USA
- The Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute; Panamá Panama
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Su S, Lim M, Kunte K. Prey from the eyes of predators: Color discriminability of aposematic and mimetic butterflies from an avian visual perspective. Evolution 2015; 69:2985-94. [PMID: 26477885 DOI: 10.1111/evo.12800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2015] [Revised: 09/12/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Predation exerts strong selection on mimetic butterfly wing color patterns, which also serve other functions such as sexual selection. Therefore, specific selection pressures may affect the sexes and signal components differentially. We tested three predictions about the evolution of mimetic resemblance by comparing wing coloration of aposematic butterflies and their Batesian mimics: (a) females gain greater mimetic advantage than males and therefore are better mimics, (b) due to intersexual genetic correlations, sexually monomorphic mimics are better mimics than female-limited mimics, and (c) mimetic resemblance is better on the dorsal wing surface that is visible to predators in flight. Using a physiological model of avian color vision, we quantified mimetic resemblance from predators' perspective, which showed that female butterflies were better mimics than males. Mimetic resemblance in female-limited mimics was comparable to that in sexually monomorphic mimics, suggesting that intersexual genetic correlations did not constrain adaptive response to selection for female-limited mimicry. Mimetic resemblance on the ventral wing surface was better than that on the dorsal wing surface, implying stronger natural and sexual selection on ventral and dorsal surfaces, respectively. These results suggest that mimetic resemblance in butterfly mimicry rings has evolved under various selective pressures acting in a sex- and wing surface-specific manner.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shiyu Su
- National Center for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bangalore, India. .,Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Matthew Lim
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Krushnamegh Kunte
- National Center for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bangalore, India.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Supple MA, Papa R, Hines HM, McMillan WO, Counterman BA. Divergence with gene flow across a speciation continuum of Heliconius butterflies. BMC Evol Biol 2015; 15:204. [PMID: 26403600 PMCID: PMC4582928 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-015-0486-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A key to understanding the origins of species is determining the evolutionary processes that drive the patterns of genomic divergence during speciation. New genomic technologies enable the study of high-resolution genomic patterns of divergence across natural speciation continua, where taxa pairs with different levels of reproductive isolation can be used as proxies for different stages of speciation. Empirical studies of these speciation continua can provide valuable insights into how genomes diverge during speciation. Methods We examine variation across a handful of genomic regions in parapatric and allopatric populations of Heliconius butterflies with varying levels of reproductive isolation. Genome sequences were mapped to 2.2-Mb of the H. erato genome, including 1-Mb across the red color pattern locus and multiple regions unlinked to color pattern variation. Results Phylogenetic analyses reveal a speciation continuum of pairs of hybridizing races and incipient species in the Heliconius erato clade. Comparisons of hybridizing pairs of divergently colored races and incipient species reveal that genomic divergence increases with ecological and reproductive isolation, not only across the locus responsible for adaptive variation in red wing coloration, but also at genomic regions unlinked to color pattern. Discussion We observe high levels of divergence between the incipient species H. erato and H. himera, suggesting that divergence may accumulate early in the speciation process. Comparisons of genomic divergence between the incipient species and allopatric races suggest that limited gene flow cannot account for the observed high levels of divergence between the incipient species. Conclusions Our results provide a reconstruction of the speciation continuum across the H. erato clade and provide insights into the processes that drive genomic divergence during speciation, establishing the H. erato clade as a powerful framework for the study of speciation. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-015-0486-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Megan A Supple
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panamá City, Panamá. .,Biomathematics Program, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA. .,Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, 134 Linnaeus Way, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia.
| | - Riccardo Papa
- Department of Biology and Center for Applied Tropical Ecology and Conservation, University of Puerto Rico-Rio Piedras, 00931, San Juan, Puerto Rico.
| | - Heather M Hines
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, 208 Mueller Laboratory, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
| | - W Owen McMillan
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panamá City, Panamá.
| | - Brian A Counterman
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State University, 295 Lee Boulevard, Mississippi State, MS, 39762, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Rundle HD, Dyer KA. Reproductive character displacement of female mate preferences for male cuticular hydrocarbons inDrosophila subquinaria. Evolution 2015; 69:2625-37. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.12761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Revised: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 08/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Howard D. Rundle
- Department of Biology; University of Ottawa; Ottawa Ontario K1N 6N5 Canada
| | - Kelly A. Dyer
- Department of Genetics; University of Georgia; Athens Georgia 30602
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Merrill RM, Dasmahapatra KK, Davey JW, Dell'Aglio DD, Hanly JJ, Huber B, Jiggins CD, Joron M, Kozak KM, Llaurens V, Martin SH, Montgomery SH, Morris J, Nadeau NJ, Pinharanda AL, Rosser N, Thompson MJ, Vanjari S, Wallbank RWR, Yu Q. The diversification of Heliconius butterflies: what have we learned in 150 years? J Evol Biol 2015; 28:1417-38. [PMID: 26079599 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.12672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Revised: 06/03/2015] [Accepted: 06/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Research into Heliconius butterflies has made a significant contribution to evolutionary biology. Here, we review our understanding of the diversification of these butterflies, covering recent advances and a vast foundation of earlier work. Whereas no single group of organisms can be sufficient for understanding life's diversity, after years of intensive study, research into Heliconius has addressed a wide variety of evolutionary questions. We first discuss evidence for widespread gene flow between Heliconius species and what this reveals about the nature of species. We then address the evolution and diversity of warning patterns, both as the target of selection and with respect to their underlying genetic basis. The identification of major genes involved in mimetic shifts, and homology at these loci between distantly related taxa, has revealed a surprising predictability in the genetic basis of evolution. In the final sections, we consider the evolution of warning patterns, and Heliconius diversity more generally, within a broader context of ecological and sexual selection. We consider how different traits and modes of selection can interact and influence the evolution of reproductive isolation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R M Merrill
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| | | | - J W Davey
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - D D Dell'Aglio
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - J J Hanly
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - B Huber
- Department of Biology, University of York, York, UK.,Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité, ISYEB - UMR 7205 - CNRS, MNHN, UPMC, EPHE, Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France
| | - C D Jiggins
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| | - M Joron
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama.,Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité, ISYEB - UMR 7205 - CNRS, MNHN, UPMC, EPHE, Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France.,Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS - Université de Montpellier - Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier - EPHE, Montpellier 5, France
| | - K M Kozak
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - V Llaurens
- Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité, ISYEB - UMR 7205 - CNRS, MNHN, UPMC, EPHE, Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France
| | - S H Martin
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - S H Montgomery
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London, UK
| | - J Morris
- Department of Biology, University of York, York, UK
| | - N J Nadeau
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - A L Pinharanda
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - N Rosser
- Department of Biology, University of York, York, UK
| | - M J Thompson
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | - S Vanjari
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - R W R Wallbank
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Q Yu
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,School of Life Sciences, Chongqing University, Shapingba District, Chongqing, China
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Finkbeiner SD, Briscoe AD, Reed RD. Warning signals are seductive: relative contributions of color and pattern to predator avoidance and mate attraction in Heliconius butterflies. Evolution 2014; 68:3410-20. [PMID: 25200939 DOI: 10.1111/evo.12524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2013] [Accepted: 08/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Visual signaling in animals can serve many uses, including predator deterrence and mate attraction. In many cases, signals used to advertise unprofitability to predators are also used for intraspecific communication. Although aposematism and mate choice are significant forces driving the evolution of many animal phenotypes, the interplay between relevant visual signals remains little explored. Here, we address this question in the aposematic passion-vine butterfly Heliconius erato by using color- and pattern-manipulated models to test the contributions of different visual features to both mate choice and warning coloration. We found that the relative effectiveness of a model at escaping predation was correlated with its effectiveness at inducing mating behavior, and in both cases wing color was more predictive of presumptive fitness benefits than wing pattern. Overall, however, a combination of the natural (local) color and pattern was most successful for both predator deterrence and mate attraction. By exploring the relative contributions of color versus pattern composition in predation and mate preference studies, we have shown how both natural and sexual selection may work in parallel to drive the evolution of specific animal color patterns.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Susan D Finkbeiner
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, California, 92697; Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, 0843-03092, Panama.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Arias CF, Salazar C, Rosales C, Kronforst MR, Linares M, Bermingham E, McMillan WO. Phylogeography of Heliconius cydno and its closest relatives: disentangling their origin and diversification. Mol Ecol 2014; 23:4137-52. [PMID: 24962067 DOI: 10.1111/mec.12844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2014] [Revised: 06/14/2014] [Accepted: 06/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The origins of the extraordinary diversity within the Neotropics have long fascinated biologists and naturalists. Yet, the underlying factors that have given rise to this diversity remain controversial. To test the relative importance of Quaternary climatic change and Neogene tectonic and paleogeographic reorganizations in the generation of biodiversity, we examine intraspecific variation across the Heliconius cydno radiation and compare this variation to that within the closely related Heliconius melpomene and Heliconius timareta radiations. Our data, which consist of both mtDNA and genome-scan data from nearly 2250 amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) loci, reveal a complex history of differentiation and admixture at different geographic scales. Both mtDNA and AFLP phylogenies suggest that H. timareta and H. cydno are probably geographic extremes of the same radiation that probably diverged from H. melpomene prior to the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary, consistent with hypotheses of diversification that rely on geological events in the Pliocene. The mtDNA suggests that this radiation originated in Central America or the northwestern region of South America, with a subsequent colonization of the eastern and western slopes of the Andes. Our genome-scan data indicate significant admixture among sympatric H. cydno/H. timareta and H. melpomene populations across the extensive geographic ranges of the two radiations. Within H. cydno, both mtDNA and AFLP data indicate significant population structure at local scales, with strong genetic differences even among adjacent H. cydno colour pattern races. These genetic patterns highlight the importance of past geoclimatic events, intraspecific gene flow, and local population differentiation in the origin and establishment of new adaptive forms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carlos F Arias
- Department of Biology, McGill University, 1205 Ave. Dr. Penfield, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1B1; Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Apartado 0843-03092, Panamá, Panamá
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Merrill RM, Chia A, Nadeau NJ. Divergent warning patterns contribute to assortative mating between incipient Heliconius species. Ecol Evol 2014; 4:911-7. [PMID: 24772270 PMCID: PMC3997309 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2013] [Revised: 01/24/2014] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Theoretical models suggest that traits under divergent ecological selection, which also contribute to assortative mating, will facilitate speciation with gene flow. Evidence for these so-called "magic traits" now exists across a range of taxa. However, their importance during speciation will depend on the extent to which they contribute to reproductive isolation. Addressing this requires experiments to determine the exact cues involved as well as estimates of assortative mating in the wild. Heliconius butterflies are well known for their diversity of bright warning color patterns, and their amenability to experimental manipulation has provided an excellent opportunity to test their role in reproductive isolation. Here, we reveal that divergent color patterns contribute to mate recognition between the incipient species Heliconius himera and H. erato, a taxon pair for which assortative mating by color pattern has been demonstrated among wild individuals: First, we demonstrate that males are more likely to attempt to mate conspecific females; second, we show that males are more likely to approach pinned females that share their own warning pattern. These data are valuable as these taxa likely represent the early stages of speciation, but unusually also allow comparisons with rates of interbreeding between divergent ecologically relevant phenotypes measured in the wild.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Audrey Chia
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge Cambridge, U.K
| | - Nicola J Nadeau
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge Cambridge, U.K ; Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield Sheffield, U.K
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Klein AL, de Araújo AM. Sexual Size Dimorphism in the Color Pattern Elements of Two Mimetic Heliconius Butterflies. NEOTROPICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2013; 42:600-606. [PMID: 27193278 DOI: 10.1007/s13744-013-0157-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2012] [Accepted: 07/16/2013] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Sexual dichromatism and sexual dimorphism of body size are reasonably well studied in butterflies. Sexual size dimorphism of color pattern elements, however, is much less explored. The object of this study is Heliconius, a genus of butterflies well known for the coevolution between mate color preferences and mimicry. Given the sexual role of wing coloration, we investigated the existence of sexual size dimorphism in the wing color elements of a mimetic pair-Heliconius erato phyllis Fabricius and Heliconius besckei Ménétriés-and analyzed the allometric patterns of these traits. Correlation between size of elements in the dorsal and ventral wing surfaces were also estimated. In both species, three out of four elements were larger in males, but the non-dimorphic element was not the same. With regard to the allometric patterns, our most important finding was that smaller males of one species have proportionally larger yellow bars. This is the first study specifically concerning quantitative sexual dimorphism in the coloration of this well-known genus of butterflies and it opens new prospects to investigate sex-related natural selection and sexual selection of color pattern elements.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A L Klein
- Lab de Genética Ecológica, Depto de Genética, Univ Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Prédio 43323, sala 207, 91501-970, Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil.
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Genética e Biologia Molecular, Univ Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil.
| | - A M de Araújo
- Lab de Genética Ecológica, Depto de Genética, Univ Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Prédio 43323, sala 207, 91501-970, Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Genética e Biologia Molecular, Univ Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Martin MD, Mendelson TC. Incomplete behavioural isolation and asymmetric female preference in darter sister species (Percidae: Etheostoma). JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2013; 83:1371-1380. [PMID: 24580670 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.12239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
In this study, female preferences and behavioural isolation were estimated in a pair of allopatric sister species, Etheostoma duryi and Etheostoma flavum. Dichotomous mate preference trials were conducted to determine whether females prefer to associate with conspecific over heterospecific males and free-spawning assays were conducted to determine whether those preferences translated into behavioural isolation. Dichotomous mate choice trials revealed asymmetric female preference, as female E. flavum preferred conspecific males, whereas female E. duryi showed no preference. Free-spawning assays indicated that behavioural isolation remains incomplete between E. duryi and E. flavum (IB = 0·19). In addition to female mating preferences, male behaviour also appeared to influence mating outcomes as male E. flavum consistently courted conspecific females more often in free-spawning assays whereas male E. duryi did not. The data therefore suggest that despite marked divergence in male nuptial colour, divergence in female preferences between these species may not be sufficient to maintain species boundaries upon secondary contact. These results contrast with similar work in a sympatric darter species pair and may be explained by considering the contributions of reinforcement and differences in colour pattern as well as colour value.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M D Martin
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD 21250, U.S.A
| | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Zoppoth P, Koblmüller S, Sefc KM. Male courtship preferences demonstrate discrimination against allopatric colour morphs in a cichlid fish. J Evol Biol 2013; 26:577-86. [PMID: 23405907 PMCID: PMC3599476 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.12074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2012] [Revised: 10/15/2012] [Accepted: 11/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Whether premating isolation is achieved by male-specific, female-specific or sex-independent assortative preferences often depends on the underlying evolutionary processes. Here we test mate preferences of males presented with females of different allopatric colour variants of the cichlid fish Tropheus sp., a Lake Tanganyika endemic with rich geographical colour pattern variation, in which the strength of sexual isolation varies between populations. We conducted two-way mate choice experiments to compare behaviour of males of a red-bodied morph (population Moliro) towards females from their own population with behaviour towards females from four allopatric populations at different stages of phylogenetic and phenotypic divergence. Males courted same-population females significantly more intensely than females of other populations, and reduced their heteromorphic courtship efforts both with increasing genetic and increasing phenotypic distinctness of the females. In particular, females of a closely related red-bodied population received significantly more courtship than either genetically distinct, similarly coloured females (‘Kirschfleck’ morph) or genetically related, differently coloured females (‘yellow-blotch’ morph), both of which were courted similarly. Genetically and phenotypically distinct females (Tropheus polli) were not courted at all. Consistent with previous female-choice experiments, female courtship activity also decreased with increasing genetic distance from the males’ population. Given successful experimental and natural introgression between colour morphs and the pervasive allopatry of related variants, we consider it unlikely that assortative preferences of both sexes were driven by direct selection during periods of secondary contact or, in turn, drove colour pattern differentiation in allopatry. Rather, we suggest that sexual isolation evolved as by-product of allopatric divergence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P Zoppoth
- Department of Zoology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Merrill RM, Wallbank RWR, Bull V, Salazar PCA, Mallet J, Stevens M, Jiggins CD. Disruptive ecological selection on a mating cue. Proc Biol Sci 2012; 279:4907-13. [PMID: 23075843 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2012.1968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Adaptation to divergent ecological niches can result in speciation. Traits subject to disruptive selection that also contribute to non-random mating will facilitate speciation with gene flow. Such 'magic' or 'multiple-effect' traits may be widespread and important for generating biodiversity, but strong empirical evidence is still lacking. Although there is evidence that putative ecological traits are indeed involved in assortative mating, evidence that these same traits are under divergent selection is considerably weaker. Heliconius butterfly wing patterns are subject to positive frequency-dependent selection by predators, owing to aposematism and Müllerian mimicry, and divergent colour patterns are used by closely related species to recognize potential mates. The amenability of colour patterns to experimental manipulation, independent of other traits, presents an excellent opportunity to test their role during speciation. We conducted field experiments with artificial butterflies, designed to match natural butterflies with respect to avian vision. These were complemented with enclosure trials with live birds and real butterflies. Our experiments showed that hybrid colour-pattern phenotypes are attacked more frequently than parental forms. For the first time, we demonstrate disruptive ecological selection on a trait that also acts as a mating cue.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Merrill
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Mendelson TC, Shaw KL. The (mis)concept of species recognition. Trends Ecol Evol 2012; 27:421-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2012.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2012] [Revised: 03/29/2012] [Accepted: 04/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
42
|
Abstract
Early acquisition of mate preferences or mate-preference learning is associated with signal diversity and speciation in a wide variety of animal species. However, the diversity of mechanisms of mate-preference learning across taxa remains poorly understood. Using the butterfly Bicyclus anynana we uncover a mechanism that can lead to directional sexual selection via mate-preference learning: a bias in learning enhanced ornamentation, which is independent of preexisting mating biases. Naïve females mated preferentially with wild-type males over males with enhanced wing ornamentation, but females briefly exposed to enhanced males mated significantly more often with enhanced males. In contrast, females exposed to males with reduced wing ornamentation did not learn to prefer drab males. Thus, we observe both a learned change of a preexisting mating bias, and a bias in ability to learn enhanced male ornaments over reduced ornaments. Our findings demonstrate that females are able to change their preferences in response to a single social event, and suggest a role for biased learning in the evolution of visual sexual ornamentation.
Collapse
|
43
|
Richards-Zawacki CL, Wang IJ, Summers K. Mate choice and the genetic basis for colour variation in a polymorphic dart frog: inferences from a wild pedigree. Mol Ecol 2012; 21:3879-92. [PMID: 22650383 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2012.05644.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Understanding how reproductive barriers evolve during speciation remains an important question in evolution. Divergence in mating preferences may be a common first step in this process. The striking colour pattern diversity of strawberry dart frog (Dendrobates pumilio) populations has likely been shaped by sexual selection. Previous laboratory studies have shown that females attend to male coloration and prefer to court with males of their own colour, suggesting that divergent morphs may be reproductively isolated. To test this hypothesis, we used molecular data to estimate pedigree relationships from a polymorphic population. Whereas in the laboratory both red and yellow females preferred to court with males of their own phenotype, our pedigree shows a pattern of assortative mating only for red females. In the wild, yellow females appear to be less choosy about their mates, perhaps because they incur higher costs associated with searching than females of the more common red phenotype. We also used our pedigree to investigate the genetic basis for colour-pattern variation. The phenotype frequencies we observed were consistent with those expected if dorsal background coloration is controlled by a single locus, with complete dominance of red over yellow. Our results not only help clarify the role of sexual selection in reducing gene flow, but also shed light on the mechanisms underlying colour-pattern variation among sympatric colour morphs. The difference we observed between mating preferences measured under laboratory conditions and the pattern of mate choice observed in the wild highlight the importance of field studies for understanding behavioural reproductive isolation.
Collapse
|
44
|
Nadeau NJ, Whibley A, Jones RT, Davey JW, Dasmahapatra KK, Baxter SW, Quail MA, Joron M, ffrench-Constant RH, Blaxter ML, Mallet J, Jiggins CD. Genomic islands of divergence in hybridizing Heliconius butterflies identified by large-scale targeted sequencing. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2012; 367:343-53. [PMID: 22201164 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2011.0198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 274] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Heliconius butterflies represent a recent radiation of species, in which wing pattern divergence has been implicated in speciation. Several loci that control wing pattern phenotypes have been mapped and two were identified through sequencing. These same gene regions play a role in adaptation across the whole Heliconius radiation. Previous studies of population genetic patterns at these regions have sequenced small amplicons. Here, we use targeted next-generation sequence capture to survey patterns of divergence across these entire regions in divergent geographical races and species of Heliconius. This technique was successful both within and between species for obtaining high coverage of almost all coding regions and sufficient coverage of non-coding regions to perform population genetic analyses. We find major peaks of elevated population differentiation between races across hybrid zones, which indicate regions under strong divergent selection. These 'islands' of divergence appear to be more extensive between closely related species, but there is less clear evidence for such islands between more distantly related species at two further points along the 'speciation continuum'. We also sequence fosmid clones across these regions in different Heliconius melpomene races. We find no major structural rearrangements but many relatively large (greater than 1 kb) insertion/deletion events (including gain/loss of transposable elements) that are variable between races.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicola J Nadeau
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
Egger B, Sefc KM, Makasa L, Sturmbauer C, Salzburger W. Introgressive hybridization between color morphs in a population of cichlid fishes twelve years after human-induced secondary admixis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 103:515-22. [PMID: 22563125 DOI: 10.1093/jhered/ess013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
In the extremely species-rich haplochromine cichlid fishes of the East African Great Lakes, prezygotic isolation between closely related species is often maintained by color-assortative mating. In 1998, local fisherman working for the ornamental fish trade released different color morphs of the cichlid genus Tropheus into a small harbor basin in the southern part of Lake Tanganyika. This artificial amalgamation of color morphs provides a unique possibility to study mating patterns in cichlids in a natural environment over time. In a precursor study, we analyzed genotypes and phenotypes of almost 500 individuals sampled between 1999 and 2001 and uncovered a marked degree of color-assortative mating, which depended on the level of color pattern dissimilarity between morphs. Twelve years after introduction of nonindigenous morphs, we again sampled Tropheus individuals from the harbor basin and an adjacent, originally pure population and analyzed phenotypes (coloration) and genotypes (mitochondrial control region and 9 microsatellite loci) to assess the current status of the admixed population. Principal component analyses of color score data and population assignment tests demonstrate an increasing level of introgressive hybridization between morphs but also some ongoing color-assortative mating within morphs. The observed mating pattern might have been influenced by fluctuating environmental conditions such as periodic algal blooms or increased sedimentation causing turbid conditions in an otherwise clear lake.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Egger
- Zoological Institute, University of Basel, Vesalgasse 1, 4051 Basel, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
Bonduriansky R. Sexual Selection and Conflict as Engines of Ecological Diversification. Am Nat 2011; 178:729-45. [DOI: 10.1086/662665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
|
47
|
Genes versus phenotypes in the study of speciation. Genetica 2011; 139:649-61. [PMID: 21442403 DOI: 10.1007/s10709-011-9562-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2010] [Accepted: 02/28/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Despite persistent debate on the nature of species, the widespread adoption of Mayr's biological species concept has led to a heavy emphasis on the importance of reproductive isolation to the speciation process. Equating the origin of species with the evolution of reproductive isolation has become common practice in the study of speciation, coincident with an increasing focus on elucidating the specific genetic changes (i.e.-speciation genes) underlying intrinsic reproductive barriers between species. In contrast, some have recognized that reproductive isolation is usually a signature effect rather than a primary cause of speciation. Here we describe a research paradigm that shifts emphasis from effects to causes in order to resolve this apparent contradiction and galvanize the study of speciation. We identify major elements necessary for a balanced and comprehensive investigation of the origin of species and place the study of so-called "speciation genes" into its appropriate context. We emphasize the importance of characterizing diverging phenotypes, identifying relevant evolutionary forces acting on those phenotypes and their role in the causal origins of reduced gene flow between incipient species, and the nature of the genetic and phenotypic boundaries that results from such processes. This approach has the potential to unify the field of speciation research, by allowing us to make better "historical" predictions about the fate of diverging populations regardless of taxon.
Collapse
|
48
|
Surridge AK, Lopez-Gomollon S, Moxon S, Maroja LS, Rathjen T, Nadeau NJ, Dalmay T, Jiggins CD. Characterisation and expression of microRNAs in developing wings of the neotropical butterfly Heliconius melpomene. BMC Genomics 2011; 12:62. [PMID: 21266089 PMCID: PMC3039609 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-12-62] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2010] [Accepted: 01/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Heliconius butterflies are an excellent system for studies of adaptive convergent and divergent phenotypic traits. Wing colour patterns are used as signals to both predators and potential mates and are inherited in a Mendelian manner. The underlying genetic mechanisms of pattern formation have been studied for many years and shed light on broad issues, such as the repeatability of evolution. In Heliconius melpomene, the yellow hindwing bar is controlled by the HmYb locus. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression that have key roles in many biological processes, including development. miRNAs could act as regulators of genes involved in wing development, patterning and pigmentation. For this reason we characterised miRNAs in developing butterfly wings and examined differences in their expression between colour pattern races. RESULTS We sequenced small RNA libraries from two colour pattern races and detected 142 Heliconius miRNAs with homology to others found in miRBase. Several highly abundant miRNAs were differentially represented in the libraries between colour pattern races. These candidates were tested further using Northern blots, showing that differences in expression were primarily due to developmental stage rather than colour pattern. Assembly of sequenced reads to the HmYb region identified hme-miR-193 and hme-miR-2788; located 2380 bp apart in an intergenic region. These two miRNAs are expressed in wings and show an upregulation between 24 and 72 hours post-pupation, indicating a potential role in butterfly wing development. A search for miRNAs in all available H. melpomene BAC sequences (~2.5 Mb) did not reveal any other miRNAs and no novel miRNAs were predicted. CONCLUSIONS Here we describe the first butterfly miRNAs and characterise their expression in developing wings. Some show differences in expression across developing pupal stages and may have important functions in butterfly wing development. Two miRNAs were located in the HmYb region and were expressed in developing pupal wings. Future work will examine the expression of these miRNAs in different colour pattern races and identify miRNA targets among wing patterning genes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alison K Surridge
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB23EJ, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Merrill RM, Gompert Z, Dembeck LM, Kronforst MR, McMillan WO, Jiggins CD. Mate preference across the speciation continuum in a clade of mimetic butterflies. Evolution 2011; 65:1489-500. [PMID: 21521198 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2010.01216.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Premating behavioral isolation is increasingly recognized as an important part of ecological speciation, where divergent natural selection causes the evolution of reproductive barriers. A number of studies have now demonstrated that traits under divergent natural selection also affect mate preferences. However, studies of single species pairs only capture a snapshot of the speciation process, making it difficult to assess the role of mate preferences throughout the entire process. Heliconius butterflies are well known for their brightly colored mimetic warning patterns, and previous studies have shown that these patterns are also used as mate recognition cues. Here, we present mate preference data for four pairs of sister taxa, representing different stages of divergence, which together allow us to compare diverging mate preferences across the continuum of Heliconius speciation. Using a novel Bayesian approach, our results support a model of ecological speciation in which strong premating isolation arises early, but continues to increase throughout the continuum from polymorphic populations through to "good," sympatric ecologically divergent species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Merrill
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, United Kingdom.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
50
|
Kisdi É, Priklopil T. Evolutionary branching of a magic trait. J Math Biol 2010; 63:361-97. [DOI: 10.1007/s00285-010-0377-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2010] [Revised: 10/12/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
|