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Donat Almagro L, Moutinho I, Mendes de Oliveira V, Ferreira Gonçalves G. Impact of stress on the tear production of healthy cats. J Feline Med Surg 2024; 26:1098612X241233116. [PMID: 38546181 PMCID: PMC10983608 DOI: 10.1177/1098612x241233116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aimed to determine the impact of acute stress on tear production in companion cats to provide a basis for minimizing stress-inducing stimuli during ophthalmic evaluations. METHODS A total of 24 healthy owned cats (12 males, 12 females) of mixed breed, aged 8 months to 7 years, with no history of ocular diseases, were selected for the study. The cats were housed in individual cages under controlled conditions for 6 days. The Schirmer tear test-1 (STT-1) was performed in the morning (between 9:00 am and 11:00 am) using test strips from the same batch. The first test (without stress) was conducted on the fifth day of acclimation, and the second test (with stress) on the sixth day. The stress stimulus consisted of recordings of barking dogs, cats fighting and the murmuring of people. For both tests, the heart rate was assessed with a stethoscope before, during and after the tests, and the environmental stress level was also evaluated. Results are presented as mean ± SD and 95% confidence interval (CI). RESULTS The study found that STT-1 values were significantly higher (P = 0.009) with stress (22.2 ± 6.0 mm/min [95% CI 19.9-24.6]) than without stress (17.5 ± 6.9 mm/min [95% CI 14.8-20.2]). Similarly, the heart rate was significantly higher (P = 0.028) in stress vs non-stress conditions (213.4 ± 37.5 beats per minute [bpm] [95% CI 198.7-228.1] vs 171.5 ± 28.6 bpm [95% CI 160.3-182.7], respectively), and the environmental stress score was significantly higher (P <0.001) in stress vs non-stress conditions (3.3 ± 0.5 [95% CI 3.1-3.5] vs 1.2 ± 0.4 [95% CI 1.1-1.4], respectively). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Stress increased tear production in cats. Although the mean STT-1 value obtained under stress conditions was within the normal range, stress can influence the test results. The use of cat friendly handling techniques facilitates execution of the STT-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larissa Donat Almagro
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul, Realeza, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Izabelle Moutinho
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul, Realeza, Paraná, Brazil
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James-Jenks EM, Pinard CL. Topical Ocular Therapeutics in Small Animals. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2023; 53:473-492. [PMID: 36813396 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2022.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
Abstract
This article reviews the administration of common topical ophthalmic medications, in relation to factors influencing absorption including composition of topical ophthalmic preparations, and potential systemic effects. Commonly prescribed, commercially available topical ophthalmic medications are discussed with respect to pharmacology, their indications for use, and adverse effects. Knowledge of topical ocular pharmacokinetics is essential for the management of veterinary ophthalmic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth M James-Jenks
- Department of Clinical Studies, University of Guelph, Ontario Veterinary College, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Chantale L Pinard
- Department of Clinical Studies, University of Guelph, Ontario Veterinary College, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada
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Madruga GM, Ribeiro AP, Martins LR. Effect of 0.15% sodium hyaluronate on tear film breakup time in healthy anesthetized cats. Vet Ophthalmol 2023; 26:46-52. [PMID: 36227708 DOI: 10.1111/vop.13030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aimed to evaluate the effect of 0.15% sodium hyaluronate (SH) on tear film breakup time (TFBT) in healthy anesthetized cats. PROCEDURES Forty cats undergoing elective surgery were enrolled. TFBT was assessed before anesthesia to obtain baseline values. As a preanesthetic medication, cats received midazolam, tramadol, and cetamine combined in the same syringe. For anesthetic induction and maintenance, propofol and isoflurane were used. After a 15 min stabilization period to achieve the surgical anesthetic plane, one eye was treated with one drop of SH, while the other eye received saline and served as a control. TFBT was measured at the end of the general anesthesia (T40) and 35 (T75) and 80 min (T120) after the termination of the anesthesia. TFBT values were compared between the control and SH-treated eyes; both values were also compared with the baseline values (p < .05). RESULTS In the control eyes, TFBT significantly decreased from baseline at all time points (p < .001), while in SH-treated eyes, TFBT significantly increased from baseline only at T40 (p < .0001). In SH-treated eyes, TFBT was significantly higher than that in the control eyes at all time points (p < .001). CONCLUSIONS In healthy cats, TFBT decreases significantly after 40 min of general anesthesia, and one drop of 0.15% sodium hyaluronate was able to maintain the stability of the tear film for up to 75 min in treated eyes. However, the isolated effect of each drug used in our anesthetic protocol on TFBT should be executed in further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Letícia Ramos Martins
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso, Cuiabá, Brazil
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Oksa‐Minaļto J, Maggs DJ, Akimova J, Ilgaža A, Sebbag L. Ocular surface physiology and aqueous tear secretion in cats of diverse cephalic conformations. Vet Ophthalmol 2022; 26 Suppl 1:109-118. [PMID: 36519689 DOI: 10.1111/vop.13051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe normative ocular surface and aqueous tear testing data for cats of various cephalic conformation. ANIMALS STUDIED Fifty-three healthy adult cats (11 British Shorthair, 11 Burmese, 10 Devon Rex, 10 Scottish Fold, and 11 Sphynx). PROCEDURES Blink rate, corneal tactile sensation (CTS), and Schirmer tear test with or without topical anesthesia (STT-1, STT-2) and with nasolacrimal stimulation (NL-STT1, NL-STT2) were assessed. Palpebral fissure length (PFL) and skull morphology were measured, and cephalic index (CI) and craniofacial ratio (CFR) calculated. RESULTS Mean ± SD test results were as follows: blink rate (5.0 ± 2.3 blinks/min), CTS (3.2 ± 0.7 cm), STT-1 (11.2 ± 4.3 mm/min), STT-2 (6.7 ± 3.6 mm/min), NL-STT1 (13.4 ± 5.7 mm/min), NL-STT2 (13.5 ± 5.2 mm/min), and PFL (2.0 ± 0.2 cm). Corneal sensitivity did not differ significantly among breeds (p = .152) but was negatively correlated with body weight (r = -.32, p = .019). STT-1 significantly differed among breeds (p < .001) and was lowest in Sphynx cats (8.7 ± 4.3 mm/min). A positive correlation was detected between STT-1 values at 30 and 60 s (r = .98; p < .001). The nasolacrimal reflex significantly increased STT in anesthetized and unanesthetized eyes (approximately +100% and +20%, respectively; p ≤ .002). STT-1 tended to be higher in intact versus neutered cats (p = .062). Age did not impact any test result (p ≥ .085). CONCLUSIONS Normative data described here serve as a baseline for future studies assessing ocular surface disease in multiple feline breeds. Unlike dogs, brachycephalic cats did not have lower CTS or STT-1 than non-brachycephalic cats.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David J. Maggs
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis California USA
| | | | - Aija Ilgaža
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Preclinical Institute, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies Jelgava Latvia
| | - Lionel Sebbag
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Rehovot Israel
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Corsi F, Arteaga K, Corsi F, Masi M, Cattaneo A, Selleri P, Crasta M, Peruccio C, Guandalini A. Clinical parameters obtained during tear film examination in domestic rabbits. BMC Vet Res 2022; 18:398. [DOI: 10.1186/s12917-022-03492-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
One of the contributing factors to ocular surface health is a stable precorneal tear film. Considering the increasing interest in rabbits as pets and the limited literature available on domestic rabbit tearing, the aim of this study was to establish normative data for examination of the tear film in domestic rabbits.
Results
The study included 75 client-owned domestic Holland Lop rabbits (150 eyes). The following examinations were performed in each eye: Schirmer tear test-1, tear osmometry, interferometry, tear meniscus height measurement and meibography (quantifying meibomian gland loss as a percentage). The resulting median (95% central range) values were 10.0 (5.0–17.3) mm/min for the Schirmer tear test-1, 345.0 (280.5–376.1) mOsm/L for tear osmolarity, grade 2 (1–4) of interferometry, 0.28 (0.20–0.47) mm for tear meniscus height and 0.0 (0.0–67.6) % meibomian gland loss. A significant association was found between tear osmolarity and age, with an estimated decrease of − 4.0 mOsm/L with each additional year of age (p < 0.001). The distributions of interferometry grades were significantly different between males and females (p < 0.001), with grade 1 and grade 2 being the most frequent in females and males, respectively. A weak negative correlation was also observed between interferometry grade and the percentage of meibomian gland loss (r = − 0.22, p = 0.006).
Conclusions
This is an original study that documents extensive tear film parameters in healthy Holland Lop rabbits. The results can be used as normative data for the examination of the tear film in this lagomorph breed.
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Faghihi H, Rajaei SM. Tear film breakup time and Schirmer tear test in normal dogs: Effects of age, sex, reproductive status, skull type, and nasolacrimal duct patency. Vet Ophthalmol 2022; 26 Suppl 1:72-80. [PMID: 36039507 DOI: 10.1111/vop.13021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The present study aimed to determine the effects of age, sex, reproductive status, skull type, and nasolacrimal duct (NLD) patency on tear production and tear film breakup time (TBUT) in normal dogs. ANIMALS STUDIED The ophthalmic data of 82 healthy adult dogs were evaluated in this study. PROCEDURES Age, sex, breed, and reproductive status were recorded. Schirmer tear test (STT) and TBUT were assessed in all dogs, and interferometry was available for the selected dogs. The Jones test was used to evaluate NLD patency. The cephalic index (CI) was calculated for each dog (skull width/skull length ×100). RESULTS Mean (SD) values for the STT results for the right (OD) and left (OS) eyes were 20.6 (2.7) and 20.2 (2.7) mm/min, respectively. Mean (SD) TBUT values for OD and OS were 6.5 (2.5) and 6.1 (2.3) mm/min in all dogs, respectively. Sex and reproductive status had no significant effect on STT and TBUT (P[OU] > 0.05). Skull type significantly affected TBUT in both eyes (P(OD) = 0.01, P(OS) = 0.003), but had no effect on STT (P[OU] > 0.3). Age had no correlation with STT and TBUT in either eye (P[OU] > 0.05). STT and TBUT had no correlation in either eye (P[OU] > 0.2). NLD patency had no significant effect on STT or TBUT (P[OU] > 0.1). CONCLUSIONS The results of this study showed lower TBUT values in brachycephalic breeds than in non-brachycephalic breeds. A compensatory increase in STT values was observed in dogs with low TBUT values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Houman Faghihi
- Ophthalmology Section, Negah Veterinary Centre, Tehran, Iran
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Brito FLDC, Voitena JN, Marinho TOC, Moore BA, Montiani-Ferreira F. Assessment of tear film osmolarity using the IPen ® Vet osmometer in Pug and Shih-Tzu dogs with and without keratoconjunctivitis sicca. Vet Ophthalmol 2021; 25:219-224. [PMID: 34929058 DOI: 10.1111/vop.12966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To establish tear film osmolarity (TFO) values in Pugs and Shih-Tzus, with and without keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS). ANIMALS STUDIED A total of 82 adult dogs were evaluated. PROCEDURE The inclusion criteria for the healthy group was a Schirmer tear test (STT-1) ≥15 mm/min with no clinical signs of KCS, whereas those with KCS had clinical signs and a STT-1 ≤10 mm/min. All animals underwent complete ophthalmological evaluation prior to STT-1 and TFO. Student's t tests were used to compare STT-1 and TFO in KCS and healthy eyes as well as possible differences in TFO between breeds. In addition, a linear regression to model the relationship between the two variables (STT-1 and TFO) was performed. A P-value ≤ 0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS STT-1 results were significantly lower (p = 0.0001) in the KCS group (4.46 ± 1.74) compared with the control group (18.80 ± 2.02). Mean TFO results were significantly higher in the KCS group (353.02 ± 16.58 mOsm/L) (p < 0.0001) compared with the control group (315.27 ± 6.15 mOsm/L). The formula Y = 365.059-2.625 * X significantly predicts (p < 0.001) the value of the variable Y (TFO mOsm/L) as a function of the variable X (STT-1 mm/min), with a coefficient of determination of 0.71. CONCLUSIONS The results revealed differences in TFO and STT-1 between KCS and healthy dogs. Additionally, STT-1 and TFO values were correlated with the aim to use STT-1 values to predict TFO values in brachycephalic breeds.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jéssica N Voitena
- Faculdade Qualittas, São Paulo, Brazil.,Pós-graduadas em Oftalmologia Veterinária e Microcirurgia Ocular, Faculdade Qualittas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Tatiane O C Marinho
- Faculdade Qualittas, São Paulo, Brazil.,Pós-graduadas em Oftalmologia Veterinária e Microcirurgia Ocular, Faculdade Qualittas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Bret A Moore
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
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Pe'er O, Chiu E, Arad D, Lelescu C, Ross M, Ofri R. Does the order of intraocular pressure measurement affect tonometry results? Vet Ophthalmol 2021; 24 Suppl 1:146-153. [PMID: 33538076 DOI: 10.1111/vop.12861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine whether the order of intraocular pressure (IOP) measurement affects readings, regardless of which eye is measured first. METHODS Intraocular pressure was measured in 31 and 41 dogs using applanation and rebound tonometry, respectively. Initially, IOP was measured in the first (randomly chosen) eye (reading A), followed by measurement in the fellow eye (reading B), and a third (repeated) measurement in the first eye (reading C). After 15 minutes, measurements were repeated in reverse order (readings D - F). RESULTS Applanation tonometry revealed significant differences between readings A & B (15.6 ± 2.3 and 14.8 ± 2.7 mm Hg, respectively, p = .02), A & C (15.6 ± 2.3 and 14.5 ± 2.4 mm Hg, respectively, p = .002), D & E (14.5 ± 2.3 and 13.7 ± 2.1 mm Hg, respectively, p = .02), D & F (14.5 ± 2.3 and 13.9 ± 1.9 mm Hg, respectively, p = .05), and A & E (15.6 ± 2.3 and 13.7 ± 2.1 mm Hg, respectively, p = .001). Rebound tonometry yielded similar results, with additional differences between B & C (19.1 ± 3.0 and 18.2 ± 2.4 mm Hg, respectively, p = .002) and E & F (18.7 ± 3.3 and 18.2 ± 3.3 mm Hg, respectively, p = .02). CONCLUSIONS Intraocular pressure measured in the first eye, whether right or left, is higher than in the fellow eye. Repeated tonometry in the same visit could result in a significant IOP decrease, though the magnitude may not be clinically appreciable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oren Pe'er
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Eni Chiu
- Petshome Veterinary Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Dikla Arad
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Cristina Lelescu
- The University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca (USAMVCN), Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Maya Ross
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Ron Ofri
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
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Sebbag L, Uhl LK, Schneider B, Hayes B, Olds J, Mochel JP. Investigation of Schirmer tear test-1 for measurement of tear production in cats in various environmental settings and with different test durations. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2020; 256:681-686. [PMID: 32125244 DOI: 10.2460/javma.256.6.681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess reliability of the Schirmer tear test-1 (STT-1) for measurement of tear production in cats in various environments, investigate whether sympathetic stimulation impacts measurements, and determine whether meaningful conclusions regarding lacrimation in cats can be drawn from STT-1 measurements obtained with STT strip placement for < 1 minute. ANIMALS 176 cats examined in a private practice (n = 100), a feral cat clinic (56), or a veterinary teaching hospital (20). PROCEDURES The STT-1 was performed in both eyes of each cat. Measurements were recorded at 10- or 30-second intervals for 1 minute. Cats at the teaching hospital were tested once in a quiet examination room (unstimulated conditions) and once in the same room with loud prerecorded noises (stimulated conditions), with a 30-minute interval between tests and evaluation of cats' heart rates before and after STT-1. Data were analyzed with parametric statistical tools and a nonlinear mixed-effect model. RESULTS 30- and 60-second STT-1 measurements were significantly correlated (r = 0.94). The STT-1 measurements did not differ under nonstimulated versus stimulated conditions, despite significant changes in heart rates that indicated sympathetic stimulation. A hyperbolic model of STT-1 kinetics was validated, allowing for extrapolation of measurements obtained in < 60 seconds and generation of reference values (95% predictive intervals) for various test durations. Median (95% predictive interval) 30- and 60-second STT-1 measurements were 9.1 mm (4.8 to 15.6 mm) and 14.3 mm (8.2 to 22.3 mm), respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE The STT-1 was a reliable diagnostic test in all settings; results were not affected by sympathetic stimulation, and a shorter duration of testing could be considered in selected cases.
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Lamkin ID, Zimmerman KL, Smith Fleming KM, Martins BC. Osmolarity of basal and reflex tears of normal dogs. Vet Ophthalmol 2020; 23:747-753. [PMID: 32584492 DOI: 10.1111/vop.12798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 05/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare basal and reflex tear osmolarity in healthy dogs and to evaluate for correlation among tear film osmolarity, tear production, and tear fern pattern. ANIMALS STUDIED The population consisted of 22 healthy adult dogs. PROCEDURES Reflex tear osmolarity was measured in both eyes using the I-PEN® VET osmometer 30 minutes following the Schirmer tear test (STT-1) measurement. Subsequently, two minutes following topical anesthetic application, the lacrimal lake and conjunctival fornices were dried, and 3 minutes later, basal tear osmolarity was measured. Tears were extracted from the dye-free STT-1 strip by centrifugation, placed on a glass slide, and the ferning pattern was determined by light microscopy. Comparisons between basal and reflex tears were performed with one-way ANOVA. Correlations between tear osmolarity, STT-1, and tear ferning were verified by Pearson's correlation coefficient. RESULTS No statistical difference was found between right and left eyes for STT-1, tear fern pattern, and osmolarity of reflex or basal tears (P < .05). There was no statistical difference between osmolarity of basal and reflex tears among individuals (P < .05). No correlation was detected between tear fern pattern and osmolarity of reflex tears. A weak positive correlation was detected between STT-1 values and osmolarity of reflex, but not basal tears. CONCLUSIONS The osmolarity of basal tears did not differ from that of reflex tears. A positive weak correlation exists between tear production and osmolarity of reflex tears. No correlation was detected between tear osmolarity measured by handheld osmometer and tear ferning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irini D Lamkin
- Veterinary Clinical Medicine Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois - Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Kelli L Zimmerman
- Veterinary Clinical Medicine Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois - Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Kathryn M Smith Fleming
- Veterinary Clinical Medicine Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois - Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Bianca C Martins
- Veterinary Clinical Medicine Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois - Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
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Veloso JF, Oriá AP, Raposo ACS, Lacerda AJ, Silva CVB, Lima LF, Carlos RSA. The use of tear ferning test in cats for evaluation of ocular surface. Acta Vet Scand 2020; 62:23. [PMID: 32456655 PMCID: PMC7248460 DOI: 10.1186/s13028-020-00523-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The tear film is a trilaminar fluid composed mainly of lipids, electrolytes, proteins and water. It is responsible for lubrication, nutrition and protection against microbial and toxic agents. Disruption of any these components may weaken the ocular surface, making it more susceptible to disease. Increasing evidence suggests that qualitative tear film deficiencies are an important predisposing factor or cause of some of the most common and challenging ocular diseases in cats, including conjunctivitis, corneal ulcer, spontaneous chronic corneal epithelial defects (SCCED), pigmentary keratitis, corneal sequestrum and dry eye syndrome. The aim of this study was to describe the tear ferning test in healthy cats and to compare the results by using two grading scales for humans. Tear samples were collected using Schirmer tear test (STT) strips from 60 healthy cats, and, after centrifuging the strips to obtain the samples, the aliquot was placed on clean microscope glass until it dried and the tear ferning patterns were observed under a polarized light microscope and classified according to the Rolando and Masmali grading scales. Results Ferning patterns in the lower grades showed full crystallization with high density, without gaps between the ferns and branches, forming several nuclei that were easily distinguished. According to the Rolando scale, 50% (60/120), 46.6% (56/120) and 3.4% (4/120) of eyes showed type I, II and III patterns, respectively. According to the Masmali scale, 15% (18/120), 56.6% (68/120 eyes) and 28.4% (34/120) of eyes showed grade 0, 1 and 2 patterns, respectively. No difference was observed between the right and left eyes for both Rolando (P = 0.225) and Masmali (P = 0.683) scales. Conclusions The tear ferning test is a qualitative test that can be used in cats as a complementary evaluation of the ocular surface. While the Rolando scale showed an increased prevalence of types I and II, the Masmali scale showed an increased prevalence of grades 1 and 2. This can be attributed to the species-specific differences between human and feline tear film. So Masmali grade 2 can be considered a normal tear pattern for the species, because all the cats used in study were clinically healthy. For this reason, future complementary studies are necessary for comparing healthy eyes and eyes with different ocular surface disease in cats. Both scales can be feasible options for grading tear crystallization in cats, but as Rolando scale included 96.6% of the samples in the 2 types that are considered normal for humans, we think that this scale seemed to be more precise to classify crystallization pattern in cats. The crystallization patterns observed in this study can form the basis for standardizing ocular surface parameters in cats.
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Uhl LK, Saito A, Iwashita H, Maggs DJ, Mochel JP, Sebbag L. Clinical features of cats with aqueous tear deficiency: a retrospective case series of 10 patients (17 eyes). J Feline Med Surg 2019; 21:944-950. [PMID: 30417738 PMCID: PMC11132248 DOI: 10.1177/1098612x18810867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to describe the clinical findings, diagnostic test results and response to therapy of cats with Schirmer tear test 1 (STT-1) values below the reference interval. METHODS The medical records of three institutions were searched for cats with ocular surface disease and STT-1 values <9 mm/min, confirmed at two or more separate visits. RESULTS Ten cats (17 eyes) were included. The mean ± SD (range) age and STT-1 values in affected eye(s) were 6.1 ± 5.7 (0.2-16) years and 2.4 ± 3.1 (0-8) mm/min, respectively. Concurrent ocular surface disease was bilateral in 5/10 cats. Clinical signs included conjunctivitis (14/17 eyes), corneal ulceration (6/17 eyes), non-ulcerative keratitis (4/17 eyes), symblepharon (4/17 eyes), eosinophilic keratitis (3/17 eyes), corneal sequestrum (3/17 eyes), corneal fibrosis (2/17 eyes) and meibomitis (2/17 eyes). Management included: topically applied lacrimomimetics, antiviral drugs, corticosteroids or immunomodulatory drugs; orally administered famciclovir; or surgical procedures, in various combinations. Response to therapy (defined as an increase in STT-1 value of ⩾5 mm/min) was transient (seen at a single reassessment) in 65% of eyes and sustained (seen at ⩾2 consecutive reassessments) in 18% of eyes. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Clinical features seen in cats with low STT-1 values are described, although the association between aqueous deficiency and the reported ocular changes is unknown at this time. We encourage clinicians to assess the tear film in cats with ocular surface disease, and initiate therapy with lacrimomimetics if STT-1 values are repeatedly below normal. Such information will further define aqueous tear deficiency in cats, providing a better understanding of disease prevalence, pathogenesis and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa K Uhl
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | | | | | - David J Maggs
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California–Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Jonathan P Mochel
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Lionel Sebbag
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
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Sandhas E, Merle R, Eule JC. Consider the eye in preventive healthcare - ocular findings, intraocular pressure and Schirmer tear test in ageing cats. J Feline Med Surg 2018; 20:1063-1071. [PMID: 29172875 PMCID: PMC11104210 DOI: 10.1177/1098612x17742528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Geriatric health screening in cats is highly recommended. However, information about normal and abnormal findings is scarce, especially regarding the eyes of ageing cats. This prospective study examined the influence of the ageing process on vision and ocular structures in older cats. METHODS A total of 209 cats (aged 9-24 years) underwent physical examination, vision assessment, slit lamp biomicroscopy and ophthalmoscopy. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) measurement, Schirmer tear test (STT) reading and rebound tonometry were performed. Systemic disease was not a criterion for exclusion. RESULTS Vision was good in 157/209 cats (75.1%) and impaired in 52/209 cats (24.9%). Increasing age and the occurrence of vision impairment were not statistically associated ( P = 0.053). Retinal oedema, retinal haemorrhage and/or retinal detachment (19 cats) and glaucoma (12 cats) were the most common findings in vision impaired cats. Increasing age was significantly associated with the occurrence of lenticular sclerosis ( P = 0.01) and attenuated retinal vessels ( P = 0.02). Increasing age and SBP were significantly associated with the occurrence of retinal detachment, haemorrhage and oedema ( P <0.001 each). In cats without evidence of hypertensive ocular damage, younger cats had a tendency for higher SBP values than older cats, although this difference was not significant. Mean intraocular pressure (IOP) was 16.5 ± 5.0 mmHg. Age did not significantly affect the IOP values ( P = 0.54). Mean STT was 15.8 ± 4.8 mm/min. The STT was found to increase with age ( P = 0.025). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Although vision impairment is not a clinical sign of old age in cats, age-related changes may contribute to vision-threatening diseases. This study contributes to preventive healthcare by examining the influence of the ageing process on vision and ocular structures in older cats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Sandhas
- Small Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
| | - Roswitha Merle
- Department of Veterinary Epidemiology and Biometry, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
| | - J Corinna Eule
- Small Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
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Eaton JS, Miller PE, Bentley E, Thomasy SM, Murphy CJ. Slit Lamp-Based Ocular Scoring Systems in Toxicology and Drug Development: A Literature Survey. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther 2017; 33:707-717. [DOI: 10.1089/jop.2017.0021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Seth Eaton
- Ocular Services On Demand (OSOD), LLC, Madison, Wisconsin
- Department of Surgical & Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California–Davis, Davis, California
| | - Paul E. Miller
- Ocular Services On Demand (OSOD), LLC, Madison, Wisconsin
- Department of Surgical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Ellison Bentley
- Ocular Services On Demand (OSOD), LLC, Madison, Wisconsin
- Department of Surgical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Sara M. Thomasy
- Ocular Services On Demand (OSOD), LLC, Madison, Wisconsin
- Department of Surgical & Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California–Davis, Davis, California
| | - Christopher J. Murphy
- Ocular Services On Demand (OSOD), LLC, Madison, Wisconsin
- Department of Surgical & Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California–Davis, Davis, California
- Department of Ophthalmology & Vision Science, School of Medicine, University of California–Davis, Sacramento, California
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Eördögh R, Jakab C, Papp R, Tichy A, Nell B. Density and distribution of feline conjunctival goblet cells. J Feline Med Surg 2017; 19:1048-1054. [PMID: 27765834 PMCID: PMC11110988 DOI: 10.1177/1098612x16673000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Objectives The objective of this study was to examine the density and distribution of goblet cells (GCs) in the feline conjunctiva and to investigate a potential effect of age and sex on GC density (GCD). Methods Thirty-nine eyes of 21 cats euthanased for reasons unrelated to this study were used. Fixed upper and lower eyelid and bulbar conjunctiva were divided into nasal and temporal regions. The third eyelid was excised and investigated separately. Samples were embedded in paraffin wax; sections were stained with periodic acid-Schiff reaction and analysed with light microscopy. To determine the topographic distribution of GCs, each region was subdivided into the marginal, palpebral and bulbar zone. In each zone 200 epithelial cells, including GCs, were counted. Goblet cell index was defined as a percentage of the epithelial cells. Results The palpebral zone of both eyelids contained significantly ( P <0.001) more GCs (27.5-32.0%) than the marginal or bulbar areas. The highest GCD was found in the nasal palpebral zone of the upper eyelid (32.0%). Marginal and bulbar sites contained fewer numbers of GCs (2.6-10.0%). The lowest GCD was detected in the nasal bulbar zone of the lower eyelid (2.6%). Overall the nasal region contained significantly ( P = 0.036) more GCs than the temporal region, but there was no significant difference in GCD between the upper and lower eyelids. Correlation analysis did not show any effect of age or sex on GC counts. Conclusions and relevance GCD in the palpebral zones and on the anterior surface of the third eyelid was highest; the lowest density was found in the bulbar zones of the lower eyelid and in the marginal zones of both eyelids. Overall, higher GCD was found in the cat than in other species. Age and sex have no effect on GCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Réka Eördögh
- Department for Companion Animals and Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Csaba Jakab
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Renáta Papp
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Alexander Tichy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Barbara Nell
- Department for Companion Animals and Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Abstract
PRACTICAL RELEVANCE The ability to perform a complete eye examination in the cat is critically important for patients with an ocular disorder or a systemic disease, as well as for the geriatric cat. CLINICAL CHALLENGES Cats may need short breaks between portions of the eye exam in order to minimize stress. For the clinician, use of ophthalmic equipment and interpretation of normal vs abnormal findings may take some practice in order to develop proficiency. AUDIENCE This review is aimed at veterinary practitioners and outlines all the steps and equipment necessary to perform a complete ophthalmic examination in the cat. EQUIPMENT Although some specialized equipment is required, a complete eye exam can be performed with a modest investment in equipment and supplies. EVIDENCE BASE This article draws on published references for normal parameters measured in the feline eye exam, as well as the experience of the authors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Stiles
- 625 Harrison Street, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Beth Kimmitt
- 625 Harrison Street, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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Best LJ, Hendrix DVH, Ward DA. Tear film osmolality and electrolyte composition in healthy horses. Am J Vet Res 2015; 76:1066-9. [DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.76.12.1066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Eördögh R, Schwendenwein I, Tichy A, Loncaric I, Nell B. Clinical effect of four different ointment bases on healthy cat eyes. Vet Ophthalmol 2015; 19 Suppl 1:4-12. [DOI: 10.1111/vop.12279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Réka Eördögh
- Department for Companion Animals and Horses; University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna; Vienna Austria
| | - Ilse Schwendenwein
- Department for Pathobiology, Clinical Pathology; University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna; Vienna Austria
| | - Alexander Tichy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna; Vienna Austria
| | - Igor Loncaric
- Department for Pathobiology, Clinical Pathology; University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna; Vienna Austria
- Department for Pathobiology; Institute of Bacteriology, Mycology and Hygiene; University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna; Vienna Austria
| | - Barbara Nell
- Department for Companion Animals and Horses; University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna; Vienna Austria
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Sebbag L, Kass PH, Maggs DJ. Reference values, intertest correlations, and test-retest repeatability of selected tear film tests in healthy cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2015; 246:426-35. [DOI: 10.2460/javma.246.4.426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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20
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Interfacial Phenomena and the Ocular Surface. Ocul Surf 2014; 12:178-201. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtos.2014.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2013] [Revised: 01/06/2014] [Accepted: 01/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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