To Identify or Not To Identify? National Disidentification as an Alternative Reaction to Perceived Ethnic Discrimination

Decoding the Dynamics of Cultural Change: A Cultural Evolution Approach to the Psychology of Acculturation

PUBLIC ABSTRACT

Acculturation describes the cultural and psychological changes resulting from intercultural contact. Here, we use concepts from "cultural evolution" to better understand the processes of acculturation. Cultural evolution researchers view cultural change as an evolutionary process, allowing them to borrow tools and methods from biology. Cultural evolutionary mechanisms such as conformity (copying the numerical majority), anti-conformity (copying the numerical minority), prestige bias (copying famous individuals), payoff bias (copying successful people), and vertical cultural transmission (copying your parents) can cause people to adopt elements from other cultures and/or conserve their cultural heritage. We explore how these transmission mechanisms might create distinct acculturation strategies, shaping cultural change and diversity over the long-term. This theoretical integration can pave the way for a more sophisticated understanding of the pervasive cultural shifts occurring in many ethnically diverse societies, notably by identifying conditions that empower minority-group members, often marginalized, to significantly influence the majority group and society.

[The Connection between Objective and Subjective Attributions of a Migration Background with Perceived Discrimination and Racism]

BACKGROUND

The criteria-oriented assessment of the population with a migration background that is common in Germany is currently being criticized from a social science and methodological perspective, among others. In particular, its usefulness as an indicator of perceived discrimination against the population with a migration background can be critically questioned based on the current state of research METHOD: Based on a population-representative data set (N=1,989) for the city of Berlin, the subjective perception of a migration background based on self-attribution and anticipated external attribution of a migration background was recorded in addition to the objective assessment of a migration background. Furthermore, socio-demographic and migration-specific characteristics as well as perceived discrimination were assessed. Using descriptive and inferential statistical methods, differences between the objective and subjective assessment of a migration background and their relationship with perceived discrimination were analyzed.

RESULTS

Less than half (38%, 154/400) of the respondents identified as having a migrant background using the criterion-oriented approach reported describing themselves as migrants. 36% (144/405) reported that they believed that others in Germany described them as a person with a migrantion background. Respondents with a migration background are significantly more likely to experience discrimination on grounds of skin color, religion or country of origin compared to respondents without a migration background. Furthermore, it was found that both the self-attribution and the anticipated attribution by others as a migrant are positively associated with experiences of discrimination and racism.

DISCUSSION

The results suggest that migration-sensitive research should not simply differentiate between people with and without a migration background according to official criteria. Rather, the subjective perceptions of one's own attribution as a migrant seem more suitable as indicators of discrimination and should be taken into account in future research or surveys on experiences of discrimination.

Marginalized, but not demobilized: Ethnic minority protest activity when facing discrimination

In a context of backlash against diversity in many countries, we know little about how ethnic minorities respond politically when they personally experience discrimination. Moving beyond the study of electoral participation, this research investigates whether experiences of discrimination push ethnic minorities toward an alternate political pathway for those who feel sidelined by the political community: protest activity. The study also examines whether the context of discrimination (i.e. public or private sphere) has different consequences for protest participation, and whether intragroup contact enhances the effects of discrimination on protest participation. Relying on a survey of 1647 respondents from racialized backgrounds in Canada, our findings indicate that discriminatory experiences increase participation in protest activities irrespective of its context, and that the positive relationship between discriminatory experiences and protest activity is stronger among respondents with greater intragroup contact.

Explaining immigrants' social distance towards natives: A multilevel mediation approach across immigrant groups in Germany

What factors underlie immigrants' social distance towards natives? Previous studies found that immigrants who perceive themselves as rejected by natives express more negative intergroup attitudes towards natives. Another line of research found that contingent on their origin country, immigrants face different degrees of social distance from natives. In this study, we employ an intergroup threat approach to integrate these separate research strands. The theoretical model we develop predicts that immigrants from groups that receive greater social distance from natives will perceive more personal discrimination, which, as a mediating mechanism, will be associated with greater social distance towards natives. Empirically, we draw on a cross-sectional probability sample of 1789 immigrants from 38 origin countries living in Germany (i.e., a comparative origin design). The results of multilevel mediation analyses prove consistent with our theoretical expectations, which points to the benefits of examining social distance among immigrants and natives in conjunction.

The classroom social environment in mixed secondary school classes: The role of ethnic classroom composition and classmates’ explicitly and implicitly measured ethnic attitudes

The ethnic classroom composition and classmates’ ethnic attitudes can affect how students experience their classroom social environment (CSE). Following the imbalance of power thesis and prior research on ethnic attitudes, this cross-sectional study examined if ethnic classroom composition (i.e., proportion of in-group and Herfindahl Index) and classmates’ explicitly and implicitly measured ethnic attitudes predicted secondary school students’ (Mage = 13.31 years; 58.1% female) classroom belonging, popularity and likability, classroom cohesion and conflict in mixed classes in the Netherlands. Differences between non-ethnic Dutch (n = 248) versus ethnic Dutch students (n = 141) were examined as well. Ethnic Dutch students report an overall more negative CSE than their non-ethnic Dutch classmates. Multilevel analyses indicated that a higher proportion of in-group peers affected non-ethnic Dutch students’ popularity and likability negatively. Moreover, classmates’ explicitly measured ethnic attitudes were predictive of student popularity while classmates’ implicitly measured ethnic attitudes were predictive of student likability. Finally, classmates implicitly measured ethnic attitudes moderated the effect of proportion in-group peers on students’ shared experience of classroom belonging. These results show that promoting classroom diversity is not enough to create a positive CSE for all students. Classmates’ ethnic attitudes are also important to consider.

Exploring the social dynamics of urban regeneration: A qualitative analysis of community members' experiences

The present paper explores psychological processes that underpin the success of community change in the context of urban regeneration schemes. We adopt a social identity approach to develop an understanding of the ways in which social identity dynamics may impact upon peoples' experiences of regeneration, and what influence these identity processes have on the creation of new communities. Qualitative interviews, using thematic analysis as an analytic technique, were conducted with community members (n = 14) in a recently (2001-2011) regenerated area in the South-West of England. Three overarching themes were identified: Patterns of identification, willingness to engage, and the notion of regeneration as an event. The research overall highlights the central role of group-based identity in understanding the processes of regeneration and how this is experienced by different community members. Findings are discussed in relation to the impact regeneration schemes have on community members' sense of collective self, unity, and engagement. The research highlights the pivotal role of social identity processes in delivering successful and sustainable strategies of urban regeneration.

“They Keep an Eye on You”: Minority Pressure and its Implications for Dual Identity Among Six Immigrant Groups in the Netherlands

The present study analyses perceived pressure to conform to minority group norms and examines its implications for identity (in-)compatibility among six immigrant groups in the Netherlands ( N = 5,783). We analyzed whether orientation toward the majority and minority and the perceived diversity climate explained individual and group differences in perceived minority pressure. Subsequently, we estimated multigroup models to examine whether perceived pressure moderated the association between minority and majority identifications. We found substantial group differences in perceived pressure that were not well explained by orientation toward the majority and minority groups, or the perceived diversity climate. Immigrants who had spent a larger proportion of their life in the receiving society experienced more, but those who had more work experience in the Netherlands experienced less pressure. Perceived pressure was higher the more the Netherlands was perceived as hospitable for immigrants, but also at higher levels of perceived intergroup hostility. Minority and majority group identifications were negatively associated across all six immigrant groups, but only among the Moroccan-Dutch did perceived pressure significantly moderate this association. Specifically, identifications became more compatible (i.e., more positively associated) at lower levels of pressure, a trend that we also observed among all other groups except the Turkish-Dutch; yet in these groups the interaction, though similar in magnitude and direction, was not statistically significant. We concluded that minority group dynamics may contribute to the (in-)compatibility of multiple group identifications, but more research is needed to understand the group characteristics that explain perceived minority pressure and its implications for minority members’ identification patterns.

Adolescents’ implicit attitudes towards people with immigrant background: Differences and correlates

People with an immigrant background can be affected by stereotypes and discrimination. As adolescence is an important developmental stage, this study investigated whether adolescents hold (negative) implicit attitudes towards people with Turkish immigrant background and whether adolescents differ in the extent of attitudes. Additionally, the relevance of perceived discrimination, identification with culture of residence, motivation to act without predjudice, and quality and quantity of contact to people with Turkish immigrant background for the extent of implicit attitudes was analysed. Analyses are based on 244 adolescents (60.7% female, 1.6% diverse; 13.1% with Turkish immigrant background, 16.8% with immigrant background other than Turkish) who participated in an online study. An implicit association test revealed that negative implicit attitudes towards people with a Turkish immigrant background were present among adolescents. Unlike adolescents with a Turkish immigrant background, adolescents without immigrant background and with immigrant background other than Turkish hold negative implicit attitudes on average. For the total sample, it was found that low perceived discrimination was related to negative implicit attitudes. The results are discussed with respect to substantive and methodological aspects. Implications for research and practice are derived.

South Asian women in the United Kingdom: The role of skin colour dissatisfaction in acculturation experiences and body dissatisfaction

South Asian women living in Western cultures may experience skin colour dissatisfaction, as fair skin is an important South Asian appearance ideal, whilst visible ethnic differences in their skin colour may lead to appearance-related ethnic teasing from members from the mainstream culture. This study investigates whether appearance-related ethnic teasing is indirectly associated with body dissatisfaction via skin colour dissatisfaction and explores the relationship between appearance-related ethnic teasing, cultural identification and skin colour dissatisfaction amongst first-generation South Asian women living in the United Kingdom. South Asian women (N = 98; 18-55 years, M = 24.60) completed an online questionnaire that measured appearance-related ethnic teasing, skin colour dissatisfaction, cultural identification, and body dissatisfaction. Appearance-related ethnic teasing was indirectly linked with greater body dissatisfaction via greater skin colour dissatisfaction. Appearance-related ethnic teasing was linked with stronger British identification, a greater sense of having an integrated identity and greater skin colour dissatisfaction. South Asian identification was associated with greater skin colour dissatisfaction. These findings suggest that skin colour dissatisfaction is an important link between appearance-related ethnic teasing and acculturating South Asian women's body image.

Perceived discrimination and psychological distress among immigrants to Canada: The mediating role of bicultural identity orientations

Bicultural identity orientations have rarely been examined in relation to both perceived discrimination and psychological distress. Furthermore, these constructs have usually been studied in isolation, but their intersection is essential for understanding intercultural relations in multicultural societies. Using cross-sectional data from 1,143 Canadian undergraduate students from immigrant families, this study explored the relationship between perceived discrimination and psychological distress, and how bicultural identity orientations might mediate this relationship. The structural equation modeling results indicated that perceived discrimination was associated with higher levels of psychological distress and hybrid, monocultural, alternating, and conflicted orientations, but lower levels of complementary orientation. Alternating and conflicted orientations were related to higher psychological distress, whereas the other orientations were not. Alternating and conflicted orientations mediated the relationship between perceived discrimination and psychological distress, whereas the other orientations did not. The findings are discussed in light of theories on identity integration, rejection–identification, and acculturation.

The role of perceived discrimination in linking religious practices and well-being: A study among Muslim Afghan refugees in the Netherlands

Minorities facing adverse intergroup contact can experience both increased identification with their ethnic group and decreased identification with a host majority group. First, we argue it is important to understand what is associated with adversity, particularly in previously overlooked samples. Muslim refugee samples are often treated differently and experience more adversity than other immigrants. Second, we combine insights on the role of religiosity in acculturation with the observation that religiosity may not have positive effects in societies that do not value (a specific) religion (religiosity‐as‐social‐value hypothesis) as well as insights from rejection (dis)identification models, to understand which domains of being a Muslim are associated with discrimination, (dis‐)identification and well‐being. We hypothesized that Muslim religious practices, but not beliefs, coping or values, are associated with increased perceived discrimination, and suggest that this is because practices are highly visible. Data from Muslim Afghan refugees in the Netherlands (N = 183) revealed that indeed only religious practices were related positively to perceived discrimination. Perceived discrimination in turn mediated the relationship between religious practices and dis‐identification with the majority group, as well as the relationship between religious practices and well‐being. We suggest that the visibility of one's religious behaviour is relevant for acculturation outcomes.

Perceived discrimination and psychological well-being among immigrants living in Greece: Separation as mediator and interdependence as moderator

The present study was based on the rejection-identification model regarding migrants acculturation. Personal perceived discrimination, acculturation attitudes, self-construal, and psychological well-being were examined simultaneously in Albanian and Indian immigrants residing in Greece (N = 233). It was hypothesized that perceived discrimination would be related negatively to immigrants’ psychological well-being, both directly and indirectly. A positive relationship was expected between perceived discrimination and separation and a negative relationship between discrimination and integration, or assimilation. It was, also, expected a positive relationship of perceived discrimination to interdependent self-construal and a negative relationship to independent self-construal. Furthermore, it was examined the mediating role of separation in the association of perceived discrimination with psychological well-being and the moderating role of interdependent self-construal in the association of perceived discrimination with psychological well-being. According to the results, perceived discrimination was positively related to separation and negatively to integration, but was related neither to independent nor to interdependent self-construal. Perceived discrimination was, also, positively related to depression directly and indirectly. Fewer depressive symptoms were reported by those immigrants who face discrimination but also select separation. Immigrants with high levels of interdependence, also, do seem to be protected from depression and anxiety. The interpretation of these findings signifies that, when immigrants who perceive discrimination choose separation from the host country, they may reduce their depression feelings, by fitting into relationships with in-group members. Interdependence and the perception of immigrants self as a social unit, also, may act protectively for their psychological well-being, enhancing the identification with the in-group, as well.

Does Ethnic Identity Moderate the Relationship between Racial Discrimination and Cannabis Use among US- and non-US Born Black Emerging Adults?

Race-based experiences of discrimination (EOD) have been documented as a risk factor for substance use among Black individuals, particularly during emerging adulthood, with ethnic identity serving as a protective influence. Our study extends epidemiologic research on EOD and cannabis use by examining this relation in U.S. and non-U.S. born Black emerging adults across immigrant generations (N = 466, 30% first-generation immigrants, 49% second-generation immigrants, and 21% non-immigrants). Results from self-reported data indicated EOD were associated with an increased likelihood of lifetime cannabis use, while ethnic identity was not significantly related to any odds of lifetime cannabis use. Odds of lifetime use was lower among first-generation immigrants compared to non-immigrants. Although the interaction between ethnic identity and EOD was not significantly associated with cannabis use, the results indicated that for second-generation immigrants, the probability of lifetime use decreased as ethnic identity increased. These findings underscore the importance of ethnic identity as a protective factor for cannabis use, especially among Black immigrants who have been racialized over generations in the United States, providing implications for future study and intervention.

Rejection-Identification: An Examination of Group-Level and Individual-Level Discrimination Among Hispanic Immigrants

This study investigates the Rejection-Identification Model (RIM) by examining impacts of group-level and personal experiences with discrimination on different measures of ethnic identity and cultural importance among Hispanic immigrants. The RIM is used to describe associations between discrimination and increased ethnic identity and the mediating role of ethnicity on negative outcomes of discrimination. Growing empirical support for the RIM has prompted inquiry into its application among different populations, including immigrants who face numerous types of discrimination. Using the Latino Immigrant National Election Survey, the study found that the perception of group-level discrimination was associated with a higher likelihood of reporting Hispanic identity importance, however, personal experiences with discrimination were not. Further, results showed that neither type of discrimination impacted cultural or Spanish language maintenance importance. This paper discusses the implications of these findings and how the protective factors presented by the RIM may vary among populations and when considering personal and group-level discrimination.

Do We Stand Together? The Role of Perceived Personal and Group Threats in Predicting the Majority's (Un)willingness to Confront Injustice on Behalf of a Minority

Purpose: By utilizing data from Estonia, Finland, and Norway, this study explores how the perceptions of personal and group realistic threats, namely perceived ethnic discrimination and economic insecurity among national majorities, predict their unwillingness to confront injustice on behalf of Russian-speaking minority groups.

Background: Previous research on collective action to promote minorities’ rights and social standing has focused either on minorities’ own actions or factors promoting the willingness of majority group members to engage in collective action on behalf of minorities. In contrast, factors explaining the reluctance of majority group members to engage in collective action on behalf of minority groups have remained less explored. For example, studies have then ignored that the majority members may also feel threatened and may be economically insecure. Furthermore, the possible discrepancy between perceived personal vs. in-group’s situation may influence majority group members’ (un)willingness to confront injustice on behalf of a minority group.

Method: We employed polynomial regression with response surface analysis to analyze data gathered among national majority members in three countries (N = 1,341).

Results: Perceived personal and group realistic threats were associated with heightened unwillingness to confront injustice on behalf of the Russian-speaking minority. Furthermore, participants were more unwilling to confront injustice when they perceived more group than personal threat.

Conclusion: We found that majority group members’ (un)willingness to confront injustice on behalf of the minority is related to how secure they perceive their own and their group status. Our results contribute to previous research by pointing out the important drawbacks of majorities’ support for minorities’ wish for social change.

Implizite Einstellungen von Kindern im Grundschulalter gegenüber Menschen mit Migrationshintergrund

Zusammenfassung. Erwachsene und Jugendliche ohne Migrationshintergrund (MIG) schreiben Personen mit türkischem MIG, der größten Migrationsgruppe in Deutschland, geringere Kompetenzen und Leistungen zu. Inwiefern bereits bei Kindern solche (negativen) impliziten Einstellungen gegenüber Menschen mit türkischem MIG vorliegen, ist bislang ungeklärt und wurde daher in dieser Studie überprüft. Auch wurde analysiert, ob sich Grundschulkinder mit türkischem und ohne MIG in ihren Einstellungen unterscheiden. Zudem wurde geprüft, ob die soziale Integration, die wahrgenommene Diskriminierung sowie die Identifikation mit der Aufnahme- und Herkunftskultur mit impliziten Einstellungen in Zusammenhang standen. Datengrundlage bildeten Angaben von 240 Viertklässlerinnen und -klässlern (44.6% weiblich, 18.3% mit türkischem MIG). Zur Messung impliziter Einstellungen bearbeiteten die Kinder einen Impliziten Assoziationstest. Des Weiteren beantworteten sie Fragen zu den interessierenden Variablen. Bei den Grundschulkindern lagen negative implizite Einstellungen vor ( d = 0.21). Konkret verfügten Kinder ohne MIG im Gegensatz zu Kindern mit türkischem MIG im Mittel über negative implizite Einstellungen ( d = 0.39). Für die Gesamtstichprobe zeigte sich, dass eine stärkere Identifikation mit Deutschland (ß = .14), der Aufnahmekultur, in Zusammenhang mit negativen impliziten Einstellungen stand ( R2 = .03). Die Ergebnisse werden sowohl inhaltlich als auch hinsichtlich methodischer Gesichtspunkte diskutiert. Implikationen für Forschung und Praxis werden vorgestellt.

This Being is a Guest House: Embracing Humility, Liberation & Strengths in Therapy with Sexual and Gender Diverse Muslims

The complexity of the lives of sexual and gender diverse Muslims within the United States calls for mental health providers to own our power and privilege. Embracing cultural humility in service of aligning ourselves with liberation psychology, we call for an intersectionally informed, strengths-based approach to empowering/affirming clients whose diverse religious experiences intersect with their experiences of marginalization as sexual and gender diverse (SGD) Muslims. Drawing on extant personal narratives around mental health and therapy of this population, the authors offer critical reflections, processes and opportunities for clinicians to take responsibility in honoring the diverse journeys and experiences of SGD Muslims in serving them in journeys of healing.

Perceived racial and cultural discrimination and sense of belonging in Canadian society

Multiculturalism promises equality and tolerance, yet racialized minorities in Canada continue to report experiences of discrimination. As Canada becomes increasingly culturally and racially diverse, it is important to understand what this discrimination means for sense of belonging in Canada. Using ordinary logistic regressions, we examine the effects of ethnocultural and racial discrimination on sense of belonging. Relying on a theoretical framework of the Rejection/Identification and Rejection/Disidentification models, we test the impacts of discrimination on national sense of belonging and on in-group sense of belonging. We further examine the differential effects of discrimination on sense of belonging for white and non-white Canadians. We find that discrimination negatively impacts both national and in-group sense of belonging among both non-white and white Canadians, although the impact is stronger among racialized minorities. Thus, we argue that discrimination reduces sense of belonging in Canada generally, but is more damaging to those who already occupy a marginalized social position. These findings have implications for our understanding of multiculturalism in Canada.

The Neglected C of Intercultural Relations. Cross-Cultural Adaptation Shapes Sojourner Representations of Locals

We investigated, by means of the Reverse Correlation Task (RCT), visual representations of the culturally dominating group of local people held by sojourners as a function of their degree of cross-cultural adaptation. In three studies, using three different methods (reduced RCT, full RCT, conceptual replication) with three independent samples of sojourners and seven independent samples of Portuguese and US-American raters, we gathered clear evidence that poor adaptation goes along with more negative representations of locals. This indicates that sojourner adaptation is reflected, at a social-cognitive level, in the valence of outgroup representations.

Classroom Predictors of National Belonging: The Role of Interethnic Contact and Teachers' and Classmates' Diversity Norms

Schools can be important for the development of national belonging in students with immigrant backgrounds. Following Contact Theory and prior research on diversity norms, this cross-sectional survey study examined if intergroup contact and perceived diversity norms of teachers and classmates predicted national belonging in ethnic minority (i.e., Turkish [n = 95], Moroccan [n = 73], and Surinamese [n = 15]) versus majority students (n = 213) living in the Netherlands (M_age = 10.53 years; 50.3% female). Minority students reported less national belonging than their ethnic Dutch classmates. Multilevel analyses indicated that their national belonging was affected by the presence of ethnic Dutch classmates and the relationship with their teacher. These results indicate that minority students' national belonging could be promoted by reducing school segregation and stimulating positive teacher-student relationships.

Face to Face with Anti-Muslim Sentiment: A Qualitative Study into the Coping Mechanisms of Young College and University Muslim Students and Graduates in Flanders

This explorative study seeks to provide insights into the ways young Muslim adults experience and cope with Islamophobia in Flanders. For this purpose, in-depth interviews with 14 Muslims aged 19 to 33 were conducted in the spring of 2020. Our interviewees defined themselves as Muslims and all had been confronted with racism or anti-Muslim sentiment in their daily life. Depending on reported intentions, we identified seven coping strategies in the face of such sentiment: relativization, avoidance, communication, oppression, conciliation, reaction and passive coping strategies. These forms of coping are not mutually exclusive. They are often used in combination, and they may be interchangeable in some situations. This study seeks to complement and deepen the existing literature on anti-Muslim sentiment in Flanders. Its findings should be considered as a starting point for further deductive testing of the identified typologies, meant to inspire follow-up research and serve as evidence for future policymaking.

Favouring a disunited Kingdom? How negative perceptions of the EU-referendum relate to individual mobility and collective action considerations

One consequence of the EU-referendum’s pro-Brexit outcome was a renewed call for Scottish independence. Supporting this call can be construed as a form of collective action Scots may engage in. However, Scots may also consider individual mobility strategies including - in extreme cases - emigration. The current research investigated how identity-dynamics relate to these identity management strategies in post-referendum Scotland. We found a positive association between perceiving the EU-referendum as having violated expectations and considering individual mobility responses, mediated by identity subversion (i.e., the perception that the referendum results fundamentally changed the UK’s identity). Furthermore, we found that perceiving the EU-referendum as having violated expectations was related to higher collective action intentions, mediated by disidentification from UK citizens. Taken together, these findings underscore the pervasive role social identity processes play in shaping political decisions and individual behaviour.

The “ironic” fair process effect: A perceived fair naturalization procedure spurs anti-immigration attitudes through increased host national identification among naturalized citizens

A growing body of research has shown that naturalized citizens’ attitudes towards immigration worsen following citizenship acquisition. Accordingly, these socially mobile individuals tend to distance themselves from their former immigrant ingroup. The present contribution explains such self–group distancing coping strategy in terms of an “ironic” procedural fairness effect. Study 1 ( N = 566), a survey conducted among naturalized Swiss citizens, showed that fairness perceptions with respect to the naturalization process were indeed associated with stronger anti-immigration attitudes, and that this relationship was mediated by identification with the host nation. Next, two experiments were conducted to demonstrate the causality of the hypothesized mediation model. In Study 2 (Experiment 1; N = 248), fairness of the admission procedure (accurate vs. inaccurate) increased identification with a desirable group. In Study 3 (Experiment 2; N = 141), administration of a national identity prime evoked stronger anti-immigration attitudes. Taken together, our findings highlight a somewhat “dark side” of procedural fairness.

Changes in Turkish- and Resettler-origin Adolescents' Acculturation Profiles of Identification: A Three-year Longitudinal Study from Germany

Little is known on how ethnic minority adolescents develop acculturation profiles of identification (i.e., how they combine their ethnic and national identification, such as being high on both and thus rather "integrated" or high on ethnic and low on national and thus rather "separated"). In a first step, this 3-year longitudinal study classified Turkish (n = 344) and resettler-origin (n = 121) ethnic minority adolescents living in Germany (Mage = 14.2, SD = 1.54, 51.6% female) according to their levels of ethnic and national identification. Latent profile analyses identified four profiles (separated, integrated, medium-ethnic, low-ethnic) for the former and three profiles (separated, integrated, low-and-medium ethnic) for the latter group. Latent transition analyses revealed considerable instability of profile attributions over time. Integration declined among both groups and results provided no evidence that national group boundaries are more permeable for resettler-origin than for Turkish-origin adolescents. Additional analyses revealed that perceived ethnic discrimination affected the probability to be in a particular profile but did not moderate transition probabilities. Overall, results suggest that during early-to-mid adolescence it is increasingly difficult to uphold a dual identity.

How Labor-Market Integration Affects Perceptions of Discrimination: School-to-Apprenticeship Transitions of Youth with Migration Background in Germany

This article examines the relationship between structural integration and perceived discrimination among young people with migration backgrounds in Germany. Assimilation theories expect ethnic boundaries to lessen through minority groups’ upward mobility, while the recently proposed integration paradox asserts that structural integration increases perceptions of discrimination. Using longitudinal data from the German National Educational Panel Study, this article investigates how a successful transition from school to the training market affects young people’s perceptions of ethnic discrimination. Results of propensity score matching and linear probability models show that perceptions of discrimination increase only in response to unsuccessful entry into the training market, partially due to occupational aspirations and personal discrimination experiences. Findings also show that perceptions of discrimination do not increase for young people who are well integrated in the educational system, even if they take up a training position that is not in accordance with their desired profession. These findings highlight the importance of considering perceptions of discrimination in longitudinal and life-course perspectives to better understanding dynamics in these perceptions.

Can I Be Myself Around Natives?

Abstract. The social integration of the ever-growing number of refugees in receiving societies is of major importance. Perceived discrimination has been found to predict fewer friendships with natives over time. But what short-term mechanisms explain this effect? In a sample of 115 refugees living in Germany we (i) replicated the long-term discrimination-social-integration relationship, (ii) found short-term associations between discrimination and affective, motivational, and behavioral tendencies not to befriend natives, and (iii) showed authenticity to mediate this short-term relationship: with increasing discrimination, refugees felt less like they could show their authentic selves around natives, which in turn impaired tendencies to befriend natives. Discrimination may impede the formation of interethnic friendships by instilling feelings of inauthenticity. Implications for prevention measures are discussed.

The asylum-process, bicultural identity and depression among unaccompanied young refugees

INTRODUCTION

The overall aim of the present study was to expand our knowledge about depression among unaccompanied refugee minors in the years after they were granted protection in Norway. Predictors were contextual variables in terms of the asylum-process, acculturation variables in terms of bicultural identity, and demographic information such as residence-time.

METHOD

Register data and cross-sectional self-report questionnaire data were collected from 895 unaccompanied young refugees (UYRs). They originated in 31 different countries, the majority was from Afghanistan, 82.4% were boys, and average residence-time was 2.5 years.

RESULTS

The length of the asylum-process was not associated with depression while heritage identity and residence-time were. Moderating analyses showed that an over-time steady decrease in depression was present for UYRs with a strong heritage identity. The prevalence of depression symptoms dropped from an initial 40%-14% among youth with 10 years of residence. Majority identity had neither direct nor indirect effects on depression.

CONCLUSION

To optimize the psychosocial support offered to unaccompanied refugee minors during transition to stable resettlement, we need more substantial information about the aspects of the asylum-seeking process that increase the risk for mental health problems among them. In the years following resettlement, a strong heritage, but not majority identity was associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms. The findings are discussed in relation to structural barriers to bicultural identity formation and integration embedded in the way psychosocial support and education for these youths are structured, and implication for future research.

The Immigrant and the Citizen: Out-Group Evaluations and Well-Being of Turkish Immigrants From Bulgaria

This study examines the postulates of the Rejection Identification Model (RIM) and Rejection Disidentification Model (RDIM) in a sample of 314 ethnic Turks from Bulgaria who migrated to Turkey. We investigate the intervening roles of immigrant and citizen identifications between perceived discrimination and the outcome variables (well-being and out-group evaluations). The results indicate that perceived discrimination predicts negative affect and out-group evaluations. Besides, Turkish citizen identification significantly and positively predicts life satisfaction and satisfaction from living in Turkey, whereas immigrant identification negatively predicts satisfaction in Turkey. Citizen identification predicts positive, and immigrant identification predicts negative out-group evaluations. Immigrant identification plays a mediating role in the link between perceived discrimination and satisfaction in Turkey as well as in that between perceived discrimination and out-group attitudes. The results imply the importance of consideration of contextual factors, including historical and cultural backgrounds, and the meaning of different identities for minority groups in predicting well-being.

Attitudes of Turkish and Moroccan Belgians toward Redistribution and Government Responsibility: The Role of Perceived Discrimination, Generation, and Religious Involvement

This article contributes to the debate about migration’s impact on welfare state support by investigating the welfare opinions of migrants and their descendants. It examines whether experiences of group and individual discrimination explain the welfare attitudes of this group over and beyond classical predictors of self-interest and political ideology. Using survey data from Belgian citizens of Turkish and Moroccan descent, we show that stronger support for redistribution is associated with higher levels of perceived group discrimination, religious involvement, and belonging to the second generation. Preferences of government responsibility, however, are strongly determined by labor market position and left-right ideology.

Majority group belonging without minority group distancing? Minority experiences of intergroup contact and inequality

As most immigrant-origin minority youth grow up in ethnically diverse social worlds, they develop a sense of belonging to both the national majority and the ethnic minority group. Our study adds to a growing body of research on minority experiences of intergroup contact by (1) including both minority and majority group belonging as outcomes and (2) examining the interplay of majority contact with unequal treatment. We surveyed 1,200 Turkish and Moroccan-Belgian minority youth in 315 classrooms across 65 schools, using multiple measures of intergroup contact, unequal treatment in school, and minority and majority group belonging. Multi-level models showed that minority youth who experienced more intergroup contact, and less unequal treatment, reported more belonging to the majority group. In addition, contact predicted less belonging to the minority group only in the presence of unequal treatment: For minority youth who perceived less unequal treatment, either individually or collectively, intergroup contact was unrelated to minority group belonging. We conclude that majority group contact and belonging need not come at the cost of minority group distancing in the absence of inequality.

School track and ethnic classroom composition relate to the mainstream identity of adolescents with immigrant background in Germany, but not their ethnic identity

Although developing a cultural identity is a core task for adolescents from immigrant families and the school is a highly important context in adolescence, to date, few studies have examined whether adolescents with particular cultural identities cluster in certain school contexts. Using data from a representative German sample including 7702 secondary school students of immigrant background from 1643 classrooms, we examined how the attended school track and four aspects of ethnic classroom composition relate to adolescents' cultural identity (i.e., their ethnic identity and mainstream identity). Two-level structural equation models indicated that students' ethnic identity was not systematically associated with the attended school track and the ethnic composition of the classroom. However, attending the academic school track, a classroom with a low proportion of classmates with immigrant background and frequently using German with classmates related positively to mainstream identity. Ethnic diversity and proportion of co-ethnics in class did not relate to mainstream identification. Our findings suggest that the ethnic identity of adolescents with an immigrant background in Germany is largely independent from the different socialisation contexts related to school tracks and the ethnic classroom composition. Yet, students' with a strong mainstream identity cluster in certain school contexts.

Citizenship and socio-political integration: A person-oriented analysis among Russian-speaking minorities in Estonia, Finland and Norway

This survey study utilized a person-oriented approach to explore the patterns of socio-political integration among Russian-speaking minority group members in three neighboring countries in the Baltic area: Estonia (n = 482), Finland (n = 252), and Norway (n = 215). Three profiles were obtained in all countries: critical integration, separation, and assimilation. In the whole sample, critical integration was the most common acculturation profile. After the profiles were established, they were examined vis-à-vis citizenship and integration context to see, whether and to what extent, the objective (i.e., citizenship) and subjective (i.e., perceived social status and sense of belonging) socio-political integration of Russian-speakers corresponded with each other. Critical integration and separation were the most common profiles among participants holding national citizenship of the country of residence, while foreign citizenship was not related to any specific profile. Separation was rare among participants holding dual citizenship, but it was the most common profile among participants with undetermined citizenship. Also, intergroup context was associated with socio-political integration: critical integration and separation were the most common profiles of Russian-speakers in Estonia, critical integration and assimilation profiles in Finland, and assimilation profile in Norway. The results are discussed in relation to previous variable-oriented research and official integration policies of the countries studied.

The Effects of Perceived Islamophobia on Group Identification and Acculturation Attitudes

This study examines the effects of perceived Islamophobia on group identification and acculturation attitudes in a sample of Turkish Canadians. We tested the rejection-identification model (RIM) and the rejection-disidentification model (RDIM) to examine how perceived Islamophobia affects religious and national identification. The study also explores whether perceived Islamophobia, national identification, and religious identification have any impact on the acculturation attitudes of Turkish immigrants. All relationships were investigated using path analysis. The results suggest that perceived Islamophobia does not affect religious or national identification. Results also show that perceived Islamophobia positively predicts endorsement of marginalization as an acculturation strategy. National identification predicts higher levels of integration and assimilation and lower levels of separation. Those who report higher religious identification are more inclined to prefer separation.

Identity threat and identity multiplicity among minority youth: Longitudinal relations of perceived discrimination with ethnic, religious, and national identification in Germany

The notion that ethnic and religious minority identities are inherently incompatible with the national identities of European immigrant‐receiving societies is popular in public discourse. Although findings documenting such negative associations seemingly support this claim, other research shows that the intergroup context matters for the extent to which minorities’ ethnic and religious identities are conflicting (i.e., negatively associated) or compatible (i.e., positively associated) with European national identities. However, previous research relied on cross‐sectional data and therefore could not capture the dynamic process through which minority youth come to develop compatible or conflicting identification patterns. We extend this work with a longitudinal approach by capturing developmental trajectories of identity multiplicity among ethnic minority early adolescents in Germany over three waves with 9‐month intervals. At each measurement point, participants reported their ethnic, religious, and (German) national identification and their experiences with discriminatory treatment. We estimate a cross‐lagged panel model to study how identification relates to perceived discrimination and how this affects (changes in) associations between ethnic, religious, and national identification of minority youth. Our results show prevalent positive associations between ethnic, religious, and national identification across minority youth in the sample. Those who report more frequent discrimination, however, lower their (German) national identification over time, which in turn predicts increased minority identification. We conclude that identity threat indeed triggers a development of more conflicting identification patterns.

Acculturation Profiles of Central Florida Puerto Ricans: Examining the Influence of Skin Color, Perceived Ethnic-Racial Discrimination, and Neighborhood Ethnic-Racial Composition

Evaluating sociocultural factors that may influence acculturation strategies rather than assuming homogeneity among different Latinx ethnic groups is important. A latent profile analysis with covariates was used to identify acculturation profiles in a sample of first-generation Central Florida Puerto Ricans ( N = 381) along bidimensional behavioral, values, and ethnic identity indicators. We examined whether three contextual covariates including (a) perceived ethnic-racial discrimination, (b) percentage of White Americans, and (c) percentage of Puerto Ricans residing in each participants’ zip code could help derive latent profile membership. Participants were categorized into three profiles. The first profile exhibited the highest levels of White American ethnic identity and high levels of Puerto Rican and White American cultural behaviors. The second profile described individuals with the lowest adherence to White American behaviors and ethnic identity. It also exhibited high attachment to Puerto Rican cultural values. The third profile exhibited high levels of Puerto Rican and White American cultural values and moderate levels of White American cultural behaviors and ethnic identity. An examination of covariates revealed that only perceived ethnic-racial discrimination had an influence on profile identification and membership, with likelihood of belonging to Profile 2 decreasing, and likelihood of belonging to Profile 1 increasing as perceived ethnic-racial discrimination increased. Perceived ethnic-racial discrimination did not influence the likelihood of Profile 3 membership. Results highlight the importance of contextualizing acculturation.

The Hidden Matrix: Perspectives of Youth and Their Parents on Immigration and Youth Delinquent Behavior

Immigrant youth delinquency may be associated with developmental, familial, social, and immigration-specific factors; however, scarce studies have examined the perspectives of both parents and their children as to the reasons for involvement in delinquent behavior. This study examines the extent to which immigration-related stressors may be associated with delinquent behavior of immigrant adolescents from the Former Soviet Union in Israel, from the perspectives of both young people and their parents. In-depth interviews with 10 male delinquent immigrant mid-late adolescents, aged 16 to 21 years, and their parents (eight mothers and two fathers) were conducted ( N = 20). Phenomenological analysis highlighted the immigration experience as a hidden matrix within which dynamics associated with delinquency evolved. These dynamics involved situational factors (age, financial hardships, and social norms related to child-rearing), social factors (peer pressure and wish to be socially accepted), familial factors (stress experienced by the family, parental unavailability, and insufficient parental capabilities), and personality factors (sensation-seeking, desire for self-direction, emotion dysregulation, weak character, and inborn inclination to problematic behavior). While few participants directly address the immigration process, it can be considered the backdrop or matrix within which these factors are evolving. Implications for prevention on personal, familial, and society levels are discussed.