The Effects of Changes in Racial Identity and Self-Esteem on Changes in African American Adolescents’ Mental Health

Psychological responses to political hostility: a study on aggression, bullying, and well-being in Qatar

In 2017, the Gulf crisis led to a blockade that severely restricted Qatar's air, land, and sea access. This political crisis had far-reaching consequences, particularly affecting cross-national families and children. This qualitative analysis explores the effects of the blockade's political instability on individuals and families, specifically for Qatari citizens married to non-Qatari spouses and their cross-national children. Applying the General Aggression Model and Social Learning Theory, we interviewed 24 individuals residing in Qatar from nations directly affected by the crisis (Bahrain, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates). Two main themes emerged: first, the characteristics of aggressive and bullying behaviour, and second, the impacts on the well-being of cross-national families. The results showed that Qatari women and their children suffered disproportionately due to gender-based citizenship rights issues. The impacts on their well-being included heightened anxiety, depression, feelings of danger, uncertainty, and division within individuals, families, and communities. Recommendations include increasing collaborative efforts between governments, educational institutions, and community-based organizations, which are crucial to addressing aggressive and bullying behaviour across all age groups fostering a more harmonious and resilient society.

Differential impact of the school context on ethnic and racial identity and depression for monoracial and multiracial early adolescents

Introduction

This study examined the direct and indirect effects of school context (negative peer relationships, school environment) on ethnic and racial identity (ERI) development in middle school and later depression symptoms in high school. Differences by racial group were examined for non-Hispanic White (NHW) early adolescents, monoracial adolescents, and multiracial adolescents.

Methods

This study used existing data from a large, multiwave, longitudinal study that included 593 racial/ethnically diverse adolescents from sixth grade through ninth grade across three public middle schools in the Pacific Northwest.

Results

Using multigroup path analysis in structural equation modeling, the findings indicated differences by racial group-school environment was associated with positive ERI development in middle school for NHW and monoracial adolescents but not for multiracial adolescents. For multiracial adolescents, ERI predicted later depression symptoms.

Discussion

These findings demonstrated the importance of examining school context and peer relationships in relation to ERI development and psychological wellbeing.

Natural mentoring among college students of color: Considerations for their ethnic-racial identity and psychological well-being

This study examined: (a) the roles of ethnic-racial similarity between mentors and mentees and mentors' support for ethnic-racial identity (ERI) in mentees' ERI private regard, (b) the roles of ethnic-racial similarity and ERI support in mentees' psychological well-being, and (c) the indirect effects of ethnic-racial similarity and ERI support on psychological well-being via private regard. Participants were 231 college students of color who completed a survey and reported having a natural mentor. Path analyses were conducted to test the hypothesized model. More support for ERI was significantly associated with higher private regard and higher self-esteem. Higher ethnic-racial similarity was significantly related to higher psychological distress and higher self-esteem. An indirect effect was found between ERI support and ethnic-racial similarity and psychological well-being via private regard. The findings fill a gap in the literature on ethnic-racial processes in mentoring critical to the development of college students of color.

Investigating the Role of Suicidality and Ethnic Identity among Black Adolescents: A Latent Profile Analysis

OBJECTIVE

Suicide among Black adolescent youth has steadily increased in recent years, yet few studies describe how facets of social identity shape suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs) during this critical stage of development. Ethnic identity represents an underexplored, yet important element of social identity among Black youth that may contribute to differential associations with STBs. This study examined the association between ethnic identity and self-reported suicidal ideation, planning, and attempts.

METHODS

Data were drawn from 1,170 African American (n = 810) and Caribbean Black (n = 368) adolescents aged 13-17 (Mean age = 15) that participated in the National Survey of American Life Adolescent supplement study.

RESULTS

Using latent profile analyses, three patterns of ethnic identity were identified: Undifferentiated, Low Ethnic Identification, and Alienated. Caribbean Black adolescents were more likely to be in the Low Ethnic Identification class relative to the Undifferentiated class. Adolescents in the Undifferentiated group reported higher proportions of suicidal ideation, planning, and attempts compared to the remaining latent profile groups.

CONCLUSION

Findings demonstrate that ethnic identity is an important aspect of social identity that can influence STBs among Black adolescents. Considering increased suicide attempts and death rates among Black youth, findings underscore the importance of examining culturally relevant developmental processes that may shape suicidal beliefs and behaviors.

The Association Between Racial Attitudes, Alcohol Use and Mood Disorders Among Black Adolescents

Alcohol is the most widely used substance among adolescents. Although Black adolescents use alcohol at lower rates than White adolescents, Black adolescents tend to have worse outcomes. This includes higher rates of mood disorders and criminal justice involvement associated with alcohol use and misuse compared to any other racial group. Black adolescents are also more likely to experience racial discrimination and be exposed to traumatic events within their communities, which may increase their chances of using substances. Understanding the relationship between racial attitudes (towards one's own group and others) and substance use and mental health can provide unique and meaningful insight into prevention programming for Black adolescents. Yet, these concepts have been understudied. To fill this gap, we examined the association between racial attitudes and alcohol use and mood disorders in Black adolescents in Philadelphia, PA (N = 154). We used the revised Adolescent Survey of Black Life to measure pro-Black (positive attitudes toward being Black and factors related to Black people), anti-White (negative attitudes toward White people due to experiences of racism and discrimination) and racism awareness (recognition of racism) domains. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to test the associations. Results showed that: higher pro-Black attitudes were associated with a lower odds of mood disorder (odds ratio [OR] = 0.72, 95% CI = 0.55, 0.89); and higher racism awareness was associated with an increased odds of alcohol use (OR = 1.18, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.06, 1.29). Findings provide preliminary support for interventions and policies for Black adolescents that bolster positive racial identity and eliminate experiences of racism as alcohol use and mood disorder prevention strategies.

Treatment Seeking for Anxiety and Depression Among Black Adults: A Multilevel and Empirically Informed Psycho-Sociocultural Model

Black adults with anxiety and/or depressive disorders underutilize outpatient psychotherapy and pharmacological treatment compared to White adults. Notably, anxiety and depressive disorders tend to be chronic and Black individuals with these disorders experience greater functional impairment than White individuals. Documented racial disparities in mental health treatment initiation indicate a need for research that addresses culture-specific barriers to treatment. This review paper critically evaluates existing theoretical models of treatment seeking among Black adults to inform a novel integrated, culturally contextualized model. This model extends previous ones by incorporating factors relevant to treatment seeking among Black adults (e.g., racial identity, perceived discrimination, medical mistrust) and critically examines how these factors intersect with key factors at three levels of influence of the treatment seeking process: the individual level, the community level, and the societal level. We posit interactions among factors at the three levels of influence and how these may impact treatment seeking decisions among Black adults. This model informs suggestions for enhancing interventions designed to support outpatient service use among Black adults.

Antiracist Practice in Psychiatry: Principles and Recommendations

The COVID-19 pandemic has amplified mental health disparities among people of color, particularly for Black, Latinx, and American Indian populations. In addition to experiencing overt hostility and systemic injustice, people from marginalized racial-ethnic groups experience prejudice and bias from clinicians that has disrupted rapport and trust in mental health systems; these experiences, in turn, have deepened these health disparities. In this article, the authors describe factors that have served to perpetuate mental health disparities and outline key components of antiracist practice in psychiatry (and in mental health practice, more generally). With lessons learned in recent years, this article presents practical ways to incorporate antiracist practices into clinical care.

"Be Kind But Not Too Kind": Black Males' Prosocial Behaviors in the Face of Dehumanization

This qualitative study examined how adolescent Black males (N = 12) talk about their identities, prosocial behaviors, and connections between them. Of special interest was whether and how the participants included their experiences of dehumanization. Focus group data were analyzed using modified analytic induction. Participants felt good about their racially gendered identities but felt they occupied a precarious position in the United States. Participants' beliefs about how others viewed them motivated restraint from engaging in too many prosocial acts to prevent appearing vulnerable. Participants explicitly referred to their experience of oppression in these discussions and its interaction with identity and prosociality. Results suggest research must consider how macro-level processes like racism influence the identities and prosocial behaviors of adolescent Black males.

Adolescent Connectedness: A Scoping Review of Available Measures and Their Psychometric Properties

Introduction

Adolescent connectedness, a key component of positive youth development, is associated with various positive health outcomes. Several measures have been developed to assess this construct. However, no study has summarized data on the existing measures of adolescent connectedness. We conducted this scoping review to fill this gap. We specifically aimed to: (i) identify the existing measures of adolescent connectedness, (ii) determine the most frequently used measures among the identified measures, and (iii) summarize the psychometric properties of these measures with a keen interest in highlighting their cross-cultural utility and validity.

Methods

We searched CINAHL, Embase, PsycInfo, PubMed, and Web of Science databases for relevant articles published since database inception to 7th February 2021. Our search structure contained the key words "Adolescents", "Connectedness", and "Measures". We also searched Open Gray for potentially relevant gray literature.

Results

We identified 335 measures from 960 eligible studies assessing various domains of adolescent connectedness, including school, family, community, peer, ethnic, racial, cultural, religious/spiritual, and self-connectedness. Most of the included studies (72.1%) were from North America and Europe. Most of the measures (n = 132, 39.4%) were measures of school connectedness among adolescents. Of the identified measures, 60 of them met our criteria of frequently used measures (i.e., the top five most used measures per domain of connectedness). These frequently used measures were used across 481 of the included studies with 400 of them reporting their psychometric properties. The reported reliability of these measures was adequate (Cronbach's alpha ≥ 0.70) in 89.8% of these studies. These measures also appeared to be valid in terms of their face, content, construct, criterion, convergent, discriminant, concurrent, predictive, measurement invariance, and cross-cultural validity.

Conclusions

There exists a wide array of measures of adolescent connectedness. Sixty of these measures have been frequently used across studies and appear to be reliable and/or valid. However, this evidence is mostly from North America and Europe. This is a reflection of the limitation of this review where only studies published in English were considered. It might also reflect the paucity of research in other regions of the world. More research is needed for clearer insights.

Ethnic-racial identity and hazardous drinking among black drinkers: A test of the minority stress model

Black Americans who consume alcohol experience negative alcohol-related outcomes, indicating a need to identify psycho-sociocultural factors that may play a role in drinking and related problems to inform prevention and treatment. Although lower levels of ethnic-racial identity (ERI) are related to negative drinking outcomes, this is the first known test of whether psychological distress and drinking to cope with distress play a role in these relations. Participants were 155 Black current drinking undergraduates at a racially/ethnically diverse university. ERI was significantly, negatively correlated with drinking frequency, drinking problems, coping motivated drinking, depression, and social anxiety. ERI was unrelated to drinking quantity. ERI was indirectly related to drinking and related problems via the sequential effects of depression and coping motivated drinking, but not via depression or coping motives alone. ERI was indirectly related to drinking via the sequential effects of social anxiety and coping motivated drinking, and indirectly related to drinking problems via social anxiety but not via coping motives alone. In line with minority stress-based models, ERI is related to less negative drinking outcomes (less frequent drinking, fewer problems) via less psychological distress (depression, social anxiety) and less coping motivated drinking. Also, social anxiety was robustly related to drinking frequency and problems among Black drinkers, a group that has been underrepresented in the social anxiety-drinking literature. This finding indicates that anxiety about social situations may play an especially important role in drinking behaviors in this group.

Perceived discrimination and mental health among African American and Caribbean Black adolescents: ethnic differences in processes and effects

Objectives: Although the relationship between perceived discrimination and mental health among Black youth is well-documented, the mechanisms underlying this association remain unclear. Drawing from the stress process model, this study examines two psychosocial mediators - self-esteem and self-efficacy - in the association between perceived discrimination and mental health among African American and Caribbean Black adolescents. This research addresses three primary research questions: First, how is perceived discrimination associated with mental health? Second, to what extent do self-esteem and self-efficacy mediate the relationship between perceived discrimination and mental health? Finally, do these relationships and processes differ between African American and Caribbean Black adolescents?Design: Data for these analyses come from the National Survey of American Life - Adolescent Supplement. We use generalized structural equation modeling to examine relationships among perceived discrimination, psychosocial resources, and mental health.Results: For both African American and Caribbean Black adolescents, more frequent perceptions of discriminatory events were associated with greater depressive symptoms and a higher likelihood of having an anxiety disorder diagnosis. However, the association between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms was significantly stronger for Caribbean Black adolescents. Generally, self-esteem and self-efficacy were found to be significant mediators in the association between perceived discrimination and mental health, although mechanisms varied between African American and Caribbean Black youth.Conclusion: African American and Caribbean Black adolescents are highly susceptible to experiences of discrimination that negatively affect their mental health. Heterogeneity among Black youth populations must be considered when developing interventions to reduce exposure to and the effects of discrimination among these adolescents.

Longitudinal Effects of the "Acting White" Accusation and Racial Identity Development Among Black College Students

The "acting White" accusation (AWA) is a type of cultural invalidation that undermines the racial authenticity of Black youths. This study examines how the AWA and racial identity (RI) influence one another longitudinally during the transition to college for Black students. Findings were moderated by gender. For Black males, a negative feedback loop emerged for RI centrality where AWA experiences predicted lower centrality, which then predicted more AWA experiences over a 2-year period. Additionally, AWA experiences in high school predicted lower RI private regard for Black males and lower RI public regard for Black females during the first year of college. Implications and policy recommendations to address forms of cultural oppression such as the AWA are further discussed.

Violence, Place, and Strengthened Space: A Review of Immigration Stress, Violence Exposure, and Intervention for Immigrant Latinx Youth and Families

Latinx immigrant families are greatly impacted by US policies and practices that limit immigrant families' and children's rights. This article reviews the effects of such policies and the growing literature examining migration experiences. Latinx immigrant youth and parents may encounter multiple stressors across the stages of migration, including physical and structural violence, fear, poverty, and discrimination, which contribute to higher rates of mental health problems in this population. Despite significant trauma exposure, immigrants demonstrate incredible resilience within themselves, their families, and their communities and through movements and policies aimed at protecting their rights. Numerous culturally relevant universal, targeted, and intensive interventions were developed to magnify these protective factors to promote healing, advance immigration reform, and provide trauma-informed training and psychoeducation. Psychologistsplay a crucial role in implementing, evaluating, and advocating for accessible and collaborative approaches to care so that Latinx immigrant families have the resources to combat the harmful sequelae of immigration stress.

Effects of Bicultural Identity Integration and National Identity on COVID-19-Related Anxiety Among Ethnic Minority College Students: The Mediation Role of Power Values

PURPOSE

The current study investigated the association between bicultural identity integration (BII, incorporating BII-harmony and BII-blendedness), national identity, and anxiety related to Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) among ethnic minority college students. In addition, this research examined the mediation role of power values in the relationship between BII, national identity, and COVID-19-related anxiety.

METHODS

This cross-sectional research design made use of online surveys. Using convenience sampling, participants comprised 235 Chinese ethnic minority college students drawn from four colleges in the ethnic minority autonomous regions of China. Data were collected during June 2020. Participants mainly lived in ethnic minority communities or villages in southwest China before receiving higher education at urban campuses.

RESULTS

Correlation analysis revealed that BII-harmony, BII-blendedness, and national identity were significantly negatively correlated with COVID-19-related anxiety. Mediation model analysis showed that power values were significantly positively correlated with COVID-19-related anxiety. Power values play a mediating role in the relationship between BII-harmony, national identity, and COVID-19-related anxiety, and have an inhibitory effect on this relationship.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that BII-harmony and national identity could have the function of protecting ethnic minority college students from COVID-19-related anxiety. Emphasizing individualistic personal power values could increase COVID-19-related anxiety, whereas a collectivist identity reduces anxiety. These findings could provide another perspective on psychological interventions to reduce anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Racial Identity, Masculinities, and Violence Exposure: Perspectives From Male Adolescents in Marginalized Neighborhoods

PURPOSE

Male youths living in neighborhoods with concentrated disadvantage are exposed to high levels of violence, which increases the risk for violence victimization and perpetration and shapes identify formation. We explored male youths' conceptions of manhood, influences on manhood, and intersections with interpersonal violence in the context of a community-partnered sexual violence prevention study.

METHODS

We conducted semistructured interviews with predominantly Black males, aged 14-19 years, participating in a gender-transformative sexual violence prevention study. We used an iterative coding process to identify developing themes around youths' definitions of manhood, influences on manhood, and intersections with racial identity and racism.

RESULTS

Participants outlined visions of manhood that included many traditionally masculine attributes and also offered nuance and subversion of traditional masculinity. Participants' definitions of manhood centered on themes of responsibility while also acknowledging the importance of emotional expression. Many participants described growing into manhood as a journey toward becoming a moral agent. Participants identified three predominant influences on their conceptions and experiences of manhood: (1) family and community connections; (2) interpersonal and structural racism; and (3) racial pride. Family, particularly fathers and other father figures, emerged as invaluable in understanding manhood and navigating racial identities.

CONCLUSIONS

These stories suggest that the process of entering manhood comes with unique challenges for adolescents who do so in the context of community violence and racism. Being mindful of intersections between masculinity and racial injustice can inform violence prevention programs that address the lived experiences of minority male youths in neighborhoods with concentrated disadvantage.

Black Girl Blues: The Roles of Racial Socialization, Gendered Racial Socialization, and Racial Identity on Depressive Symptoms among Black Girls

Racial socialization is an important predictor of wellbeing among Black youth. Scholars have theorized that Black girls could benefit from gendered racial socialization or messages about being Black girls. However, this has not been examined empirically. The current study investigates the role of general and gendered racial socialization and racial identity attitudes on depressive symptoms among 287 Black girls between the ages of 13-17 (M_age = 15.4) in the U.S. Path analysis results demonstrated that general and gendered racial socialization about pride were directly associated with positive feelings about being Black which were negatively associated with depressive symptoms. Oppressive messages about Black women were related to negative feelings about being Black and more depressive symptoms. The implications of general and gendered racial socialization on the psychological wellbeing of Black girls are discussed.

"Can I Live": Black American Adolescent Boys' Reports of Police Abuse and the Role of Religiosity on Mental Health

State sanctioned violence aimed at Black individuals and communities is an issue that has pervaded American history and society since before the establishment of the United States. For Black males, anticipating and preparing for involuntary police contact, unfortunately, is an inevitable part of life. The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of reports of police abuse on mental health and perceived racial out-group perceptions and the protective role of religiosity among a nationally representative sample of Black American adolescent boys (Mage = 14.98). Linear multiple regression was used to determine the interactive effects of subjective religiosity and reported police abuse on Black American adolescent boys. Higher reports of subjective religiosity were associated with lower depressive symptomatology. Reports of police abuse were associated with lower public regard beliefs (belief that society views Black Americans less favorably). Results highlight the impact experiencing police abuse has on Black adolescent boys and we conclude with implications, areas for future research and intervention points.

“They Told Me What I Was Before I Could Tell Them What I Was”: Black Girls’ Ethnic-Racial Identity Development Within Multiple Worlds

Current research on ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development among Black youth derives primarily from studies that focus on the impact of parental racial socialization from a racial/monoidentity perspective without accounting for the roles of youth’s other worlds (i.e., schools, classrooms, and peers) and the intersection of their social identities in their identity development experiences. In using Phelan, Davidson, and Cao’s Multiple Worlds model as a framework as well as Black girls’ own words, we explore the beliefs and attitudes Black girls hold about race and their own racial categorization, as well as the processes that contribute to their learning about race (and racism) during early adolescence. We find that the Black girls in the present study are making meaning of their ERI, in part, in response to stereotypical and biased messages about their identities within their multiple worlds (i.e., schools, classrooms, families, and peers). The findings support the need for an expanded view of the messages and experiences that influence the ERI development process by illustrating that schools, classrooms, peers, and families are important socializing environments that influence the ERI development process for Black girls.

The relationship between bicultural identity, acculturative stress, and psychological well-being in multicultural adolescents: Verification using multivariate latent growth modelling

This study aimed to examine causal relationships between bicultural identity, acculturative stress, and subjective well-being among multicultural adolescents. Secondary longitudinal data that were obtained from 1,635 multicultural adolescents were analysed. The results showed that bicultural identity had a positive effect on psychological well-being and a negative impact on acculturative stress; in addition, greater acculturative stress was associated with lower psychological well-being. Finally, bicultural identity indirectly affected psychological well-being by mediating the effects of acculturative stress. These findings underscore the need to facilitate the adaptation of multicultural adolescents by reducing acculturative stress and promoting bicultural acceptance in educational institutions.

Haitian Children’s Disaster Trauma: Validation of Pictorial Assessment of Resilience and Vulnerability

The House-Tree-Person (HTP) drawing test has been culturally adapted for Haitian children and objectively scored for resilience and vulnerability (Roysircar, Colvin, Afolayan, Thompson, & Robertson, 2017). The HTP was used to assess 88 Haitian children’s adjustment to the 2010 earthquake and the continuous trauma of societal inequalities. The study examined the validity of the adapted HTP test and its dimensionality. The study included participant interviews with child self-report measures of self-esteem, as perceived by self, peers, and family; posttraumatic symptoms; and self-concept. All measures were translated and administered in Créole. Analyses included standardized sample scores; descriptive statistics; internal consistency reliability; interscale correlations; a generalizability study showing that there were no differences in HTP scores due to novice or expert raters; and an exploratory factor analysis of HTP scores indicating three factors and accounting for just under 50% of the variance. The three dimensions, HTP Resilience-Vulnerability Integrated, House Feeling Safe, and Person Feeling Unloved, are discussed within the international literature on child disaster trauma assessed pictorially, and within Haitians’ spiritual worldview of suffering and endurance.

Positive Peer Association Among Black American Youth and the Roles of Ethnic Identity and Gender

The study examined whether peer association, a subtype of peer influence that involves the indirect modeling of behaviors, can promote positive development among Black American adolescents living in high-risk neighborhoods. Data were collected during a three-year longitudinal study from a sample of 316 Black American adolescents (M = 11.65 years). As positive peer association increased over time, youth experienced an increase in self-esteem, school connectedness, paternal and maternal closeness, and a decrease in supportive beliefs about aggression. Additionally, lower ethnic identity appeared to account for why some youth experienced a sharper increase in maternal and paternal closeness as positive peer association increased. Future interventions should consider harnessing the ability of prosocial peers to foster healthy development.

Black Adolescent Males: Intersections Among Their Gender Role Identity and Racial Identity and Associations With Self-Concept (Global and School)

Intersectional approaches for understanding identity have gained momentum in the social sciences. Black adolescent males are often perceived as threatening, underachieving, and hypermasculine, which is reinforced through media outlets and psychological research that portray them as a monolith rather than a heterogeneous group with multiple intersecting identities. This cross-sectional study of 70 Black adolescent males between 14 and 18 years old simultaneously explores their race and gender identities and associations with self-concept (global and school). Results demonstrated that participants reported a combination of feminine and masculine gender roles, rather than hypermasculine. A canonical correlation analysis found that Black racial identity attitudes (RIAS-L) and gender roles simultaneously contributed to significant relationships with total and school self-concept. Study limitations and future directions for research and practice are discussed.

An examination of ethnic identity as a mediator of the effects of community participation and neighborhood sense of community on psychological empowerment among urban youth of color

Empowerment research has made important contributions toward understanding youth development, well-being, and activism; however, it has failed to consider the impact that ethnic identity has on psychological empowerment (PE) and among related empowerment predictors (e.g., community participation and neighborhood sense of community [SOC]). The present study focuses on examining the mediating role of ethnic identity between community participation, neighborhood SOC, and PE. Using structural equation modeling path analysis techniques among a sample of Hispanic and Black youth (N = 1,480) from an underresourced community, this study examines the mediating role of ethnic identity between community participation, neighborhood SOC, and PE. Community participation and neighborhood SOC had a positive direct effect on both ethnic identity and PE. Both community participation and neighborhood SOC also indirectly affected PE through ethnic identity. This study supports the mediating role of ethnic identity and the direct effect of ethnic identity on PE. Results point toward the importance of ethnic identity with PE and in the empowerment process. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Assessing the Effects of the Acting White Accusation Among Black Girls: Social Anxiety and Bullying Victimization

One of the most harmful accusations one Black adolescent can hurl at another is the acting White accusation (AWA). The AWA is an attack against an individual's ethnic/racial identity and many have described it as a bullying experience. Those who experience the AWA frequently and are bothered by it might perceive the accusation as bullying for these reasons, and peer victimization has been associated with several negative outcomes including social anxiety. The present study examines the relationship between the acting White accusation, bullying victimization, and social anxiety. Thirty-one Black females between the ages of 10 and 18 years served as participants in the study. The findings indicated that all participants reported receiving the accusation at least once in their lifetime. The results also indicated that bother experienced when receiving the accusation was positively associated with social anxiety, while both bother and frequency of the accusation were positively associated with bullying victimization. These findings suggest that adolescents interpret the accusation as a negative evaluation. Additionally, the more an adolescent experiences the accusation and the more bothered he or she is by it, the more victimized they feel.

Which girls, which boys? The intersectional risk for depression by race and ethnicity, and gender in the U.S

We sought to conduct the first systematic review of studies applying an intersectional lens to assessing risk and protective factors for depression in minority adolescents in the United States. Twenty-five studies were identified which investigated the role of racial and ethnic identity and gender for minority groups and how marginalization may be associated with differential outcomes in depression symptomology. The results showed substantial variability in whether studies intentionally operationalized intersectionality through theoretical frameworks, study design, sampling, and analyses. Studies were rated on a scale of 1 through 5; those with scores of 3 or higher were included in the review. A rating of 5 indicated studies had explicitly used an intersectional theoretical framework, integrating the process of racial/ethnic identity development and gender socialization during adolescence. Three studies met the criteria for 5, one study was rated 4, and 21 studies were rated 3. Attention to experiences with discrimination was common throughout. Overall, the collective findings point to the importance of using an intersectional lens for understanding differential mechanisms for how and why specific adolescent minority youth are at greater risk for reporting depression symptoms, identifying cultural and developmental protective factors, and informing how interventions can effectively target specific mechanisms for prevention and treatment.

The Association of Ethnic Pride With Health and Social Outcomes Among Young Black and Latino Men After Release From Jail

The goal of this study was to understand whether ethnic pride among young, incarcerated Black and Latino men was associated with successful community reentry. We interviewed 397 Black and Latino men 16 to 18 years old in a New York City jail and then again 1 year after their release to determine the relationship between participants' sense of ethnic pride during incarceration, and substance use, violence, recidivism, and education/ employment after release from jail. Participants with higher ethnic pride scores were less likely to engage in illegal activities and be reincarcerated. Ethnic pride was also associated with feeling safe in gangs and positive attitudes toward avoiding violence in situations of conflict. Ethnic pride was not associated with substance use, education, or engagement in community-based organizations post release. This study demonstrated that ethnic pride might be a source of strength that young men of color can harness for successful community reentry after release from jail.

Ethnic pride, self-esteem, and school belonging: A reciprocal analysis over time

School belonging (i.e., social connectedness to school) has positive implications for academic achievement and well-being. However, few studies have examined the developmental antecedents of school belonging, particularly for students of Mexican origin. To address this gap in the research literature, the present study examined reciprocal relations between school belonging and two self-affirmation beliefs-self-esteem and ethnic pride-using data from a longitudinal study of Mexican-origin students followed from fifth to ninth grade (N = 674, Mage at Wave 1 = 10.4 years, 50% girls). Furthermore, we evaluated whether the associations were stronger for boys than girls. Using multiple group analysis in a structural equation modeling framework, results indicate that, among boys, ethnic pride was prospectively associated with increases in self-esteem, self-esteem was associated with increases in school belonging, and the direct association between ethnic pride and school belonging was bidirectional. For girls, ethnic pride was prospectively associated with later school belonging. Discussion focuses on the gender differences in observed effects and implications for school programs and interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record

Racial identity and the quality of life among blacks and whites in the U.S

Social identity theory and research on mental health among racial minority groups suggest that a stronger, more positive racial identity will be related to a higher subjective quality of life. We investigate how ingroup closeness, ingroup evaluation, and ingroup bias are associated with happiness, positive affect about life, and generalized trust for blacks and whites, using partial proportional odds models. Data came from the 1996-2014 General Social Surveys (N = 6553). Ingroup closeness and more favorable ingroup evaluation had mostly positive associations with the quality of life dimensions. Contrary to what social identity theory would predict, ingroup bias was either unrelated or negatively related to them. Racial identity functions somewhat differently for blacks and whites. Ingroup evaluation and ingroup bias were related to greater positive affect about life for blacks but lower positive affect about life for whites.

Subjective well-being amongst migrant children in China: unravelling the roles of social support and identity integration

BACKGROUND

Migrant children refer to rural children who accompany one or both parents to urban area. Empirical evidence showed that compared with their urban counterparts, migrant children had poorer developmental, emotional and psychological health.

METHOD

A sample of 1306 migrant children were recruited to examine the characteristics of migrant children and investigate the effects of identity integration, support and socioeconomic factors (e.g. age, gender, type of school, family socioeconomic status, city type) on their subjective wellbeing.

RESULTS

Children with higher levels of identity integration, social support, family socioeconomic status, who attended public school and who lived in the third-tiered city of Weihai demonstrated better subjective wellbeing. Social support remained a strong predictor for subjective wellbeing, despite a significant mediating effect of identity integration.

CONCLUSIONS

These results highlight the need for policymakers and practitioners alike to address individual factors pertaining to psychological adjustments, as well as social determinants of subjective wellbeing in the context of migration.

Gender Development in African American Youth

Using the organizing framework of Ruble, Martin, and Berenbaum (2006), we summarized literature on gender development in African American youth within six content areas: biological/categorical sex, activities and interests, personal-social attributes, social relationships, styles and symbols, and values regarding gender. Results with African Americans were compared with what is known about gender processes in other U.S. racial groups, and gaps in the literature were noted. Finally, we summarized the literature on socialization influences on gender development in African American youth, focusing particularly on parents and media. Our review shows that gender, along with race, plays a significant role in the development of African American youth, with many of these processes similar to what is found in youth of other racial/ethnic groups. Contextual factors such as family structure and racial context are important to take into account to best understand individual differences in the gender development of Black youth.

Multilevel risk factors and developmental assets for internalizing symptoms and self-esteem in disadvantaged adolescents: modeling longitudinal trajectories from the Rural Adaptation Project

The current study filled significant gaps in our knowledge of developmental psychopathology by examining the influence of multilevel risk factors and developmental assets on longitudinal trajectories of internalizing symptoms and self-esteem in an exceptionally culturally diverse sample of rural adolescents. Integrating ecological and social capital theories, we explored if positive microsystem transactions are associated with self-esteem while negative microsystem transactions increase the chances of internalizing problems. Data came from the Rural Adaptation Project, a 5-year longitudinal panel study of more than 4,000 middle school students from 28 public schools in two rural, disadvantaged counties in North Carolina. Three-level hierarchical linear modeling models were estimated to predict internalizing symptoms (e.g., depression, anxiety) and self-esteem. Relative to other students, risk for internalizing problems and low self-esteem was elevated for aggressive adolescents, students who were hassled or bullied at school, and those who were rejected by peers or in conflict with their parents. Internalizing problems were also more common among adolescents from socioeconomically disadvantaged families and neighborhoods, among those in schools with more suspensions, in students who reported being pressured by peers, and in youth who required more teacher support. It is likely that these experiences left adolescents disengaged from developing social capital from ecological microsystems (e.g., family, school, peers). On the positive side, support from parents and friends and optimism about the future were key assets associated with lower internalizing symptoms and higher self-esteem. Self-esteem was also positively related to religious orientation, school satisfaction, and future optimism. These variables show active engagement with ecological microsystems. The implications and limitations were discussed.

Racial microstressors, racial self-concept, and depressive symptoms among male African Americans during the transition to adulthood

Racial discrimination is a pervasive stressor that can undermine mental health among African American youth and young adults. Several studies identify links between racial discrimination and depressive symptoms; however, this research base does not focus on male African American youth who experience significant racism-related stress during the transition to young adulthood. Moreover, few prospective studies consider significant confounding variables that affect exposure to and perception of discriminatory treatment. In response to this need, we examined the effect of exposure to racial discrimination from ages 16 to 18 on depressive symptoms among male African Americans at age 20. Racial self-concept, one's sense of positivity about one's race, was examined as a mediator and self-control as a moderator. Hypotheses were tested with 222 participants, age 16 at baseline and age 20 at the endpoint. Participants provided self-report data at five time points. Exposure to racial discrimination from ages 16 to 18 predicted depressive symptoms at age 20, net of confounding influences. Racial self-concept mediated this effect. Self-control moderated the influence of discrimination on racial self-concept. This study underscores the salience of racial discrimination in the development of depressive symptoms among African American male youth and the clinical utility of interventions targeting racial pride and self-control.

Brief report: Contextual predictors of African American adolescents' ethnic-racial identity affirmation-belonging and resistance to peer pressure

The current study examined whether contextual factors (i.e., familial cultural socialization, percentage of same-ethnicity friends in high school, and neighborhood ethnic-racial composition) predicted ethnic-racial identity affirmation-belonging and, in turn, resistance to peer pressure to engage in problem behavior. Participants were 250 African American adolescents (M age = 15.57 years; SD = 1.22). Consistent with ecological theory, findings indicated that familial cultural socialization and percentage of same-ethnicity friends predicted greater ethnic-racial identity affirmation-belonging. Furthermore, consistent with notions from social identity theory, youth who reported higher ethnic-racial identity affirmation-belonging also reported greater resistance to peer pressure. Findings highlight the significance of the family and school context, as well as the importance of ethnic-racial identity affirmation-belonging, for African American youths' positive development.

Ethnic and racial identity in adolescence: implications for psychosocial, academic, and health outcomes

The construction of an ethnic or racial identity is considered an important developmental milestone for youth of color. This review summarizes research on links between ethnic and racial identity (ERI) with psychosocial, academic, and health risk outcomes among ethnic minority adolescents. With notable exceptions, aspects of ERI are generally associated with adaptive outcomes. ERI are generally beneficial for African American adolescents' adjustment across all three domains, whereas the evidence is somewhat mixed for Latino and American Indian youth. There is a dearth of research for academic and health risk outcomes among Asian American and Pacific Islander adolescents. The review concludes with suggestions for future research on ERI among minority youth.

African American Undergraduate Students’ Wisdom and Ego-Identity Development

The present study provides valuable insight into African American youths’ ego-identity and wisdom development. The study examines the relationship between wisdom dimensions (cognitive, affective, and reflective) and ego-identity statuses (achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion), and age and gender differences among 198 African American college students (age 18-25 years). The study also examines how self-esteem and resilience are related to wisdom and ego-identity. The results show that (a) age contributes to reflective and affective dimensions of wisdom, (b) there is no association between identity achievement and wisdom, (c) moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion are negatively associated with wisdom, (d) gender does not predict wisdom, but does affect foreclosure and diffusion, (e) reflective and affective wisdom are related to resilience and self-esteem, and (f) both resilience and self-esteem are related to identity achievement. This study provides insight into the importance of fostering reflective and affective abilities for holistic development among young African Americans.

Association between perceived discrimination and racial/ethnic disparities in problem behaviors among preadolescent youths

OBJECTIVES

We examined the contribution of perceived racial/ethnic discrimination to disparities in problem behaviors among preadolescent Black, Latino, and White youths.

METHODS

We used cross-sectional data from Healthy Passages, a 3-community study of 5119 fifth graders and their parents from August 2004 through September 2006 in Birmingham, Alabama; Los Angeles County, California; and Houston, Texas. We used multivariate regressions to examine the relationships of perceived racial/ethnic discrimination and race/ethnicity to problem behaviors. We used values from these regressions to calculate the percentage of disparities in problem behaviors associated with the discrimination effect.

RESULTS

In multivariate models, perceived discrimination was associated with greater problem behaviors among Black and Latino youths. Compared with Whites, Blacks were significantly more likely to report problem behaviors, whereas Latinos were significantly less likely (a "reverse disparity"). When we set Blacks' and Latinos' discrimination experiences to zero, the adjusted disparity between Blacks and Whites was reduced by an estimated one third to two thirds; the reverse adjusted disparity favoring Latinos widened by about one fifth to one half.

CONCLUSIONS

Eliminating discrimination could considerably reduce mental health issues, including problem behaviors, among Black and Latino youths.

Breaking the chains: examining the endorsement of modern Jezebel images and racial-ethnic esteem among African American women

The historical image of the Black Jezebel - a hypersexual, seductive and manipulative slave woman - has been one of the most pervasive and evolving images influencing the sexual socialization and perceptions of African American women today. This preliminary study examined generational differences in the endorsement of modern depictions of the Jezebel, as well as the relationship between racial-ethnic esteem and endorsement of this sexualised image. A total of 249 African American women completed an online, self-report questionnaire assessing study variables. Results suggested that younger women (aged 18-34) may exhibit higher endorsement of the modern Jezebel depictions. Additionally, aspects of racial-ethnic esteem may be linked to lower endorsement of modern Jezebel depictions among younger and older (55 years and older) African American women. Implications for future research and clinical practice are discussed.