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Holmqvist K, Örbom SL, Hooge ITC, Niehorster DC, Alexander RG, Andersson R, Benjamins JS, Blignaut P, Brouwer AM, Chuang LL, Dalrymple KA, Drieghe D, Dunn MJ, Ettinger U, Fiedler S, Foulsham T, van der Geest JN, Hansen DW, Hutton SB, Kasneci E, Kingstone A, Knox PC, Kok EM, Lee H, Lee JY, Leppänen JM, Macknik S, Majaranta P, Martinez-Conde S, Nuthmann A, Nyström M, Orquin JL, Otero-Millan J, Park SY, Popelka S, Proudlock F, Renkewitz F, Roorda A, Schulte-Mecklenbeck M, Sharif B, Shic F, Shovman M, Thomas MG, Venrooij W, Zemblys R, Hessels RS. Eye tracking: empirical foundations for a minimal reporting guideline. Behav Res Methods 2023; 55:364-416. [PMID: 35384605 PMCID: PMC9535040 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-021-01762-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 52.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we present a review of how the various aspects of any study using an eye tracker (such as the instrument, methodology, environment, participant, etc.) affect the quality of the recorded eye-tracking data and the obtained eye-movement and gaze measures. We take this review to represent the empirical foundation for reporting guidelines of any study involving an eye tracker. We compare this empirical foundation to five existing reporting guidelines and to a database of 207 published eye-tracking studies. We find that reporting guidelines vary substantially and do not match with actual reporting practices. We end by deriving a minimal, flexible reporting guideline based on empirical research (Section "An empirically based minimal reporting guideline").
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Holmqvist
- Department of Psychology, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Torun, Poland.
- Department of Computer Science and Informatics, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa.
- Department of Psychology, Regensburg University, Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Saga Lee Örbom
- Department of Psychology, Regensburg University, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Ignace T C Hooge
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Diederick C Niehorster
- Lund University Humanities Lab and Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Robert G Alexander
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | | | - Jeroen S Benjamins
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Social, Health and Organizational Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Pieter Blignaut
- Department of Computer Science and Informatics, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | | | - Lewis L Chuang
- Department of Ergonomics, Leibniz Institute for Working Environments and Human Factors, Dortmund, Germany
- Institute of Informatics, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Denis Drieghe
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Matt J Dunn
- School of Optometry and Vision Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | | | - Susann Fiedler
- Vienna University of Economics and Business, Vienna, Austria
| | - Tom Foulsham
- Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Essex, UK
| | | | - Dan Witzner Hansen
- Machine Learning Group, Department of Computer Science, IT University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Enkelejda Kasneci
- Human-Computer Interaction, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | - Paul C Knox
- Department of Eye and Vision Science, Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Ellen M Kok
- Department of Education and Pedagogy, Division Education, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Online Learning and Instruction, Faculty of Educational Sciences, Open University of the Netherlands, Heerlen, The Netherlands
| | - Helena Lee
- University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Joy Yeonjoo Lee
- School of Health Professions Education, Faculty of Health, Medicine, and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Jukka M Leppänen
- Department of Psychology and Speed-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Stephen Macknik
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Päivi Majaranta
- TAUCHI Research Center, Computing Sciences, Faculty of Information Technology and Communication Sciences, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
| | - Susana Martinez-Conde
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Antje Nuthmann
- Institute of Psychology, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Marcus Nyström
- Lund University Humanities Lab, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Jacob L Orquin
- Department of Management, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Center for Research in Marketing and Consumer Psychology, Reykjavik University, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Jorge Otero-Millan
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Soon Young Park
- Comparative Cognition, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Stanislav Popelka
- Department of Geoinformatics, Palacký University Olomouc, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Frank Proudlock
- The University of Leicester Ulverscroft Eye Unit, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Frank Renkewitz
- Department of Psychology, University of Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
| | - Austin Roorda
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | - Bonita Sharif
- School of Computing, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Frederick Shic
- Center for Child Health, Behavior and Development, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of General Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Mark Shovman
- Eyeviation Systems, Herzliya, Israel
- Department of Industrial Design, Bezalel Academy of Arts and Design, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Mervyn G Thomas
- The University of Leicester Ulverscroft Eye Unit, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Ward Venrooij
- Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science (EEMCS), University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | | | - Roy S Hessels
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Joss J, Jainta S. Do standard optometric measures predict binocular coordination during reading? J Eye Mov Res 2021; 13:10.16910/jemr.13.6.6. [PMID: 33828816 PMCID: PMC8019071 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.13.6.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In reading, binocular eye movements are required for optimal visual processing and thus, in case of asthenopia or reading problems, standard orthoptic and optometric routines check individual binocular vision by a variety of tests. The present study therefore examines the predictive value of such standard measures of heterophoria, accommodative and vergence facility, AC/A-ratio, NPC and symptoms for binocular coordination parameters during read-ing. Binocular eye movements were recorded (EyeLink II) for 65 volunteers during a typical reading task and linear regression analyses related all parameters of binocular coordination to all above-mentioned optometric measures: while saccade disconjugacy was weakly pre-dicted by vergence facility (15% explained variance), vergence facility, AC/A and symp-toms scores predicted vergence drift (31%). Heterophoria, vergence facility and NPC ex-plained 31% of fixation disparity and first fixation duration showed minor relations to symp-toms (18%). In sum, we found only weak to moderate relationships, with expected, selective associations: dynamic parameter related to optometric tests addressing vergence dynamics, whereas the static parameter (fixation disparity) related mainly to heterophoria. Most sur-prisingly, symptoms were only loosely related to vergence drift and fixation duration, re-flecting associations to a dynamic aspect of binocular eye movements in reading and poten-tially non-specific, overall but slight reading deficiency. Thus, the efficiency of optometric tests to predict binocular coordination during reading was low - questioning a simple, straightforward extrapolation of such test results to an overlearned, complex task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joëlle Joss
- Institute of Optometry, University of Applied Sciences, Northwestern Switzerland
| | - Stephanie Jainta
- Institute of Optometry, University of Applied Sciences, Northwestern Switzerland
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Mestre C, Otero C, Díaz-Doutón F, Gautier J, Pujol J. An automated and objective cover test to measure heterophoria. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0206674. [PMID: 30383846 PMCID: PMC6211723 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0206674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Heterophoria is the relative deviation of the eyes in absence of fusional vergence. Fusional vergence can be deprived by, for example, occluding one eye while the other fixates a visual target. Then, the occluded eye will presumably deviate from its initial position by an amount that corresponds to the heterophoria. Its assessment in clinical practice is crucial for the diagnosis of non-strabismic binocular dysfunctions such as convergence insufficiency. Traditional clinical methods, like the cover test or the modified Thorington test, suffer from practitioner's subjectivity, impossibility to observe the occluding eye or unusual viewing conditions. These limitations could be overcome by using eye tracking systems to measure objectively the heterophoria. The main purpose of this study was to compare the performance of an automated and objective method to measure near heterophoria using an eye-tracker with two conventional methods: the cover-uncover test and the modified Thorington test. The eye tracking method gave us the possibility to measure the heterophoria as the deviation of the occluded eye (mimicking the cover test) or as the deviations of the occluded and fixating eyes (adhering to the theoretical definition of heterophoria). The latter method provided smaller results than the former, although on average the differences might not be clinically relevant. The proposed objective method exhibited considerably better repeatability than the two conventional clinical methods. It showed better agreement with the modified Thorington test than with the cover-uncover test, and a similar level of agreement was obtained between the two clinical methods. To conclude, the use of eye-trackers to measure heterophoria provides objective and more repeatable measures. As eye-trackers become common tools in clinical settings, their use to measure heterophoria should be the new gold standard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Mestre
- Davalor Research Center (dRC), Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Terrassa, Spain
- * E-mail:
| | - Carles Otero
- Davalor Research Center (dRC), Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Terrassa, Spain
| | - Fernando Díaz-Doutón
- Davalor Research Center (dRC), Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Terrassa, Spain
- Centre for Sensors, Instruments and Systems Development (CD6), Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Terrassa, Spain
| | | | - Jaume Pujol
- Davalor Research Center (dRC), Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Terrassa, Spain
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