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Xiang J, Wen D, Zhai W, Zhao J, Xiang P, Ma C, Shi Y. Metabolic characterization of 25X-NBOH and 25X-NBOMe phenethylamines based on UHPLC-Q-Exactive Orbitrap MS in human liver microsomes. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2024; 242:116020. [PMID: 38359493 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2024.116020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
The types and quantities of new psychoactive substances synthesized based on structural modifications have increased rapidly in recent years and pose a great challenge to clinical and forensic laboratories. N-benzyl derivatives of phenethylamines, 25B-NBOH, 25E-NBOH, 25H-NBOH, and 25iP-NBOMe have begun to flow into the black market and have caused several poisoning cases and even fatal cases. The aim of this study was to avoid false negative results by detecting the parent drug and its metabolites to extend the detection window in biological matrices and provide basic data for the simultaneous determination of illegal drugs and metabolites in forensic and emergency cases. To facilitate the comparison of metabolic characteristics, we divided the four compounds into two groups of types, 25X-NBOH and 25X-NBOMe. The in vitro phase I and phase II metabolism of these four compounds was investigated by incubating 10 mg mL-1 pooled human liver microsomes with co-substrates for 180 min at 37 ℃, and then analyzing the reaction mixture using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole/electrostatic field orbitrap mass spectrometry. In total, 70 metabolites were obtained for the four compounds. The major biotransformations were O-demethylation, hydroxylation, dehydrogenation, N-dehydroxybenzyl, N-demethoxybenzyl, oxidate transformation to ketone and carboxylate, glucuronidation, and their combination reactions. We recommended the major metabolites with high peak area ratio as biomarkers, B2-1 (56.61%), B2-2 (17.43%) and B6 (17.78%) for 25B-NBOH, E2-1 (42.81%), E2-2 (34.90%) and E8-2 (10.18%) for 25E-NBOH, H5 (49.28%), H2-1 (21.54%), and H1 (18.37%) for 25H-NBOH, P3-1 (10.94%), P3-2 (33.18%), P3-3 (14.85%) and P12-2 (23.00%) for 25iP-NBOMe. This is a study to evaluate their metabolic characteristics in detail. Comparative analysis of the N-benzyl derivatives of phenethylamines provided basic data for elucidating their pharmacology and toxicity. Timely analysis of the metabolic profiles of compounds with abuse potential will facilitate the early development of regulatory measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiahong Xiang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Key Laboratory of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai 200063, PR China; College of Forensic Medicine, Hebei Medical University, Hebei Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Collaborative Innovation Center of Forensic Medical Molecular Identification, Research Unit of Digestive Tract Microecosystem Pharmacology and Toxicology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Shijiazhuang 050017, Hebei Province, PR China
| | - Di Wen
- College of Forensic Medicine, Hebei Medical University, Hebei Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Collaborative Innovation Center of Forensic Medical Molecular Identification, Research Unit of Digestive Tract Microecosystem Pharmacology and Toxicology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Shijiazhuang 050017, Hebei Province, PR China
| | - Wenya Zhai
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Key Laboratory of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai 200063, PR China
| | - Junbo Zhao
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Key Laboratory of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai 200063, PR China
| | - Ping Xiang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Key Laboratory of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai 200063, PR China
| | - Chunling Ma
- College of Forensic Medicine, Hebei Medical University, Hebei Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Collaborative Innovation Center of Forensic Medical Molecular Identification, Research Unit of Digestive Tract Microecosystem Pharmacology and Toxicology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Shijiazhuang 050017, Hebei Province, PR China
| | - Yan Shi
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Key Laboratory of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai 200063, PR China.
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Novel Phenethylamines and Their Potential Interactions With Prescription Drugs: A Systematic Critical Review. Ther Drug Monit 2021; 42:271-281. [PMID: 32022784 DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0000000000000725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The novel phenethylamines 4-fluoroamphetamine (4-FA) and 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromophenethylamine (2C-B) fall in the top 10 most used new psychoactive substances (NPSs) among high-risk substance users. Various phenethylamines and NPS are also highly used in populations with mental disorders, depression, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Moreover, NPS use is highly prevalent among men and women with risky sexual behavior. Considering these specific populations and their frequent concurrent use of drugs, such as antidepressants, ADHD medication, and antiretrovirals, reports on potential interactions between these drugs, and phenethylamines 4-FA and 2C-B, were reviewed. METHODS The authors performed a systematic literature review on 4-FA and 2C-B interactions with antidepressants (citalopram, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, paroxetine, sertraline, duloxetine, bupropion, venlafaxine, phenelzine, moclobemide, and tranylcypromine), ADHD medications (atomoxetine, dexamphetamine, methylphenidate, and modafinil), and antiretrovirals. RESULTS Limited literature exists on the pharmacokinetics and drug-drug interactions of 2C-B and 4-FA. Only one case report indicated a possible interaction between 4-FA and ADHD medication. Although pharmacokinetic interactions between 4-FA and prescription drugs remain speculative, their pharmacodynamic points toward interactions between 4-FA and ADHD medication and antidepressants. The pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profile of 2C-B also points toward such interactions, between 2C-B and prescription drugs such as antidepressants and ADHD medication. CONCLUSIONS A drug-drug (phenethylamine-prescription drug) interaction potential is anticipated, mainly involving monoamine oxidases for 2C-B and 4-FA, with monoamine transporters being more specific to 4-FA.
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Kim JH, Kim S, Lee J, In S, Cho YY, Kang HC, Lee JY, Lee HS. In Vitro Metabolism of 25B-NBF, 2-(4-Bromo-2,5-Dimethoxyphenyl)- N-(2-Fluorobenzyl)ethanamine, in Human Hepatocytes Using Liquid Chromatography⁻Mass Spectrometry. Molecules 2019; 24:E818. [PMID: 30823561 PMCID: PMC6412758 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24040818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
25B-NBF, 2-(4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(2-fluorobenzyl)ethanamine, is a new psychoactive substance classified as a phenethylamine. It is a potent agonist of the 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor, but little is known about its metabolism and elimination properties since it was discovered. To aid 25B-NBF abuse screening, the metabolic characteristics of 25B-NBF were investigated in human hepatocytes and human cDNA-expressed cytochrome P450 (CYP) and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) enzymes using liquid chromatography⁻high resolution mass spectrometry. At a hepatic extraction ratio of 0.80, 25B-NBF was extensively metabolized into 33 metabolites via hydroxylation, O-demethylation, bis-O-demethylation, N-debenzylation, glucuronidation, sulfation, and acetylation after incubation with pooled human hepatocytes. The metabolism of 25B-NBF was catalyzed by CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP2B6, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP2J2, CYP3A4, and UGT2B7 enzymes. Based on these results, it is necessary to develop a bioanalytical method for the determination of not only 25B-NBF but also its metabolites in biological samples for the screening of 25B-NBF abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ju-Hyun Kim
- BK21 PLUS Team for Creative Leader Program for Pharmacomics-based Future Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon 14662, Korea.
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Korea.
| | - Sunjoo Kim
- BK21 PLUS Team for Creative Leader Program for Pharmacomics-based Future Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon 14662, Korea.
| | - Jaesin Lee
- National Forensic Service, Wonju 24460, Korea.
| | - Sangwhan In
- National Forensic Service, Wonju 24460, Korea.
| | - Yong-Yeon Cho
- BK21 PLUS Team for Creative Leader Program for Pharmacomics-based Future Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon 14662, Korea.
| | - Han Chang Kang
- BK21 PLUS Team for Creative Leader Program for Pharmacomics-based Future Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon 14662, Korea.
| | - Joo Young Lee
- BK21 PLUS Team for Creative Leader Program for Pharmacomics-based Future Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon 14662, Korea.
| | - Hye Suk Lee
- BK21 PLUS Team for Creative Leader Program for Pharmacomics-based Future Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon 14662, Korea.
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Theofel N, Roscher S, Scholtis S, Tsokos M. Wenn Leichen auf Gerichtsmediziner treffen. CHEM UNSERER ZEIT 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ciuz.201800862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Theofel
- Landesinstitut für gerichtliche und soziale Medizin Turmstraße 21 10559 Berlin
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Halberstadt AL, Chatha M, Stratford A, Grill M, Brandt SD. Comparison of the behavioral responses induced by phenylalkylamine hallucinogens and their tetrahydrobenzodifuran ("FLY") and benzodifuran ("DragonFLY") analogs. Neuropharmacology 2019; 144:368-376. [PMID: 30385253 PMCID: PMC6863604 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.10.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Revised: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, rigid analogs of phenylalkylamine hallucinogens have appeared as recreational drugs. Examples include 2-(8-bromo-2,3,6,7-tetrahydrobenzo[1,2-b:4,5-b']difuran-4-yl)ethan-1-amine (2C-B-FLY) and 1-(8-bromobenzo[1,2-b;4,5-b']difuran-4-yl)-2-aminopropane (Bromo-DragonFLY, DOB-DFLY). Although some rigid compounds such as DOB-DFLY reportedly have higher potency than their non-rigid counterparts, it is not clear whether the same is true for 2C-B-FLY and other tetrahydrobenzodifurans. In the present study, the head twitch response (HTR), a 5-HT2A receptor-mediated behavior induced by serotonergic hallucinogens, was used to assess the effects of 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromoamphetamine (DOB) and its α-desmethyl homologue 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromophenethylamine (2C-B), as well as their benzodifuranyl and tetrahydrobenzodifuranyl analogs, in C57BL/6J mice. DOB (ED50 = 0.75 μmol/kg) and 2C-B (ED50 = 2.43 μmol/kg) induced the HTR. The benzodifurans DOB-DFLY (ED50 = 0.20 μmol/kg) and 2C-B-DFLY (ED50 = 1.07 μmol/kg) had significantly higher potency than DOB and 2C-B, respectively. The tetrahydrobenzodifurans DOB-FLY (ED50 = 0.67 μmol/kg) and 2C-B-FLY (ED50 = 1.79 μmol/kg), by contrast, were approximately equipotent with their non-rigid counterparts. Three novel tetrahydrobenzodifurans (2C-I-FLY, 2C-E-FLY and 2C-EF-FLY) were also active in the HTR assay but had relatively low potency. In summary, the in vivo potency of 2,5-dimethoxyphenylalkylamines is enhanced when the 2- and 5-methoxy groups are incorporated into aromatic furan rings, whereas potency is not altered if the methoxy groups are incorporated into dihydrofuran rings. The potency relationships for these compounds in mice closely parallel the human hallucinogenic data. The high potency of DOB-DFLY is probably linked to the presence of two structural features (a benzodifuran nucleus and an α-methyl group) known to enhance the potency of phenylalkylamine hallucinogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam L Halberstadt
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA; Research Service, VA San Diego Healthcare System, 3350 La Jolla Village Dr., San Diego, CA, 92161, USA.
| | - Muhammad Chatha
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA
| | | | - Matthias Grill
- Lipomed AG, Fabrikmattenweg 4, CH-4144, Arlesheim, Switzerland
| | - Simon D Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK
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Šuláková A, Fojtíková L, Holubová B, Bártová K, Lapčík O, Kuchař M. Two immunoassays for the detection of 2C-B and related hallucinogenic phenethylamines. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2018; 95:36-46. [PMID: 30481558 DOI: 10.1016/j.vascn.2018.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Revised: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The use of new psychoactive substances as drugs of abuse has dramatically increased over the last years. Hallucinogenic phenethylamines gained particular popularity as they have both stimulating and psychedelic effects. Although generally perceived as safe, these illicit drugs pose a serious health risk; they have been linked to cases of severe poisoning or even deaths. Therefore, simple, cost-effective and reliable methods are needed for rapid determination of abused hallucinogens. METHODS For this purpose, two haptens derived from 2C-H were designed, synthesized and subsequently attached to a carrier protein. Polyclonal antibodies obtained from a rabbit immunized with one of the prepared immunogens were used for the development of two immunoassays. RESULTS In this study, a lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) and an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the detection of 2C-B and related hallucinogenic phenethylamines in urine were developed. The presented LFIA is primarily suitable for on-site monitoring as it is simple and can provide a visual evidence of 2C-B presence within a few minutes. Its reasonable sensitivity (LODLFIA = 15 ± 7 ng mL-1) allows detection of the drug presence in urine after acute exposure. For greater accuracy, highly sensitive ELISA (LODELISA = 6 ± 3 pg mL-1) is proposed for toxicological quantitative analyses of positive samples captured by the LFIA. DISCUSSION The comparison of the ELISA with the well-established UHPLC-MS-MS method shows excellent agreement of results, which confirms good potential of the ELISA to be used for routine analyses of 2C-B and related hallucinogenic phenethylamines of both main sub-families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Šuláková
- Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia; Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 3, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia; Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Topolová 748, 250 67 Klecany, Czechia.
| | - Lucie Fojtíková
- Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia; Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 3, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia.
| | - Barbora Holubová
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 3, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia.
| | - Kateřina Bártová
- Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia; Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 3, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia
| | - Oldřich Lapčík
- Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia.
| | - Martin Kuchař
- Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia; Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 3, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia; Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Topolová 748, 250 67 Klecany, Czechia.
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Noble C, Holm NB, Mardal M, Linnet K. Bromo-dragonfly, a psychoactive benzodifuran, is resistant to hepatic metabolism and potently inhibits monoamine oxidase A. Toxicol Lett 2018; 295:397-407. [PMID: 30036687 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2018.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Revised: 07/07/2018] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Bromo-dragonfly is a benzodifuran derivative known as one of the most potent 5-HT2A-receptor agonists within this chemical class, with long-lasting effects of up to 2-3 days. In addition to hallucinogenic effects, the drug is a potent vasoconstrictor, resulting in severe adverse effects, such as necrosis of the limbs. In some cases, intoxication has had fatal outcomes. Little is known about the metabolism of bromo-dragonfly. The aims of this study were to investigate the pharmacokinetics of bromo-dragonfly, determine the plasma protein binding, examine the human hepatic metabolism in vitro, and compare with those of its close analogue, 2C-B-fly. Additionally, we assayed the inhibition potency of both compounds on the monoamine oxidase (MAO) A- and B-mediated oxidative deamination of serotonin (5-HT) and dopamine, respectively. Liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry was used for metabolism studies in pooled human liver microsomes (HLM), pooled human liver cytosol (HLC) and recombinant enzymes. Inhibition studies of the deamination of 5-HT and dopamine were carried out using LC-MS/MS. Bromo-dragonfly was not metabolised in the tested in vitro systems. On the other hand, 2C-B-fly was metabolised in HLM by CYP2D6 and in HLC to some extent, with the main biotransformations being monohydroxylation and N-acetylation. Furthermore, MAO-A metabolised 2C-B-fly, producing the aldehyde metabolite, which was trapped in vitro with methoxyamine. Inhibition experiments revealed that bromo-dragonfly is a competitive inhibitor of MAO-A with a Ki of 0.352 μM. The IC50 value for bromo-dragonfly indicated that the inhibition of MAO-A may be clinically relevant. However, more data are needed to estimate its impact on the increase of 5-HT in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Noble
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Niels Bjerre Holm
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Marie Mardal
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kristian Linnet
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Papaseit E, Farré M, Pérez-Mañá C, Torrens M, Ventura M, Pujadas M, de la Torre R, González D. Acute Pharmacological Effects of 2C-B in Humans: An Observational Study. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:206. [PMID: 29593537 PMCID: PMC5859368 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromophenethylamine (2C-B) is a psychedelic phenylethylamine derivative, structurally similar to mescaline. It is a serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine-2A (5-HT2A), 5-hydroxytryptamine-2B (5-HT2B), and 5-hydroxytryptamine-2C (5-HT2C) receptor partial agonist used recreationally as a new psychoactive substance. It has been reported that 2C-B induces mild psychedelic effects, although its acute pharmacological effects and pharmacokinetics have not yet been fully studied in humans. An observational study was conducted to assess the acute subjective and physiological effects, as well as pharmacokinetics of 2C-B. Sixteen healthy, experienced drug users self-administered an oral dose of 2C-B (10, 15, or 20 mg). Vital signs (blood pressure and heart rate) were measured at baseline 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 hours (h). Each participant completed subjective effects using three rating scales: the visual analog scale (VAS), the Addiction Research Centre Inventory (ARCI), and the Evaluation of the Subjective Effects of Substances with Abuse Potential (VESSPA-SSE) at baseline, 2–3 and 6 h after self-administration (maximum effects along 6 h), and the Hallucinogenic Rating Scale (maximum effects along 6 h). Oral fluid (saliva) was collected to assess 2C-B and cortisol concentrations during 24 h. Acute administration of 2C-B increased blood pressure and heart rate. Scores of scales related to euphoria increased (high, liking, and stimulated), and changes in perceptions (distances, colors, shapes, and lights) and different body feelings/surrounding were produced. Mild hallucinating effects were described in five subjects. Maximum concentrations of 2C-B and cortisol were reached at 1 and 3 h after self-administration, respectively. Oral 2C-B at recreational doses induces a constellation of psychedelic/psychostimulant-like effects similar to those associated with serotonin-acting drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Papaseit
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, Institute for Health Science Research Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Magí Farré
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, Institute for Health Science Research Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Clara Pérez-Mañá
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, Institute for Health Science Research Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Torrens
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Drug Addiction Program, Institute of Neuropsychiatry and Addictions, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireia Ventura
- Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mitona Pujadas
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rafael de la Torre
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Débora González
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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Ketha H, Webb M, Clayton L, Li S. Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) for Identification of Designer Stimulants Including 2C Amines, NBOMe Compounds, and Cathinones in Urine. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 74:4.43.1-4.43.10. [PMID: 29117432 DOI: 10.1002/cptx.33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Phenethylamine derivatives are being increasingly exploited for recreational use as "designer" stimulants designed to mimic psychostimulant properties of amphetamine or other illicit substances like 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA [ecstasy]). Clandestine operations meticulously design phenethylamines so the user can bypass legal action when detected, as many of these are yet to be regulated by government authorities. Substituted phenethylamines or 2C amines, N-methoxybenzyl derivatives of the corresponding 2C amines commonly known as NBOMe compounds, and cathinones are among the most commonly abused phenethylamines. Current FDA-approved assays used in screening for illicit drug use lack the sensitivity needed to detect designer stimulants making it challenging for toxicologists to accurately identify these compounds. Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is a sensitive method for identifying designer stimulants. This unit describes and compares two qualitative GC-MS methods for identifying 2C amines, NBOMe compounds, and cathinones in urine. © 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hemamalini Ketha
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Milad Webb
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Larry Clayton
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Sean Li
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, Michigan
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Tyrkkö E, Andersson M, Kronstrand R. The Toxicology of New Psychoactive Substances: Synthetic Cathinones and Phenylethylamines. Ther Drug Monit 2016; 38:190-216. [PMID: 26587869 DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0000000000000263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND New psychoactive substances (NPSs) are substitutes for classical drugs of abuse and there are now compounds available from all groups of classical drugs of abuse. During 2014, the number of synthetic cathinones increased dramatically and, together with phenylethylamines, they dominate the NPS markets in the European Union. In total, 31 cathinones and 9 phenylethylamines were encountered in 2014. The aim of this article was to summarize the existing knowledge about the basic pharmacology, metabolism, and human toxicology of relevant synthetic cathinones and phenylethylamines. Compared with existing reviews, we have also compiled the existing case reports from both fatal and nonfatal intoxications. METHODS We performed a comprehensive literature search using bibliographic databases PubMed and Web of Science, complemented with Google Scholar. The focus of the literature search was on original articles, case reports, and previously published review articles published in 2014 or earlier. RESULTS The rapid increase of NPSs is a growing concern and sets new challenges not only for societies in drug prevention and legislation but also in clinical and forensic toxicology. In vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that the pharmacodynamic profile of cathinones is similar to that of other psychomotor stimulants. Metabolism studies show that cathinones and phenylethylamines are extensively metabolized; however, the parent compound is usually detectable in human urine. In vitro studies have shown that many cathinones and phenylethylamines are metabolized by CYP2D6 enzymes. This indicates that these drugs may have many possible drug-drug interactions and that genetic polymorphism may influence their toxicity. However, the clinical and toxicological relevance of CYP2D6 in adverse effects of cathinones and phenylethylamines is questionable, because these compounds are metabolized by other enzymes as well. The toxidromes commonly encountered after ingestion of cathinones and phenylethylamines are mainly of sympathomimetic and hallucinogenic character with a risk of excited delirium and life-threatening cardiovascular effects. CONCLUSIONS The acute and chronic toxicity of many NPSs is unknown or very sparsely investigated. There is a need for evidence-based-treatment recommendations for acute intoxications and a demand for new strategies to analyze these compounds in clinical and forensic cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elli Tyrkkö
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
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Kanamori T, Yamamuro T, Kuwayama K, Tsujikawa K, Iwata YT, Inoue H. Synthesis and Analysis of Glucuronic Acid-Conjugated Metabolites of 4-Bromo-2,5-Dimethoxyphenethylamine. J Forensic Sci 2016; 62:488-492. [DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.13266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Revised: 05/12/2016] [Accepted: 05/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuyuki Kanamori
- National Research Institute of Police Science; 6-3-1, Kashiwanoha Kashiwa 277-0882 Japan
| | - Tadashi Yamamuro
- National Research Institute of Police Science; 6-3-1, Kashiwanoha Kashiwa 277-0882 Japan
| | - Kenji Kuwayama
- National Research Institute of Police Science; 6-3-1, Kashiwanoha Kashiwa 277-0882 Japan
| | - Kenji Tsujikawa
- National Research Institute of Police Science; 6-3-1, Kashiwanoha Kashiwa 277-0882 Japan
| | - Yuko T. Iwata
- National Research Institute of Police Science; 6-3-1, Kashiwanoha Kashiwa 277-0882 Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Inoue
- National Research Institute of Police Science; 6-3-1, Kashiwanoha Kashiwa 277-0882 Japan
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Kanamori T, Kuwayama K, Tsujikawa K, T Iwata Y, Inoue H. Urinary Excretion Profiles of 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-alkylthiophenethylamine Analogs in Rats. Biol Pharm Bull 2016; 39:883-6. [PMID: 27150156 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b15-00953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The urinary metabolic profiles of three hallucinogenic 2,5-dimethoxy-4-alkylthiophenethylamine analogs: 2,5-dimethoxy-4-ethylthiophenethylamine (2C-T-2), 2,5-dimethoxy-4-isopropylthiophenethylamine (2C-T-4), and 2,5-dimethoxy-4-propylthiophenethylamine (2C-T-7), were investigated in rats. For each drug, four male Sprague-Dawley rats were orally administered 10 mg/kg of 2C-T-2, 2C-T-4, or 2C-T-7, and urine was collected 0-24 and 24-48 h after administration. The urine samples were processed by liquid-liquid extraction, and the extracts were analyzed by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry to quantify the metabolites. The metabolic patterns of these drugs were different: for 2C-T-7, the principal metabolite was the β-hydroxylated-N-acetylated-sulfoxide, whereas for 2C-T-2 and 2C-T-4 the major metabolites were the N-acetylated-sulfoxide and S-methylated-N-acetylated-sulfoxide, respectively.
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Margalho C, Castanheira A, Real FC, Gallardo E, López-Rivadulla M. Determination of "new psychoactive substances" in postmortem matrices using microwave derivatization and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2016; 1020:14-23. [PMID: 26994330 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2016.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2015] [Revised: 03/01/2016] [Accepted: 03/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Despite worldwide efforts aiming to ban the marketing and subsequent abuse of psychoactive substances such as synthetic cathinones and phenethylamines, there has been an alarming growth of both in recent years. Different compounds similar to those already existing are continuously appearing in the market in order to circumvent the legislation. An analytical methodology has been validated for qualitative and quantitative determinations of D-cathine (D-norpseudoehedrine), ephedrine, methcathinone, 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-propan-2-amine (PMA), mephedrone, methedrone, 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine (DOM), 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine (DOB), 2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-H), 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B), 4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-I), 2-[2,5-dimethoxy-4-(ethylthio)phenyl]ethanamine (2C-T-2), 2,5-dimethoxy-4-isopropylthiophenethylamine (2C-T-4) and 2-[2,5-dimethoxy-4-(propylthio)phenyl]ethanamine (2C-T-7), in low volumes of vitreous humor (100 μL), pericardial fluid (250 μL) and whole blood (250 μL), using deutered amphetamine, ephedrine and mephedrone as internal standards. The validation parameters included selectivity, linearity and limits of detection and quantification, intra- and interday precision and trueness, recovery and stability. The method included mixed-mode solid phase extraction, followed by microwave fast derivatization and analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry operated in selected ion monitoring mode. The procedure was linear between 5 and 600 ng/mL, with determination coefficients higher than 0.99 for all analytes. Intra- and interday precision ranged from 0.1 to 13.6%, while accuracy variability was within 80-120% interval from the nominal concentration at all studied levels. The extraction efficiencies ranged from 76.6 to 112.8%. Stability was considered acceptable for all compounds in the studied matrices. The developed assay was applied to authentic samples of the Laboratory of Chemistry and Forensic Toxicology, Centre Branch, of the National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, Portugal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cláudia Margalho
- Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses, I.P. (INMLCF, I.P.)-Delegação do Centro, Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - Alice Castanheira
- Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses, I.P. (INMLCF, I.P.)-Delegação do Centro, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Francisco Corte Real
- Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses, I.P. (INMLCF, I.P.)-Delegação do Centro, Coimbra, Portugal; Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Eugenia Gallardo
- CICS-UBI-Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade da Beira Interior, Portugal
| | - Manuel López-Rivadulla
- Servicio de Toxicología Forense, Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Forenses Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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Nugteren-van Lonkhuyzen JJ, van Riel AJHP, Brunt TM, Hondebrink L. Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and toxicology of new psychoactive substances (NPS): 2C-B, 4-fluoroamphetamine and benzofurans. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015; 157:18-27. [PMID: 26530501 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2015] [Revised: 09/04/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recently, the number of new psychoactive substances (NPS) appearing on the illicit drug market has shown a marked increase. Although many users perceive the risk of using NPS as medium or low, these substances can pose a serious health risk and several NPS have been implicated in drug-related deaths. In Europe, frequently detected NPS are 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B), 4-fluoroamphetamine (4-FA) and benzofurans (5-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (5-APB) or 6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (6-APB)). However, little is known about the health risks of these specific NPS. METHODS In this paper, existing literature on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of 2C-B, 4-FA and benzofurans (5-APB/6-APB) was reviewed. RESULTS Our review showed that the clinical effects of 2C-B, 4-FA and benzofurans (5-APB/6-APB) are comparable with common illicit drugs like amphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Therefore, NPS toxicity can be handled by existing treatment guidelines that are based on clinical effects instead of the specific drug involved. Even so, information on the health risks of these substances is limited to a number of case reports that are complicated by confounders such as analytical difficulties, mislabelling of drugs, concomitant exposures and interindividual differences. CONCLUSION To aid in early legislation, data on clinical effects from poisons centres and user fora should be combined with (in vitro) screening methods and collaboration on an (inter)national level is essential. As a result, potentially hazardous NPS could be detected more quickly, thereby protecting public health.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Antoinette J H P van Riel
- National Poisons Information Centre, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Tibor M Brunt
- Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction (Trimbos Institute), Department of Drug Monitoring, Da Costakade 45, 3521 VS Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Laura Hondebrink
- National Poisons Information Centre, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Acute Effects of the Novel Psychoactive Drug 2C-B on Emotions. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:643878. [PMID: 26543863 PMCID: PMC4620274 DOI: 10.1155/2015/643878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Accepted: 09/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Background. 2C-B (Nexus) is one of the most widespread novel psychoactive substances. There is limited information about its pharmacological properties, and few studies in humans concern its acute and chronic effects. 2C-B has been classified as a stimulant, hallucinogen, entactogen, and/or empathogen. Objectives. To evaluate the emotional, subjective, and cardiovascular effects of 2C-B. Methods. Twenty healthy recreational 2C-B users (12 women) self-administered a 20 mg dose of 2C-B. Evaluations included emotional (IAPS, FERT, and speech), subjective (visual analog scales, ARCI, VESSPA, HRS, and POMS questionnaires), and cardiovascular effects (blood pressure and heart rate). Results. Positive subjective effects predominated with a reduction of anger under the influence of 2C-B. It did, however, increase reactivity to negative emotional stimuli and decrease the ability to recognize expressions of happiness. Augmented emotionality in speech could be appreciated by others. 2C-B induced euphoria and well-being, changes in perceptions, and slight hallucinogenic states. Mild sympathetic actions were observed. Conclusions. The specific profile that 2C-B exerts on emotions suggests its classification as an entactogen with psychedelic properties.
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