Physical activity as a model for health neuroscience

Differences in Daily Physical Activity by Alzheimer's Risk Markers Among Older Adults

BACKGROUND

Daily physical activity patterns differ by Alzheimer's disease (AD) status and might signal cognitive risk. It is critical to understand whether patterns are disrupted early in the AD pathological process. Yet, whether established AD risk markers (β-amyloid [Aβ] or apolipoprotein E-ε4 [APOE-ε4]) are associated with differences in objectively measured activity patterns among cognitively unimpaired older adults is unclear.

METHODS

Wrist accelerometry, brain Aβ (+/-), and APOE-ε4 genotype were collected in 106 (Aβ) and 472 (APOE-ε4) participants (mean age 76 [standard deviation{SD}: 8.5) or 75 [SD: 9.2] years, 60% or 58% women) in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Adjusted linear and function-on-scalar regression models examined whether Aβ or APOE-ε4 status was cross-sectionally associated with activity patterns (amount, variability, or fragmentation) overall and by time of day, respectively. Differences in activity patterns by combinations of Aβ and APOE-ε4 status were descriptively examined (n = 105).

RESULTS

There were no differences in any activity pattern by Aβ or APOE-ε4 status overall. Aβ+ was associated with lower total amount and lower within-day variability of physical activity overnight and early evening, and APOE-ε4 carriers had higher total amount of activity in the evening and lower within-day variability of activity in the morning. Diurnal curves of activity were blunted among those with Aβ+ regardless of APOE-ε4 status, but only when including older adults with mild cognitive impairment/dementia.

CONCLUSIONS

Aβ+ in cognitively unimpaired older adults might manifest as lower amount and variability of daily physical activity, particularly during overnight/evening hours. Future research is needed to examine changes in activity patterns in larger samples and by other AD biomarkers.

The Effects of Prescribed Physical and Cognitive Exercise on Life Satisfaction, Self-Efficacy and Mood States in Adults with Down Syndrome: The MinDSets Study

Down syndrome (DS) is characterised by a duplication of chromosome-21 and is linked to co-occurring physical and mental health conditions, including low self-efficacy and disturbed mood states. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of an eight-week prescribed physical and/or cognitive training intervention on measures of mood disturbance, life satisfaction and self-efficacy in a population of adults with DS. Eighty-three participants (age 27.1 ± 8.0 years) from across five continents volunteered. Participants were assigned using matched groups based upon performance in a modified six-minute walk test to either an exercise (EXE) 3 × 30 min of walking/jogging per week, cognitive training (COG) 6 × 20 min per week, a combined group (COM) or the control (CON) who did not complete any intervention. Profile of Mood States (POMS) were assessed using a five-point scale across 65 categories pre- and post-study as well as upon completion of each week of the intervention. In addition, Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) and self-efficacy using the Generalised Self-Efficacy scale (GSE) were recorded before and after the intervention. GSE increased for all participants by 1.9 ± 5.2 (p = 0.002) from pre- to post-intervention, while POMS showed significant changes for the whole group from pre- to post-intervention for tension (p < 0.001), depression (p < 0.001) and for anger (p < 0.001). In addition, significant correlations were observed between SWLS and ΔTMD, Δtension, Δanger, and Δfatigue (p < 0.05) for EXE. Both COG and EXE provide a framework for empowering enhancements in life satisfaction, self-efficacy and mood states fostering improvements in quality of life.

Integrating the Physical Environment Within a Population Neuroscience Perspective

Population neuroscience recognises the role of the environment in shaping brain, behaviour, and mental health. An overview of current evidence from neuroscientific and epidemiological studies highlights the protective effects of nature on cognitive function and stress reduction, the detrimental effects of urban living on mental health, and emerging concerns relating to extreme weather events and eco-anxiety. Despite the growing body of evidence in this area, knowledge gaps remain due to inconsistent measures of exposure and a reliance on small samples. In this chapter, attention is given to the physical environment and population-level studies as a necessary starting point for exploring the long-term impacts of environmental exposures on mental health, and for informing future research that may capture immediate emotional and neural responses to the environment. Key data sources, including remote sensing imagery, administrative, sensor, and social media data, are outlined. Appropriate measures of exposure are advocated for, recognising the value of area-level measures for estimating exposure over large study samples and spatial and temporal scales. Although integrating data from multiple sources requires consideration for data quality and completeness, deep learning and the increasing availability of high-resolution data present opportunities to build a more complete picture of physical environments. Advances in leveraging detailed locational data are discussed as a subsequent approach for building upon initial observations from population studies and improving understanding of the mechanisms underlying behaviour and human-environment interactions.

Sedentary behavior and lifespan brain health

Higher levels of physical activity are known to benefit aspects of brain health across the lifespan. However, the role of sedentary behavior (SB) is less well understood. In this review we summarize and discuss evidence on the role of SB on brain health (including cognitive performance, structural or functional brain measures, and dementia risk) for different age groups, critically compare assessment approaches to capture SB, and offer insights into emerging opportunities to assess SB via digital technologies. Across the lifespan, specific characteristics of SB (particularly whether they are cognitively active or cognitively passive) potentially act as moderators influencing the associations between SB and specific brain health outcomes. We outline challenges and opportunities for future research aiming to provide more robust empirical evidence on these observations.

Temporal Interactions between Maintenance of Cerebral Cortex Thickness and Physical Activity from an Individual Person Micro-Longitudinal Perspective and Implications for Precision Medicine

Maintenance of brain structure is essential for neurocognitive health. Precision medicine has interests in understanding how maintenance of an individual person's brain, including cerebral cortical structure, interacts with lifestyle factors like physical activity. Cortical structure, including cortical thickness, has recognized relationships with physical activity, but concepts of these relationships come from group, not individual, focused findings. Whether or how group-focused concepts apply to an individual person is fundamental to precision medicine interests but remains unclear. This issue was studied in a healthy man using concurrent micro-longitudinal tracking of magnetic resonance imaging-defined cortical thickness and accelerometer-defined steps/day over six months. These data permitted detailed examination of temporal relationships between thickness maintenance and physical activity at an individual level. Regression analyses revealed graded significant and trend-level temporal interactions between preceding activity vs. subsequent thickness maintenance and between preceding thickness maintenance vs. subsequent activity. Interactions were bidirectional, delayed/prolonged over days/weeks, positive, bilateral, directionally asymmetric, and limited in strength. These novel individual-focused findings in some ways are predicted, but in other ways remain unaddressed or undetected, by group-focused work. We suggest that individual-focused concepts of temporal interactions between maintenance of cortical structure and activity can provide needed new insight for personalized tailoring of physical activity, cortical, and neurocognitive health.

Cross-sectional associations between sedentary time with cognitive engagement and brain volume among community-dwelling vulnerable older adults

AIMS

Vulnerable older adults tend to decrease physical activity (PA) and increase sedentary time (ST). Previous research on the associations between ST and brain volume have yielded inconsistent findings, without considering the impact of cognitive engagement (CE) on cognitive function. We aimed to examine the association between ST with CE and brain volume.

METHODS

A structural magnetic resonance imaging survey was conducted among community-dwelling vulnerable older adults. Brain volumetric measurements were obtained using 3T magnetic resonance imaging and pre-processed using FreeSurfer. ST with low or high CE was assessed using a 12-item questionnaire. PA was assessed by the frequency of light and moderate levels of physical exercise according to the Japanese version of the Cardiovascular Health Study criteria. Participants were categorized into a low PA group and a moderate-to-high PA group.

RESULTS

Among 91 participants (83.1 ± 5.2 years old, 61.5% female), 26 were low PA. The overall sample and moderate-to-high PA group did not show significant positive associations with brain volume for ST with high CE. In the low PA group, isotemporal substitution models showed that replacing ST with low CE by ST with high CE was significantly associated with increased brain volume in some areas, including the rostral and caudal anterior cingulate (β = 0.486-0.618, all P < 0.05, adjusted R2  = 0.344-0.663).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that replacing ST with low CE by ST with high CE is positively associated with brain volume in vulnerable older adults with low PA. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2024; 24: 82-89.

Changes in stress pathways as a possible mechanism of aerobic exercise training on brain health: a scoping review of existing studies

Physical activity (PA) in the form of aerobic exercise (AE) preserves and improves neurocognitive function across the lifespan. However, a mechanistic understanding of the pathways by which aerobic exercise impacts brain health is still lacking, particularly with respect to stress-related pathways. One mechanistic hypothesis is that AE improves neurocognitive health in part by modifying circulating levels of stress-related hormones and signaling factors associated with the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and autonomic nervous system (ANS), as commonly measured by the biomarkers cortisol (CORT) and salivary α-amylase (sAA). Thus, this hypothesis predicts that changes in stress biomarkers, such as CORT and sAA, are possible explanatory pathways mediating the positive effects of AE on neurocognitive health. In the present review article, we provide a summary of available studies examining the possibility that exercise-induced changes to stress biomarkers could partly account for exercise-related improvements in neurocognitive health. Our review indicates that despite the intuitive appeal of this hypothesis, there is insufficient evidence available to conclude that chronic and habitual AE affects neurocognitive health by altering stress biomarker pathways. The cross-sectional nature of the majority of reviewed studies highlights the need for well-controlled studies to adequately test this hypothesis.

Effect of exercise engagement and cardiovascular risk on neuronal injury

INTRODUCTION

Neuronal health as a potential underlying mechanism of the beneficial effects of exercise has been understudied in humans. Furthermore, there has been limited consideration of potential moderators (e.g., cardiovascular health) on the effects of exercise.

METHODS

Clinically normal middle-aged and older adults completed a validated questionnaire about exercise engagement over a 10-year period (n = 75; age 63 ± 8 years). A composite estimate of neuronal injury was formulated that included cerebrospinal fluid-based measures of visinin-like protein-1, neurogranin, synaptosomal-associated protein 25, and neurofilament light chain. Cardiovascular risk was estimated using the Framingham Risk Score.

RESULTS

Cross-sectional analyses showed that greater exercise engagement was associated with less neuronal injury in the group with lower cardiovascular risk (p = 0.008), but not the group with higher cardiovascular risk (p = 0.209).

DISCUSSION

Cardiovascular risk is an important moderator to consider when examining the effects of exercise on cognitive and neural health, and may be relevant to personalized exercise recommendations.

HIGHLIGHTS

We examined the association between exercise engagement and neuronal injury. Vascular risk moderated the association between exercise and neuronal injury. Cardiovascular risk may be relevant to personalized exercise recommendations.

Effect of simultaneous exercise and cognitive training on executive functions, baroreflex sensitivity, and pre-frontal cortex oxygenation in healthy older adults: a pilot study

Aging is characterized by cognitive decline affecting daily functioning. To manage this socio-economic challenge, several non-pharmacological methods such as physical, cognitive, and combined training are proposed. Although there is an important interest in this subject, the literature is still heterogeneous. The superiority of simultaneous training compared to passive control and physical training alone seems clear but very few studies compared simultaneous training to cognitive training alone. The aim of this pilot study was to investigate the effect of simultaneous exercise and cognitive training on several cognitive domains in healthy older adults, in comparison with either training alone. Thirty-five healthy older adults were randomized into one of three experimental groups: exercise training, cognitive training, and simultaneous exercise and cognitive training. The protocol involved two 30-min sessions per week for 24 weeks. Cognitive performance in several domains, pre-frontal cortex oxygenation, and baroreflex sensitivity were assessed before and after the intervention. All groups improved executive performance, including flexibility or working memory. We found a group by time interaction for inhibition cost (F(2,28) = 6.44; p < 0.01) and baroreflex sensitivity during controlled breathing (F(2,25) = 4.22; p = 0.01), the magnitude of improvement of each variable being associated (r = -0.39; p = 0.03). We also found a decrease in left and right pre-frontal cortex oxygenation in all groups during the trail making test B. A simultaneous exercise and cognitive training are more efficient than either training alone to improve executive function and baroreflex sensitivity. The results of this study may have important clinical repercussions by allowing to optimize the interventions designed to maintain the physical and cognitive health of older adults.

Using sport-based interventions for people with severe mental disorders: results from the European EASMH study

People with severe mental disorders report significantly poorer physical health and a higher mortality rate compared with the general population. Several interventions have been proposed in order to challenge this mortality gap, the promotion of physical activities represents one of the most important strategies. In fact, in people with severe mental disorders, physical activity can improve body composition, quality of life, personal functioning, self-esteem, cognition, and cardiorespiratory fitness, as well as reducing affective, psychotic and anxiety symptoms, cardiometabolic burden and increase the global recovery. While sport-based programs are consistently being proposed as an integral part of effective personalized treatment approaches for people with severe mental disorders, their routine implementation is hampered by poor working task integration among different professionals and the lack of training programmes for sport professionals focused on people with severe mental disorders. In this paper, we will: (a) review the efficacy of exercise/sport-based interventions for people with severe mental disorders; (b) describe the main difficulties in engaging patients with severe mental disorders in these interventions; and (c) report the results of the first study on the best practices available in Europe in the field of sport and mental health carried out in the context of the European Alliance for Sport and Mental Health (EASMH) project. According to the EASMH survey, sport-based psychosocial interventions are not frequently available in mental health services, with significant differences at the European level. In the near future, it would be advisable to promote the integration and collaboration between mental health professionals and sport professionals, in order to improve the dissemination and availability of sport-based interventions in routine clinical practice. The EASMH project aims to fill this gap by creating a network of collaborators, researchers and stakeholders with different backgrounds in order to improve the dissemination of sport-based rehabilitation interventions and by developing an innovative training programme for sport coaches in order to improve their skills in interacting and building an effective relationship with people with severe mental disorders.

Association of physical activity levels and brain white matter in older Latino adults

OBJECTIVE

Investigate the associations between self-reported physical activity (PA) engagement and white matter (WM) health (i.e. volume, integrity, and hyperintensities) in older Latinos.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study with community-dwelling older adults from predominantly Latino neighborhoods. Participants: Thirty-four cognitively healthy older Latinos from two different cohorts. Measurements: Participants self-reported demographic information, PA engagement [Community Healthy Activities Model Program for Seniors (CHAMPS) Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Adults] and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). We used high-resolution three-dimensional T1- and T2-FLAIR weighted images and diffusion tensor imaging acquired via 3 T MRI. We performed a series of hierarchical linear regression models with the addition of relevant covariates to examine the associations between self-reported PA levels and WM volume, integrity, and hyperintensities (separately). We adjusted p-values with the use of the Benjamini-Hochberg's false discovery rate procedure.

RESULTS

Higher reported levels of leisure-time moderate-to-vigorous PA were significantly associated with higher WM volume of the posterior cingulate (β = 0.220, SE = 0.125, 95% CI 0.009-0.431, p = 0.047) and isthmus cingulate (β = 0.212, SE = 0.110, 95% CI 0.001-0.443, p = 0.044) after controlling for intracranial volume. Higher levels of total PA were significantly associated with higher overall WM volume of these same regions (posterior cingulate: β = 0.220, SE = 0.125, CI 0.024-0.421, p = 0.046; isthmus cingulate: β = 0.220, SE = 0.125, 95% CI 0.003-0.393; p = 0.040). Significant p-values did not withstand Benjamini-Hochberg's adjustment. PA was not significantly associated with WM integrity or WM hyperintensities.

CONCLUSION

Higher levels of PA, particularly higher leisure-time moderate-to-vigorous PA, might be associated with greater WM volume in select white matter regions key to brain network integration for physical and cognitive functioning in older Latinos. More research is needed to further confirm these associations.

Physical activities and risk of neurodegenerative diseases: A two-sample Mendelian randomization study

Objectives

Physical activity (PA) is considered beneficial in slowing the progression and improving the neurodegenerative disease prognosis. However, the association between PA and neurodegenerative diseases remains unknown. In this study, we conducted a two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis to estimate the causal association between PA phenotypes and neurodegenerative diseases.

Materials and methods

Genetic variants robustly associated with PA phenotypes, used as instrumental variables, were extracted from public genome-wide association study (GWAS) summary statistics. Neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Parkinson's disease (PD), and Alzheimer's disease (AD), were considered outcomes. GWAS information was also obtained from the most recent large population study of individuals with European ancestry. Multiple MR methods, pleiotropy tests and sensitivity analyses were performed to obtain a robust and valid estimation.

Results

We found a positive association between moderate-to-vigorous physical activities and ALS based on the inverse variance weighted MR analysis method (OR: 2.507, 95% CI: 1.218-5.160, p = 0.013). The pleiotropy test and sensitivity analysis confirmed the robustness and validity of these MR results. No causal effects of PA phenotypes were found on PD and AD.

Conclusion

Our study indicates a causal effect of PA on the risk of neurodegenerative diseases. Genetically predicted increases in self-reported moderate-to-vigorous PA participation could increase the risk of ALS in individuals of European ancestry. Precise and individualized prescriptions of physical activity should be provided to the elderly population.

The mediating role of inhibitory control in the relationship between prefrontal cortex hemodynamics and exercise performance in adults with overweight or obesity

Physical inactivity has been suggested to impair physical performance, cognitive functions and facilitate weight gain. One hypothesis is that long periods of physical inactivity could impair oxygen delivery to the prefrontal cortex (PFC), impairing one's cognitive ability to inhibit unhealthy automated behaviors and, therefore, reduce exercise tolerance. The present study sought to further understand the relationship among PFC hemodynamics, inhibitory control, and exercise tolerance in individuals with low physical fitness levels who are overweight or obese. Thirty-four participants were asked to perform a series of inhibitory control tests (i.e., Stroop task) in one testing session and complete an incremental cycling exercise test with hemodynamic fluctuations of the PFC measured with functional near-infrared spectroscopy in another session. Our results indicate that exercise performance varied with PFC oxygenation. We also found that inhibitory control played a key role mediating the relationship between PFC oxygenation and exercise performance, suggesting that the cognitive ability to inhibit automated responses has an impact on exercise behavior in adults with overweight and obesity.

Relationship between Physical Activity and Emotional Regulation Strategies in Early Adulthood: Mediating Effects of Cortical Thickness

We investigated the relationship between physical activity (PA) and emotional regulation strategies among college students to establish the mediating role of cortical thickness. A total of 60 university students (18−20 years old) were enrolled in this study. The International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ-L) was used to estimate PA levels. Based on the International Physical Activity Working Group standards, PA levels were divided into low, medium, and high PA groups; emotional regulation strategies were determined by the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ), including the Cognitive Reappraisal Scale (CR) and the Expressive Suppression Scale (ES). Structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was used to measure cortical thickness. Differences in use of the ES strategy among high, medium, and low PA groups were not marked. However, compared to the low PA group, the CR strategy was frequently used in the high PA group, with a thicker right hemisphere rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rrACC). PA levels were positively correlated with thickness of the rrACC cortex (r = 0.398, p = 0.002 < 0.05) and CR strategy (r = 0.398, p = 0.002 < 0.05), and negatively correlated with the ES strategy (r = −0.348, p = 0.007 < 0.05). The rrACC cortical thickness played a partial mediating role in the relationship between PA and CR strategy, accounting for 33.1% of total effect values. These findings indicate that although the negative correlation between PA and ES was not significant, the positive correlation between PA with CR was significant, and rrACC thickness played a partial mediating role in the relationship between PA and CR, providing new evidence toward comprehensively revealing the relationship between PA, rrACC cortical thickness, and emotion regulation strategies.

Higher 24-h Total Movement Activity Percentile Is Associated with Better Cognitive Performance in U.S. Older Adults

PURPOSE

This study aimed to assess the association of a wrist-worn, device-based metric of 24-h movement with cognitive function and subjective cognitive complaints among older adults, 60 yr and older.

METHODS

This is a cross-sectional analysis of the 2011-2012 and 2013-2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) cycles. A wrist-worn ActiGraph GT3X+ accelerometer captured total 24-h movement activity, analyzed as Monitor-Independent Movement Summary units (MIMS-units), and quantified into placement based on an age- and sex-standardized percentile. Cognitive tests in the domains of memory, language/verbal fluency, and executive performance were administered. Test-specific cognitive z -scores were generated. Subjective cognitive complaints included perceived difficulty remembering and confusion/memory loss.

RESULTS

The analytical sample included 2708 U.S. older adults (69.5 ± 0.2 yr, 55% female, 20.9% non-White). Multivariable linear regressions revealed those in quartiles 3 (50th-74th percentile) and 4 (≥75th percentile) for their age and sex had higher cognitive function z -scores across all domains compared with those in quartile 1. Logistic regressions demonstrated those in quartiles 3 and 4 also had lower odds of reporting difficulty remembering (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 0.52, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.31-0.89; AOR = 0.57, 95% CI = 0.37-0.88) and confusion/memory loss (AOR = 0.49, 95% CI = 0.27-0.91; AOR = 0.49, 95% CI = 0.27-0.98), respectively, compared with those in quartile 1.

CONCLUSIONS

In a representative sample of U.S. older adults, higher cognitive functioning occurs among those that perform total 24-h movement activity at or above the 50th percentile for their age and sex. Future studies should consider movement behaviors across a 24-h period on cognitive health outcomes in older adults. More research exploring prospective associations of MIMS-units and time-use behaviors across midlife and older adulthood that may affect cognitive functioning across diverse populations is needed.

The effect of two multi-component behavior change interventions on cognitive functions

Background

We previously reported the effects of two cluster-randomized 6-month multi-component workplace interventions, targeting reducing sedentary behavior or increasing physical activity among office workers, on movement behaviors and cardiorespiratory fitness. The primary aim of this study was to investigate the effects of these interventions on cognitive functions compared to a wait-list control group. The secondary aims were to examine if changes in cognition were related to change in cardiorespiratory fitness or movement behaviors and if age, sex, or cardiorespiratory fitness moderated these associations.

Methods

Both interventions encompassed multi-components acting on the individual, environmental, and organizational levels and aimed to change physical activity patterns to improve mental health and cognitive function. Out of 263 included participants, 139 (mean age 43 years, 76% females) completed a neuropsychological test battery and wore accelerometers at baseline and 6-month follow-up. The intervention effect (aim 1) on cognitive composite scores (i.e., Executive Functions, Episodic Memory, Processing Speed, and Global Cognition) was investigated. Additionally, associations between changes in movement behaviors and cardiorespiratory fitness, and changes in cognition were examined (aim 2). Moreover, age, sex, and cardiorespiratory fitness level were investigated as possible moderators of change associations (aim 3).

Results

Overall, cognitive performance improved from baseline to follow-up, but the change did not differ between the intervention groups and the control group. Changes in cardiorespiratory fitness or any movement behavior category did not predict changes in cognitive functions. The association between changes in time in bed and changes in both Executive Function and Global Cognition were moderated by age, such that a more positive relation was seen with increasing age. A less positive association was seen between changes in sedentary behavior and Processing Speed for men vs. women, whereas higher cardiorespiratory fitness was related to a more positive association between changes in moderate-intensity physical activity and Global Cognition.

Conclusion

The lack of an intervention effect on cognitive functions was expected since the intervention did not change movement behavior or fitness. Age, sex, and cardiorespiratory fitness level might moderate the relationships between movement behaviors and cognitive functions changes.

Trial registration

ISRCTN92968402. Registered 09/04/2018.

Cognitive Aging and the Promise of Physical Activity

Is the field of cognitive aging irretrievably concerned with decline and deficits, or is it shifting to emphasize the hope of preservation and enhancement of cognitive function in late life? A fragment of an answer comes from research attempting to understand the reasons for individual variability in the extent and rate of cognitive decline. This body of work has created a sense of optimism based on evidence that there are some health behaviors that amplify cognitive performance or mitigate the rate of age-related cognitive decline. In this context, we discuss the role of physical activity on neurocognitive function in late adulthood and summarize how it can be conceptualized as a constructive approach both for the maintenance of cognitive function and as a therapeutic for enhancing or optimizing cognitive function in late life. In this way, physical activity research can be used to shape perceptions of cognitive aging. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, Volume 18 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Bidirectional within- and between-person relations between physical activity and cognitive function

OBJECTIVES

To examine bidirectional within- and between-person relations between physical activity and cognitive function across 15 years.

METHODS

Participants (N = 1722, age range 40-85 years, 55% women) were drawn from the Betula prospective cohort study. We included four waves of data. Bivariate latent curve models with structured residuals were estimated to examine bidirectional within- and between-person relations between physical activity and cognitive function (episodic memory recall, verbal fluency, visuospatial ability).

RESULTS

We observed no statistically significant bidirectional within-person relations over time. Higher levels of physical activity at baseline were related to less decline in episodic memory recall. Positive occasion-specific within- and between-person relations were observed, with the most consistent being between physical activity and episodic memory recall.

DISCUSSION

The lack of bidirectional within-person relations indicate that shorter time lags may be needed to capture time-ordered within-person relations. The link between higher physical activity at baseline and less decline in episodic memory recall over time may indicate a protective effect of physical activity on episodic memory recall.

Influence of Aerobic Fitness on White Matter Integrity and Inhibitory Control in Early Adulthood: A 9-Week Exercise Intervention

Previous cross-sectional studies have related aerobic fitness to inhibitory control and white matter (WM) microstructure in young adults, but there is no longitudinal study to confirm whether these relationships exist. We carried out a longitudinal study comparing aerobic fitness, inhibitory control, and WM integrity across time points, before versus after completing an exercise intervention in young adults (18–20 years old) relative to a control group. The exercise group (n = 35) participated in a 9-week exercise protocol, while the control group (n = 24) did not receive any regular exercise training. Behavioral data and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data were collected prior to and following the intervention. After the exercise intervention, aerobic fitness and inhibitory control performance were significantly improved for the exercise group, but not for the control group. Analyses of variance (ANOVA) of the DTI data demonstrated significantly increased fractional anisotropy (FA) in the right corticospinal tract and significantly decreased FA in the left superior fronto-occipital fasciculus in the exercise group after the intervention versus before. The enhanced aerobic fitness induced by exercise was associated with better inhibitory control performance in the incongruent condition and lower FA in the Left superior fronto-occipital fasciculus (SFOF). Regression analysis of a mediation model did not support Left SFOF FA as a mediator of the relationship between improvements in aerobic fitness and inhibitory control. The present data provide new evidence of the relationship between exercise-induced changes in aerobic fitness, WM integrity, and inhibitory control in early adulthood. Longer-duration intervention studies with larger study cohorts are needed to confirm and further explore the findings obtained in this study.

Association Between Brain Volumes and Patterns of Physical Activity in Community-Dwelling Older Adults

BACKGROUND

Larger brain volumes are often associated with more free-living physical activity (PA) in cognitively normal older adults. Yet, whether greater brain volumes are associated with more favorable (less fragmented) PA patterns, and whether this association is stronger than with total PA, remains unknown.

METHODS

Brain magnetic resonance imaging and wrist-worn accelerometer data were collected in 301 participants (mean age = 77 [SD = 7] years, 59% women) enrolled in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Linear regression models were fit to examine whether brain volumes (cc) were cross-sectionally associated with: (a) total daily PA minutes and (b) activity fragmentation (mean number of PA bouts / total PA minutes × 100). Sensitivity analyses were conducted by adjusting for counterpart PA variables (eg, fragmentation covariate included in the PA minutes model).

RESULTS

Greater white matter volumes in the parietal and temporal lobes were associated with higher daily PA minutes (2.6 [SE = 1.0] and 3.8 [0.9] min/day, respectively; p < .009 for both) after adjusting for demographics, behavioral factors, medical conditions, gait speed, apolipoprotein E e4 status, and intracranial volume. Greater temporal white matter volume was associated with lower fragmentation (-0.16% [0.05], p = .003). In sensitivity analyses, observed associations between brain volumes and daily PA minutes remained significant while associations with fragmentation no longer remained significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest white matter brain structure in cognitively normal older adults is associated with the total amount of PA and, to a lesser extent, the PA accumulation patterns. More work is needed to elucidate the longitudinal relationship between brain structure and function and PA patterns with aging.

FMS Effects of a Motor Program for Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders

The current study evaluated the effectiveness of a motor program that specifically targeted fundamental motor skills (FMS) in children with ASD. The experimental group (n=21) participated in a 9-week program with motor instructions for 80 minutes/day, three days/week, while the control group (n=29) did not participate in the program. We measured FMS (using the Test of Gross Motor Development-3) one-week before, one-week after, and two-months after the program. Children in the experimental group had significantly larger FMS improvements than the controls on both locomotor and ball skills immediately following the program, and these participants showed continuous improvement on locomotor, but not ball skills, at 2-months follow-up. In individual analyses, 80% of children in the experimental group versus 29% of children in the control group showed continuous locomotor skills improvement beyond their pre-test levels. These findings highlight the importance of both a long-term motor development intervention and an individualized approach for evaluating improved FMS among children with ASD.

Effects of a Motor Imagery Task on Functional Brain Network Community Structure in Older Adults: Data from the Brain Networks and Mobility Function (B-NET) Study

Elucidating the neural correlates of mobility is critical given the increasing population of older adults and age-associated mobility disability. In the current study, we applied graph theory to cross-sectional data to characterize functional brain networks generated from functional magnetic resonance imaging data both at rest and during a motor imagery (MI) task. Our MI task is derived from the Mobility Assessment Tool–short form (MAT-sf), which predicts performance on a 400 m walk, and the Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB). Participants (n = 157) were from the Brain Networks and Mobility (B-NET) Study (mean age = 76.1 ± 4.3; % female = 55.4; % African American = 8.3; mean years of education = 15.7 ± 2.5). We used community structure analyses to partition functional brain networks into communities, or subnetworks, of highly interconnected regions. Global brain network community structure decreased during the MI task when compared to the resting state. We also examined the community structure of the default mode network (DMN), sensorimotor network (SMN), and the dorsal attention network (DAN) across the study population. The DMN and SMN exhibited a task-driven decline in consistency across the group when comparing the MI task to the resting state. The DAN, however, displayed an increase in consistency during the MI task. To our knowledge, this is the first study to use graph theory and network community structure to characterize the effects of a MI task, such as the MAT-sf, on overall brain network organization in older adults.

Age at illness onset and physical activity are associated with cognitive impairment in patients with current diagnosis of major depressive disorder

BACKGROUND

Cognitive impairment has been reported in patients with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). This study aims to explore the association between lifestyle habits and health-related factors and the presence of cognitive symptoms in MDD patients.

METHODS

Demographic, clinical, health-related variables and cognitive scores measured with the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) were compared between 74 patients with current MDD and 68 healthy controls (HC). To test the hypothesis of associated factors to cognitive symptoms, multivariate backward stepwise linear regression models were run.

RESULTS

Significant neuropsychological deficits were evident in MDD compared with HC in the global cognitive index (F=8.29; df=1, 140; p=0.005). In the regression analysis performed on MDD and HC, years of schooling (β=-0.11; p=<0.001), job status (β=-0.50; p=0.016), physical activity (β=-0.25; p=0.04) and age at illness onset (β=0.17; p=0.017) were statistically significant factors associated to cognitive impairment. The regression model ran in HC showed that only years of schooling were significant (β=-0.07; p=<0.001) in this group.

LIMITATIONS

Sample size was relatively small. Everyday cognitive skills were not evaluated.

CONCLUSIONS

MDD patients have cognitive deficits. These deficits are linked with the years of education, job status, age of onset of the disease and the performance of physical activity. These results support the importance of the implementation of interventions targeting the cognitive reserve and lifestyle habits of MDD patients, in addition to the conventional therapeutic approach focused on symptoms control.

Effect of Aerobic Exercise on Mental Health in Older Adults: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Introduction: The recommendation of exercise programs in the senior population may benefit inactive and sedentary individuals and improve and help to treat specific health conditions. The purpose of this review is to summarize the published evidence from RCT studies of aerobic exercise interventions for mental health in older adults over the last 20 years. Methods: A literature search was conducted using electronic databases including Web of Science, PubMed/Medline, and ProQuest. Results: A total of 15 studies met the inclusion criteria. The subjects of these studies were aged 60 years or older and had various physical health statuses. In 15 studies, the mean effect size for the experimental outcome was 0.56 ± 0.39 (95%CI: 0.36-0.76). One-way ANOVA indicated no significant differences in the intervention duration [F _(2,15) = 0.919, p = 0.420], subject category [F _(2,15) = 0.046, p = 0.955], or measurement category [F _(3,14) = 0.967, p = 0.436]. However, there were significant differences in exercise frequencies [F _(2,15) = 6.03, p = 0.012]. Conclusion: The available evidence suggests that aerobic exercise is beneficial for improving the mental health of adults aged 60 years and older. The intervention effect can be achieved regardless of the type of subject and the duration of the intervention. Further, the present study indicates that low-frequency, long-term and regular aerobic exercise is more effective for older adults. Therefore, we recommend that older adults to exercise at a low frequency depending on their physical condition.

The Role of Exercise in Management of Mental Health Disorders: An Integrative Review

A large and growing body of evidence suggests that physical activity (PA) may hold therapeutic promise in the management of mental health disorders. Most evidence linking PA to mental health outcomes has focused on the effects of aerobic exercise training on depression, although a growing body of work supports the efficacy of both aerobic and resistance exercise paradigms in the treatment of anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder. Despite abundant evidence linking PA and mental health, use of exercise training as a mental health treatment remains limited due to three important sources of uncertainty: (a) large individual differences in response to exercise treatment within multiple mental health domains; (b) the critical importance of sustained PA engagement, not always achieved, for therapeutic benefit; and (c) disagreement regarding the relative importance of putative therapeutic mechanisms. Our review of treatment data on exercise interventions and mental health outcomes focuses primarily on depression and anxiety within a health neuroscience framework. Within this conceptual framework, neurobiological and behavioral mechanisms may have additiveor synergistic influences on key cognitive and behavioral processes that influence mental health outcomes. We therefore highlight sources of treatment heterogeneity by integrating the critical influences of (a) neurobiological mechanisms enhancing neuroplasticity and (b) behavioral learning of self-regulatory skills. Understanding the interrelationships between dynamic neurobiological and behavioral mechanisms may help inform personalized mental health treatments and clarify why, and for whom, exercise improves mental health outcomes. The review concludes with recommendations for future studies leveraging individual differences to refine treatment approaches to optimize mental health benefits.

Effect of 1 Year of Qigong Exercise on Cognitive Function Among Older Chinese Adults at Risk of Cognitive Decline: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial

Background: The rapidly aging Chinese population is showing an increase in age-related illnesses, including mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer disease. The best types of physical activity for the improvement of cognition remain unknown. This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of a tailored qigong exercise with that of stretching exercise in the maintenance of cognitive abilities in Chinese elders at risk of cognitive decline. Methods: Seventy-four community-dwelling adults aged ≥60 years were screened for eligibility. Using a randomized control group design, participants with scores ≥19 on the Chinese version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment-Basic (MoCA) were allocated to a 1-year qigong intervention (n = 33) and a stretching control exercise group (n = 33). The primary outcome was the MoCA score, as a measure of global cognitive function, and secondary outcomes were globe cognition and five domain scores on the Chinese version of the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS). The MoCA and RBANS were administered at baseline and 1 year after intervention to assess the effect of the exercises on cognitive decline. Results: Twenty-five of 33 (75.8%) participants in the qigong group and 26 of 33 (78.8%) participants in the control group completed the 1-year exercise programs. A bivariate test revealed strong correlation between MoCA and RBANS total scores after the intervention (r = 0.517, p < 0.01). Generalized estimating equations revealed a lower risk of progression of cognitive decline at 1 year in the qigong group than in the control group (odds ratio, 0.314; 95% confidence interval, 0.103-0.961; p = 0.04). Two-way repeated-measures ANOVA followed by post hoc t tests with Bonferroni corrections indicated that MoCA and RBANS scores were significantly higher in the qigong group than in the control group (MoCA and RBANS global cognition, memory, visuospatial/constructional ability, and language, all p < 0.01), with the exception of RBANS attention score (p > 0.05). Conclusions: One year of qigong practice was significantly superior to stretching exercise not only for the prevention of cognitive decline progression, but also for the improvement of several cognitive functions, among older Chinese adults at risk of cognitive decline.

Physical activity and cognitive function: between-person and within-person associations and moderators

In the present study, we decomposed between- and within-person effects and examined moderators of the longitudinal physical activity-cognition association. Participants (N = 1722) were drawn from the Betula study and we included four waves of data across 15 years. Bayesian multilevel modeling showed that self-reported physical activity did not predict changes in cognitive function. Physical activity positively predicted cognitive performance at baseline, and the relations were stronger for more active (compared to less active) older adults. Physical activity had a positive within-person effect on cognitive function. The within-person effect of physical activity on episodic memory recall was stronger for participants who on average engaged in less physical activity. The within-person effect on verbal fluency was stronger for participants with more education. Our results suggest that preserving cognitive functioning in old age might be more a matter of what you do in old age than reflecting what you did earlier in life.

Anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse and cognitive impairment: Testosterone IMPAIRS biconditional task performance in male rats

Our goal is to understand the consequences of anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) abuse on cognitive function, using rats as a model. There is relatively little research on how AAS abuse impacts cognition. In the present study, rats were tested for their ability to use contextual information to guide decision-making in biconditional discrimination. The Stroop task is a classic human test for contextual decision-making. In rodents, biconditional discrimination challenges subjects to use contextual cues in the operant chamber to resolve the correct lever response when auditory and visual cues are incongruent. The hypothesis is that chronic high-dose testosterone impairs biconditional discrimination. Rats were trained in 24 trials/day over 14 days, in alternating sessions with each environment. On a flat floor with houselight illuminated, auditory cues (clicker vs tone) signified the active lever. On a barred floor with no light, visual cues from 2 stimulus lights (constant vs blinking) identified the active lever. Rats treated chronically with testosterone (7.5 mg/kg) were unimpaired in task acquisition, and all rats learned to select the correct lever in response to auditory or visual cues. During extinction, controls made significantly more correct than incorrect responses in congruent trials (p < 0.05 by paired t-test), but testosterone-treated rats failed to show a similar preference. This was reflected by significant interactions of drug x cue agreement (F_1,18 = 5.21, p < 0.05) and drug x cue agreement x response accuracy (F_1,18 = 8.95, p < 0.05). These results suggest that testosterone impairs cognitive flexibility, and demonstrates potential for AAS abuse to impair cognitive function in humans.

Dose-Response Matters! - A Perspective on the Exercise Prescription in Exercise-Cognition Research

In general, it is well recognized that both acute physical exercises and regular physical training influence brain plasticity and cognitive functions positively. However, growing evidence shows that the same physical exercises induce very heterogeneous outcomes across individuals. In an attempt to better understand this interindividual heterogeneity in response to acute and regular physical exercising, most research, so far, has focused on non-modifiable factors such as sex and different genotypes, while relatively little attention has been paid to exercise prescription as a modifiable factor. With an adapted exercise prescription, dosage can be made comparable across individuals, a procedure that is necessary to better understand the dose-response relationship in exercise-cognition research. This improved understanding of dose-response relationships could help to design more efficient physical training approaches against, for instance, cognitive decline.

Functional and/or structural brain changes in response to resistance exercises and resistance training lead to cognitive improvements - a systematic review

BACKGROUND

During the aging process, physical capabilities (e.g., muscular strength) and cognitive functions (e.g., memory) gradually decrease. Regarding cognitive functions, substantial functional (e.g., compensatory brain activity) and structural changes (e.g., shrinking of the hippocampus) in the brain cause this decline. Notably, growing evidence points towards a relationship between cognition and measures of muscular strength and muscle mass. Based on this emerging evidence, resistance exercises and/or resistance training, which contributes to the preservation and augmentation of muscular strength and muscle mass, may trigger beneficial neurobiological processes and could be crucial for healthy aging that includes preservation of the brain and cognition. Compared with the multitude of studies that have investigated the influence of endurance exercises and/or endurance training on cognitive performance and brain structure, considerably less work has focused on the effects of resistance exercises and/or resistance training. While the available evidence regarding resistance exercise-induced changes in cognitive functions is pooled, the underlying neurobiological processes, such as functional and structural brain changes, have yet to be summarized. Hence, the purpose of this systematic review is to provide an overview of resistance exercise-induced functional and/or structural brain changes that are related to cognitive functions.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A systematic literature search was conducted by two independent researchers across six electronic databases; 5957 records were returned, of which 18 were considered relevant and were analyzed.

SHORT CONCLUSION

Based on our analyses, resistance exercises and resistance training evoked substantial functional brain changes, especially in the frontal lobe, which were accompanied by improvements in executive functions. Furthermore, resistance training led to lower white matter atrophy and smaller white matter lesion volumes. However, based on the relatively small number of studies available, the findings should be interpreted cautiously. Hence, future studies are required to investigate the underlying neurobiological mechanisms and to verify whether the positive findings can be confirmed and transferred to other needy cohorts, such as older adults with dementia, sarcopenia and/or dynapenia.