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Dosso C, Chevalier A, Tamine L, Paubel PV, Salmerón L. People also ask: How does this tool affect exploration-exploitation strategies with regard to prior domain knowledge and search context? An eye-tracking study. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2024; 121:104367. [PMID: 39153397 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2024.104367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2024] [Accepted: 08/02/2024] [Indexed: 08/19/2024]
Abstract
With the diversification of Internet uses, online content type has become richer. Alongside organic results, search engine results pages now provide tools to improve information searching and learning. The People also ask (PAA) box is intended to reduce users' cognitive costs by offering easily accessible information. Nevertheless, there has been scant research on how users actually process it, compared with more traditional content type (i.e., organic results and online documents). The present eye-tracking study explored this question by considering the search context (complex lookup task vs. exploratory task) and users' prior domain knowledge (high vs. low). Main results show that users fixated the PAA box and online documents more to achieve exploratory goals, and fixated organic results more to achieve lookup goals. Users with low knowledge process PAA content at an early stage in their search contrary to their counterparts with high knowledge. Given these results, information system developers should diversify PAA content according to search context and users' prior domain knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheyenne Dosso
- University of Toulouse Jean-Jaurès, CLLE Laboratory, France.
| | - Aline Chevalier
- University of Toulouse Jean-Jaurès, CLLE Laboratory, France.
| | - Lynda Tamine
- University of Toulouse Paul Sabatier, IRIT Laboratory, France.
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Testoni A, Bernardi R, Ruggeri A. The Efficiency of Question-Asking Strategies in a Real-World Visual Search Task. Cogn Sci 2023; 47:e13396. [PMID: 38142430 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.13396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, a multitude of datasets of human-human conversations has been released for the main purpose of training conversational agents based on data-hungry artificial neural networks. In this paper, we argue that datasets of this sort represent a useful and underexplored source to validate, complement, and enhance cognitive studies on human behavior and language use. We present a method that leverages the recent development of powerful computational models to obtain the fine-grained annotation required to apply metrics and techniques from Cognitive Science to large datasets. Previous work in Cognitive Science has investigated the question-asking strategies of human participants by employing different variants of the so-called 20-question-game setting and proposing several evaluation methods. In our work, we focus on GuessWhat, a task proposed within the Computer Vision and Natural Language Processing communities that is similar in structure to the 20-question-game setting. Crucially, the GuessWhat dataset contains tens of thousands of dialogues based on real-world images, making it a suitable setting to investigate the question-asking strategies of human players on a large scale and in a natural setting. Our results demonstrate the effectiveness of computational tools to automatically code how the hypothesis space changes throughout the dialogue in complex visual scenes. On the one hand, we confirm findings from previous work on smaller and more controlled settings. On the other hand, our analyses allow us to highlight the presence of "uninformative" questions (in terms of Expected Information Gain) at specific rounds of the dialogue. We hypothesize that these questions fulfill pragmatic constraints that are exploited by human players to solve visual tasks in complex scenes successfully. Our work illustrates a method that brings together efforts and findings from different disciplines to gain a better understanding of human question-asking strategies on large-scale datasets, while at the same time posing new questions about the development of conversational systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Testoni
- Institute for Logic, Language and Computation (ILLC), University of Amsterdam
| | - Raffaella Bernardi
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento
- Department of Information Engineering and Computer Science (DISI), University of Trento
| | - Azzurra Ruggeri
- MPRG iSearch, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin
- School of Social Sciences and Technology, Technical University Munich
- Department of Cognitive Science, Central European University
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3
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Wieschen EM, Makani A, Radev ST, Voss A, Spaniol J. Age-Related Differences in Decision-Making: Evidence Accumulation is More Gradual in Older Age. Exp Aging Res 2023:1-13. [PMID: 37515752 DOI: 10.1080/0361073x.2023.2241333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/31/2023]
Abstract
Older adults tend to exhibit longer response times than younger adults in choice tasks across cognitive domains, such as perception, attention, and memory. The diffusion model has emerged as a standard model for analyzing age differences in choice behavior. Applications of the diffusion model to choice data from younger and older adults indicate that age-related slowing is driven by a more cautious response style and slower non-decisional processes, rather than by age differences in the rate of information accumulation. The Lévy flight model, a new evidence accumulation model that extends the diffusion model, was recently developed to account for differences in response times for correct and error responses. In the Lévy flight model, larger jumps in evidence accumulation can be accommodated compared to the diffusion model. It is currently unknown whether younger and older adults differ with respect to the jumpiness of evidence accumulation. In the current study, younger and older adults (N = 40 per age group) completed a letter-number-discrimination task. Results indicate that older adults show a more gradual (less "jumpy") pattern of evidence accumulation compared to younger adults. Implications for research on cognitive aging are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Marie Wieschen
- Department of Psychology, Ruprecht-Karls-Universitaet, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Aalim Makani
- Department of Psychology, Toronto Metropolitan University, Toronto, Canada
| | - Stefan T Radev
- Cluster of Excellence STRUCTURES, Ruprecht-Karls-Universitaet, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Andreas Voss
- Department of Psychology, Ruprecht-Karls-Universitaet, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Julia Spaniol
- Department of Psychology, Toronto Metropolitan University, Toronto, Canada
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4
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Spreng RN, Turner GR. From exploration to exploitation: a shifting mental mode in late life development. Trends Cogn Sci 2021; 25:1058-1071. [PMID: 34593321 PMCID: PMC8844884 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2021.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Changes in cognition, affect, and brain function combine to promote a shift in the nature of mentation in older adulthood, favoring exploitation of prior knowledge over exploratory search as the starting point for thought and action. Age-related exploitation biases result from the accumulation of prior knowledge, reduced cognitive control, and a shift toward affective goals. These are accompanied by changes in cortical networks, as well as attention and reward circuits. By incorporating these factors into a unified account, the exploration-to-exploitation shift offers an integrative model of cognitive, affective, and brain aging. Here, we review evidence for this model, identify determinants and consequences, and survey the challenges and opportunities posed by an exploitation-biased mental mode in later life.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Nathan Spreng
- Laboratory of Brain and Cognition, Montreal Neurological Institute, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada; McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada; Departments of Psychiatry and Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0G4, Canada.
| | - Gary R Turner
- Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada
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5
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Liquin EG, Gopnik A. Children are more exploratory and learn more than adults in an approach-avoid task. Cognition 2021; 218:104940. [PMID: 34715584 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Intuitively, children appear to be more exploratory than adults, and this exploration seems to help children learn,. However, there have been few clear tests of these ideas. We test whether exploration and learning change across development using a task that presents a "learning trap." In this task, exploitation-maximizing immediate reward and avoiding costs-may lead the learner to draw incorrect conclusions, while exploration may lead to better learning but be more costly. In Studies 1, 2, and 3 we find that preschoolers and early school-aged children explore more than adults and learn the true structure of the environment better. Study 3 demonstrates that children explore more than adults even though they, like adults, predict that exploration will be costly, and it shows that exploration and learning are correlated. Study 4 shows that children's and adults' learning depends on the evidence they generate during exploration: children exposed to adult-like evidence learn like adults, and adults exposed to child-like evidence learn like children. Together, these studies support the idea that children may be more exploratory than adults, and this increased exploration influences learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily G Liquin
- Department of Psychology, 2121 Berkeley Way, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.
| | - Alison Gopnik
- Department of Psychology, 2121 Berkeley Way, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.
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Wang M, Ma YF, You XY. An innovative approach to identify environmental variables with conservation priorities in habitat patches. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 292:112788. [PMID: 34023787 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Conservation of habitat patches and the related environment benefits both the focal species and human well-being. Many indices use the dispersal range to identify habitat patches with conservation priorities. However, there lacks approaches to identify environmental variables with conservation priorities (noted as target variables) in those identified patches. Therefore, this paper proposes an approach to identify environmental variables with conservation priorities in habitat patches using perception range and introduces the related assumption. It is assumed the agents select habitats based on their prior preference and perceived information in their perception ranges, which avoids the omniscient assumption of agents. Based on such assumptions, the proposed approach identifies the target variables by approximating how animals identify their habitats. It highlights the use of perception range and identifies target variables using the maximum information gain. The variables that contribute the largest reduction of uncertainty are regarded as the target variables in the habitat patches. Taking the Common Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) living in Tianjin, China as the case, different scenarios with 100 m, 250 m and 500 m perception ranges are designed to illustrate the feasibility of the proposed approach. The proposed approach identifies the normalized vegetation index, rather than the distance to water surface, is the target variable in 42.3%, 58.9% and 72.1% habitat patches with given perception ranges. Adjustments are made on areas within the given perception range of each patch. More grid cells that has increased suitability index can be found in scenarios given 250 m perception range, which indicates the conservation area is not always the large the better. Optimizations are expected on both a better approximation method and a more thorough hypothesis of using perception range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengyang Wang
- Tianjin Engineering Center of Urban River Eco-Purification Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Yi-Fei Ma
- Tianjin Engineering Center of Urban River Eco-Purification Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Xue-Yi You
- Tianjin Engineering Center of Urban River Eco-Purification Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, China.
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Thornton IM, Tagu J, Zdravković S, Kristjánsson Á. The Predation Game: Does dividing attention affect patterns of human foraging? Cogn Res Princ Implic 2021; 6:35. [PMID: 33956238 PMCID: PMC8100746 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-021-00299-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Attention is known to play an important role in shaping the behaviour of both human and animal foragers. Here, in three experiments, we built on previous interactive tasks to create an online foraging game for studying divided attention in human participants exposed to the (simulated) risk of predation. Participants used a "sheep" icon to collect items from different target categories randomly distributed across the display. Each trial also contained "wolf" objects, whose movement was inspired by classic studies of multiple object tracking. When participants needed to physically avoid the wolves, foraging patterns changed, with an increased tendency to switch between target categories and a decreased ability to prioritise high reward targets, relative to participants who could safely ignore them. However, when the wolves became dangerous by periodically changing form (briefly having big eyes) instead of by approaching the sheep, foraging patterns were unaffected. Spatial disruption caused by the need to rapidly shift position-rather the cost of reallocating attention-therefore appears to influence foraging in this context. These results thus confirm that participants can efficiently alternate between target selection and tracking moving objects, replicating earlier single-target search findings. Future studies may need to increase the perceived risk or potential costs associated with simulated danger, in order to elicit the extended run behaviour predicted by animal models of foraging, but absent in the current data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian M Thornton
- Department of Cognitive Science, Faculty of Media and Knowledge Sciences, University of Malta, Msida, Malta.
| | - Jérôme Tagu
- Faculty of Psychology, School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, Oddi v. Sturlugötu, 101, Reykjavik, Iceland
- EA 4139 Laboratory of Psychology, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Sunčica Zdravković
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
- Laboratory for Experimental Psychology, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Árni Kristjánsson
- Faculty of Psychology, School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, Oddi v. Sturlugötu, 101, Reykjavik, Iceland
- School of Psychology, National Research University, Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russian Federation
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8
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Maldonado T, Orr JM, Goen JRM, Bernard JA. Age Differences in the Subcomponents of Executive Functioning. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2021; 75:e31-e55. [PMID: 31943092 DOI: 10.1093/geronb/gbaa005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Across the life span, deficits in executive functioning (EF) are associated with poor behavioral control and failure to achieve goals. Though EF is often discussed as one broad construct, a prominent model of EF suggests that it is composed of three subdomains: inhibition, set shifting, and updating. These subdomains are seen in both younger (YA) and older adults (OA), with performance deficits across subdomains in OA. Therefore, our goal was to investigate whether subdomains of EF might be differentially affected by age, and how these differences may relate to broader global age differences in EF. METHODS To assess these age differences, we conducted a meta-analysis at multiple levels, including task level, subdomain level, and of global EF. Based on previous work, we hypothesized that there would be overall differences in EF in OA. RESULTS Using 1,268 effect sizes from 401 articles, we found overall differences in EF with age. Results suggested that differences in performance are not uniform, such that variability in age effects emerged at the task level, and updating was not as affected by age as other subdomains. DISCUSSION These findings advance our understanding of age differences in EF, and stand to inform early detection of EF decline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ted Maldonado
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station
| | - Joseph M Orr
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station.,Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience, Texas A&M University, College Station
| | - James R M Goen
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station
| | - Jessica A Bernard
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station.,Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience, Texas A&M University, College Station
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9
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Age differences in foraging and executive functions: A cross-sectional study. J Exp Child Psychol 2020; 198:104910. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2020.104910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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10
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Abstract
In hybrid foraging tasks, observers search visual displays, so called patches, for multiple instances of any of several types of targets with the goal of collecting targets as quickly as possible. Here, targets were photorealistic objects. Younger and older adults collected targets by mouse clicks. They could move to the next patch whenever they decided to do so. The number of targets held in memory varied between 8 and 64 objects, and the number of items (targets and distractors) in the patches varied between 60 and 105 objects. Older adults foraged somewhat less efficiently than younger adults due to a more exploitative search strategy. When target items became depleted in a patch and search slowed down, younger adults acted according to the optimal foraging theory and moved on to the next patch when the instantaneous rate of collection was close to their average rate of collection. Older adults, by contrast, were more likely to stay longer and spend time searching for the last few targets. Within a patch, both younger and older adults tended to collect the same type of target in "runs." This behavior is more efficient than continual switching between target types. Furthermore, after correction for general age-related slowing, RT × set size functions revealed largely preserved attention and memory functions in older age. Hybrid foraging tasks share features with important real-world search tasks. Differences between younger and older observers on this task may therefore help to explain age differences in many complex search tasks of daily life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris Wiegand
- Visual Attention Lab, Brigham and Women's Hospital
| | | | - Jeremy Wolfe
- Visual Attention Lab, Brigham and Women's Hospital
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11
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Savolainen R. Berrypicking and information foraging: Comparison of two theoretical frameworks for studying exploratory search. J Inf Sci 2017. [DOI: 10.1177/0165551517713168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Exploratory search is a specialised form of information searching behaviour that is open-ended, dynamic and multi-faceted in nature. The study elaborates the picture of exploratory search by concentrating on two theoretical frameworks for studying searching of this type, that is, the berrypicking model and the information foraging theory. The study focuses on two major issues: the motivators for exploratory search and the nature of search processes. The findings draw on the conceptual analysis of 30 key studies on this topic. The berrypicking model posits changing information needs as the main motivator for information searching, while the information foraging theory emphasises the role need for performing a task as a main trigger of information seeking. The berrypicking model devotes more attention to focused searching as a key constituent of exploratory search, while the information foraging theory concentrates on the characterisation of exploratory browsing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reijo Savolainen
- Faculty of Communication Sciences, University of Tampere, Finland
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12
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Liu X, Chin J, Payne BR, Fu WT, Morrow DG, Stine-Morrow EAL. Adult age differences in information foraging in an interactive reading environment. Psychol Aging 2016; 31:211-23. [PMID: 26963481 DOI: 10.1037/pag0000079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
When learning about a single topic in natural reading environments, readers are confronted with multiple sources varying in the type and amount of information. In this situation, readers are free to adaptively respond to the constraints of the environment (e.g., through selection of resources and time allocation for study), but there may be costs of exploring and switching between sources (e.g., disruption of attention, opportunity costs for study). From an ecological perspective, such properties of the environment are expected to influence learning strategies. In the current study, we used a novel reading paradigm to investigate age differences in the effects of information richness (i.e., sentence elaboration) and costs of switching between texts (i.e., time delay) on selection of sources and study time allocation. Consistent with the ecological view, participants progressed from less informative to more informative texts. Furthermore, increased switch cost led to a tendency to allocate more effort to easier materials and to greater persistence in reading, which in turn, led to better memory in both immediate and delayed recall. Older adults showed larger effects of switch cost, such that the age difference in delayed recall was eliminated in the high switch cost condition. Based on an ecological paradigm of reading that affords choice and self-regulation, our study provided evidence for preservation with age in the ability to adapt to changing learning environments so as to improve performance. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomei Liu
- Department of Educational Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
| | - Jessie Chin
- Department of Educational Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
| | - Brennan R Payne
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
| | - Wai-Tat Fu
- Department of Computer Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
| | - Daniel G Morrow
- Department of Educational Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
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13
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Stine-Morrow EAL. Commentary on Mata and von Helversen: Foraging Theory as a Paradigm Shift for Cognitive Aging. Top Cogn Sci 2015; 7:535-42. [PMID: 25994491 DOI: 10.1111/tops.12149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2014] [Accepted: 09/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Mata and von Helversen's integrative review of adult age differences in search performance makes a good case that cognitive control may impact certain aspects of self-regulation of search. However, information foraging as a framework also offers an avenue to consider how adults of different ages adapt to age-related changes in cognition, such as in cognitive control.
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14
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Payne BR, Gross AL, Parisi JM, Sisco SM, Stine-Morrow EAL, Marsiske M, Rebok GW. Modelling longitudinal changes in older adults' memory for spoken discourse: findings from the ACTIVE cohort. Memory 2013; 22:990-1001. [PMID: 24304364 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2013.861916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Episodic memory shows substantial declines with advancing age, but research on longitudinal trajectories of spoken discourse memory (SDM) in older adulthood is limited. Using parallel process latent growth curve models, we examined 10 years of longitudinal data from the no-contact control group (N = 698) of the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly (ACTIVE) randomised controlled trial in order to test (1) the degree to which SDM declines with advancing age, (2) the predictors of these age-related declines and (3) the within-person relationship between longitudinal changes in SDM and longitudinal changes in fluid reasoning and verbal ability over 10 years, independent of age. Individuals who were younger, were White, had more years of formal education, were male and had better global cognitive function and episodic memory performance at baseline demonstrated greater levels of SDM on average. However, only age at baseline uniquely predicted longitudinal changes in SDM, such that declines accelerated with greater age. Independent of age, within-person decline in reasoning ability over the 10-year study period was substantially correlated with decline in SDM (r = .87). An analogous association with SDM did not hold for verbal ability. The findings suggest that longitudinal declines in fluid cognition are associated with reduced spoken language comprehension. Unlike findings from memory for written prose, preserved verbal ability may not protect against developmental declines in memory for speech.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brennan R Payne
- a Department of Educational Psychology , Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Champaign , IL , USA
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