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Clarke JD, Judson SM, Tian D, Kirby TO, Tanna RS, Matula‐Péntek A, Horváth M, Layton ME, White JR, Cech NB, Thummel KE, McCune JS, Shen DD, Paine MF. Co-consuming green tea with raloxifene decreases raloxifene systemic exposure in healthy adult participants. Clin Transl Sci 2023; 16:1779-1790. [PMID: 37639334 PMCID: PMC10582660 DOI: 10.1111/cts.13578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2023] [Revised: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Green tea is a popular beverage worldwide. The abundant green tea catechin (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is a potent in vitro inhibitor of intestinal UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) activity (Ki ~2 μM). Co-consuming green tea with intestinal UGT drug substrates, including raloxifene, could increase systemic drug exposure. The effects of a well-characterized green tea on the pharmacokinetics of raloxifene, raloxifene 4'-glucuronide, and raloxifene 6-glucuronide were evaluated in 16 healthy adults via a three-arm crossover, fixed-sequence study. Raloxifene (60 mg) was administered orally with water (baseline), with green tea for 1 day (acute), and on the fifth day after daily green tea administration for 4 days (chronic). Unexpectedly, green tea decreased the geometric mean green tea/baseline raloxifene AUC0-96h ratio to ~0.60 after both acute and chronic administration, which is below the predefined no-effect range (0.75-1.33). Lack of change in terminal half-life and glucuronide-to-raloxifene ratios indicated the predominant mechanism was not inhibition of intestinal UGT. One potential mechanism includes inhibition of intestinal transport. Using established transfected cell systems, a green tea extract normalized to EGCG inhibited 10 of 16 transporters tested (IC50 , 0.37-12 μM). Another potential mechanism, interruption by green tea of gut microbe-mediated raloxifene reabsorption, prompted a follow-up exploratory clinical study to evaluate the potential for a green tea-gut microbiota-drug interaction. No clear mechanisms were identified. Overall, results highlight that improvements in current models and methods used to predict UGT-mediated drug interactions are needed. Informing patients about the risk of co-consuming green tea with raloxifene may be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D. Clarke
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesWashington State UniversitySpokaneWashingtonUSA
- Center of Excellence for Natural Product Drug Interaction ResearchSpokaneWashingtonUSA
| | - Sabrina M. Judson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesWashington State UniversitySpokaneWashingtonUSA
| | - Dan‐Dan Tian
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesWashington State UniversitySpokaneWashingtonUSA
- Present address:
Drug DispositionEli Lilly and CompanyIndianapolisIndianaUSA
| | - Trevor O. Kirby
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesWashington State UniversitySpokaneWashingtonUSA
| | - Rakshit S. Tanna
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesWashington State UniversitySpokaneWashingtonUSA
| | | | | | - Matthew E. Layton
- Elson S. Floyd College of MedicineWashington State UniversitySpokaneWashingtonUSA
| | - John R. White
- Department of Pharmacotherapy, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesWashington State UniversitySpokaneWashingtonUSA
| | - Nadja B. Cech
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryUniversity of North Carolina GreensboroGreensboroNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Kenneth E. Thummel
- Center of Excellence for Natural Product Drug Interaction ResearchSpokaneWashingtonUSA
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of PharmacyUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWashingtonUSA
| | - Jeannine S. McCune
- Center of Excellence for Natural Product Drug Interaction ResearchSpokaneWashingtonUSA
- Department of Hematologic Malignancies Translational SciencesCity of HopeDuarteCaliforniaUSA
| | - Danny D. Shen
- Center of Excellence for Natural Product Drug Interaction ResearchSpokaneWashingtonUSA
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of PharmacyUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWashingtonUSA
| | - Mary F. Paine
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesWashington State UniversitySpokaneWashingtonUSA
- Center of Excellence for Natural Product Drug Interaction ResearchSpokaneWashingtonUSA
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Ansari MM, Vo DK, Choi HI, Ryu JS, Bae Y, Bukhari NI, Zeb A, Kim JK, Maeng HJ. Formulation and Evaluation of a Self-Microemulsifying Drug Delivery System of Raloxifene with Improved Solubility and Oral Bioavailability. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2073. [PMID: 37631288 PMCID: PMC10459739 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15082073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Poor aqueous solubility and dissolution limit the oral bioavailability of Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) class II drugs. In this study, we aimed to improve the aqueous solubility and oral bioavailability of raloxifene hydrochloride (RLX), a BCS class II drug, using a self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS). Based on the solubilities of RLX, Capryol 90, Tween 80/Labrasol ALF, and polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG-400) were selected as the oil, surfactant mixture, and cosurfactant, respectively. Pseudo-ternary phase diagrams were constructed to determine the optimal composition (Capryol 90/Tween 80/Labrasol ALF/PEG-400 in 150/478.1/159.4/212.5 volume ratio) for RLX-SMEDDS with a small droplet size (147.1 nm) and stable microemulsification (PDI: 0.227). Differential scanning calorimetry and powder X-ray diffraction of lyophilized RLX-SMEDDS revealed the loss of crystallinity, suggesting a molecularly dissolved or amorphous state of RLX in the SMEDDS formulation. Moreover, RLX-SMEDDS exhibited significantly higher saturation solubility and dissolution rate in water, simulated gastric fluid (pH 1.2), and simulated intestinal fluid (pH 6.8) than RLX powder. Additionally, oral administration of RLX-SMEDDS to female rats resulted in 1.94- and 1.80-fold higher area under the curve and maximum plasma concentration, respectively, than the RLX dispersion. Collectively, our findings suggest SMEDDS is a promising oral formulation to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of RLX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Mohsin Ansari
- Riphah Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Riphah International University, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
| | - Dang-Khoa Vo
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, 191 Hambakmoe-ro, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 21936, Republic of Korea
| | - Ho-Ik Choi
- College of Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Sangnok-gu, Ansan 15588, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong-Su Ryu
- College of Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Sangnok-gu, Ansan 15588, Republic of Korea
| | - Yumi Bae
- College of Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Sangnok-gu, Ansan 15588, Republic of Korea
| | - Nadeem Irfan Bukhari
- Punjab University College of Pharmacy, University of Punjab, Lahore 54590, Pakistan
| | - Alam Zeb
- Riphah Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Riphah International University, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, 191 Hambakmoe-ro, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 21936, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Ki Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Sangnok-gu, Ansan 15588, Republic of Korea
| | - Han-Joo Maeng
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, 191 Hambakmoe-ro, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 21936, Republic of Korea
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Karakaya I, Rizwan K, Munir S. Transition‐Metal Catalyzed Coupling Reactions for the Synthesis of (Het)aryl Ketones: An Approach from their Synthesis to Biological Perspectives. ChemistrySelect 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202204005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
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Kikuchi T, Shigemura S, Ito Y, Saito K. Determination of human F aF g of polyphenols using allometric scaling. J Toxicol Sci 2022; 47:409-420. [PMID: 36184560 DOI: 10.2131/jts.47.409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Certain polyphenols exhibit low permeability; precise prediction of their intestinal absorption is important for understanding internal exposure in humans. Intestinal availability, which represents the fraction of administered compounds that reach the portal blood (FaFg), is calculated by dividing bioavailability (F) by hepatic availability (Fh), and F is obtained from pharmacokinetic data from both intravenous (i.v.) and oral (p.o.) administration. However, human FaFg of polyphenols is hardly reported, as human i.v. data are extremely scarce. In this study, we developed an estimation method for FaFg of polyphenols in humans based on the extrapolation of rat clearance using allometric scaling (allometric scaling-based FaFg calculation method, AS- FaFgCM). First, for quercetin, for which human i.v. data have been reported, we compared the FaFg obtained by AS-FaFgCM with the traditional approach using human i.v. and p.o. data. Less than two-fold difference in FaFg values was observed between the two approaches. Next, we obtained FaFg of structurally diverse polyphenols (genistein, baicalein, resveratrol, and epicatechin) using AS-FaFgCM, demonstrating that all of them were poorly absorbable. Furthermore, to utilize the pharmacokinetic data of the total concentration, including aglycones and metabolites, we modified the AS-FaFgCM to focus on their excretion. The FaFg value of naringenin was obtained using modified AS-FaFgCM and was nearly equal to that of baicalein, a structural isomer of naringenin. This study provides quantitative information on the intestinal absorption of polyphenols using comprehensive estimation methods.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yuichi Ito
- Kao Corporation, Safety Science Research
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5
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Synthesis and In-Vitro Evaluation of Raloxifene–Oxalyl Chloride Conjugate Targeting Breast Cancer. Pharm Chem J 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11094-022-02713-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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Du T, Sun R, Etim I, Zheng Z, Liang D, Hu M, Gao S. Age-and Region-Dependent Disposition of Raloxifene in Rats. Pharm Res 2021; 38:1357-1367. [PMID: 34322833 PMCID: PMC8452384 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-021-03084-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Raloxifene undergoes extensive glucuronidation in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and the liver. However, the impact of age on raloxifene disposition has never been studied. The purpose of this paper is to determine glucuronidation and Pharmacokinetics (PK) profiles of raloxifene in rats at different ages. METHODS Raloxifene glucuronidation was characterized using S9 fractions prepared from different intestinal segments and the liver of F344 rats at 4-, 11-, and 28-week. PK studies were conducted to determine raloxifene oral bioavailability at different ages. Raloxifene and its glucuronides were quantified using LC-MS/MS. RESULTS Raloxifene-6-glucuronide and raloxifene-4'-glucuronide were detected as the major metabolites and the ratio of these two glucuronides were different ranging from 2.1 to 4.9 folds in the ileum, jejunum, liver, and duodenum, and from 14.5 to 50 folds in the colon. The clearances in the duodenum at 4-week for both two glucuronides were significantly lower than those at the other two ages. PK studies showed that the oral bioavailability of raloxifene is age dependent. The absolute oral bioavailability of raloxifene was 3.5-folds higher at 4-week compared to that at 11-weeks. When raloxifene was administered through IV bolus, its half-life was 5.9 ± 1.16 h and 3.7 ± 0.68 h at 11-and 4-week, respectively. CONCLUSION These findings suggested that raloxifene metabolism in the duodenum was significantly slower at young age in rats, which increased the oral bioavailability of raloxifene. At 11-week, enterohepatic recycling efficiency was higher than that of 4-week. Raloxifene's dose at different ages should be carefully considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Du
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Texas Southern University, 3100 Cleburne St, Houston, Texas, 77004, USA
| | - Rongjin Sun
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, The University of Houston, 4901 Calhoun Street, Houston, Texas, 77204, USA
| | - Imoh Etim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Texas Southern University, 3100 Cleburne St, Houston, Texas, 77004, USA
| | - Zicong Zheng
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, The University of Houston, 4901 Calhoun Street, Houston, Texas, 77204, USA
| | - Dong Liang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Texas Southern University, 3100 Cleburne St, Houston, Texas, 77004, USA
| | - Ming Hu
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, The University of Houston, 4901 Calhoun Street, Houston, Texas, 77204, USA.
| | - Song Gao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Texas Southern University, 3100 Cleburne St, Houston, Texas, 77004, USA.
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Aleksandar R, Milica PK, Gorana M, Boris M, Anastazija SM, Mladena LP, Snežana S, Nebojša S, Slobodan G. Interaction between apigenin and sodium deoxycholate with raloxifene: A potential risk for clinical practice. Eur J Pharm Sci 2021; 161:105809. [PMID: 33741473 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2021.105809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Apigenin (API) and sodium deoxycholate (NaDC) have different pharmacodynamic properties and can affect pharmacokinetics of drugs without causing significant toxicity. The aim of our study was to investigate the effect of API and NaDC on raloxifene pharmacokinetics in rats as well as on hemostasis parameters after applying the raloxifene therapeutic dose. Rats were treated daily with oral single dose of saline solution (1 ml/kg), API (10 mg/kg) and/or NaDC (4 mg/kg) for 7 days. Raloxifene was given orally or intravenously in a single dose (6 mg/kg) and during period of 24 h blood samples, feces and urine samples were collected. Blood samples were collected at the 15th, 30th, 45th, 60th, 90th minute and 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 24 h after raloxifene administration. Urine and feces samples were collected in the 3th, 6h, 12th and 24th hour of the experiment. Rats were divided into 10 groups each of which contained 6 animals. Differences were considered statistically significant if p<0.05. Pretreatment with NaDC and API affected raloxifene pharmacokinetic profile after intravenous application. NaDC lead to statistically significant decrease in raloxifene serum concentration and increased volume of distribution and clearance as well as halftime of elimination, while API has also decreased also raloxifene serum concentrations and increased volume of distribution but not as profoundly as NaDC alone. Difference was also noticed in clearance where it was significantly increased in group pretreated with NaDC and slightly decreased in group pretreated with API. NaDC and API increased raloxifene amount in feces, both after peroral (p<0.05) and intravenous application. However, peroral application of raloxifene did not produce measurable raloxifene serum concentration in neither of investigated groups. NaDC shortened activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) and prothrombin time (PT). API reduced aPTT, PT and d-dimer level. Fibrinogen level was significantly increased in all experimental groups. Both NaDC and apigenin had significant influence on raloxifene pharmacokinetics and can potentiate the raloxifene effects on hemostasis parameters, by increasing its bioavailability. These substances may be the subject of further investigation into the formulation of raloxifene and other medicines as depot preparations, which could prolong the dosing interval and thus improve patient compliance and quality of life.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mitić Gorana
- University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Medicine Novi Sad, Serbia; Clinical Center of Vojvodina, Serbia
| | | | | | | | - Stević Snežana
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Priština - Kosovska Mitrovica, Serbia; Faculty of Pharmacy, Novi Sad, University Business Academy in Novi Sad, Serbia
| | | | - Gigov Slobodan
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Novi Sad, University Business Academy in Novi Sad, Serbia
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Bhattacherjee D, Rahman M, Ghosh S, Bagdi AK, Zyryanov GV, Chupakhin ON, Das P, Hajra A. Advances in Transition‐Metal Catalyzed Carbonylative Suzuki‐Miyaura Coupling Reaction: An Update. Adv Synth Catal 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.202001509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dhananjay Bhattacherjee
- Department of Organic & Biomolecular Chemistry, Chemical Engineering Institute Ural Federal University 19 Mira Str. 620002 Yekaterinburg Russian Federation
| | - Matiur Rahman
- Department of Organic & Biomolecular Chemistry, Chemical Engineering Institute Ural Federal University 19 Mira Str. 620002 Yekaterinburg Russian Federation
| | - Sumit Ghosh
- Department of Chemistry Visva-Bharati (A Central University) Santiniketan 731235 India
| | - Avik Kumar Bagdi
- Department of Chemistry University of Kalyani Kalyani Nadia-741235 India
| | - Grigory V. Zyryanov
- Department of Organic & Biomolecular Chemistry, Chemical Engineering Institute Ural Federal University 19 Mira Str. 620002 Yekaterinburg Russian Federation
- I. Ya. Postovskiy Institute of Organic Synthesis Ural Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences 22 S. Kovalevskoy Str. Yekaterinburg 620219 Russian Federation
| | - Oleg N. Chupakhin
- Department of Organic & Biomolecular Chemistry, Chemical Engineering Institute Ural Federal University 19 Mira Str. 620002 Yekaterinburg Russian Federation
- I. Ya. Postovskiy Institute of Organic Synthesis Ural Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences 22 S. Kovalevskoy Str. Yekaterinburg 620219 Russian Federation
| | - Pralay Das
- Natural Product Chemistry and Process Development Division CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology Palampur 176061 H.P India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research New Delhi India
| | - Alakananda Hajra
- Department of Chemistry Visva-Bharati (A Central University) Santiniketan 731235 India
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Du T, Sun R, Li L, Ebuzoeme C, Bui D, Zheng Z, Yin T, Liang D, Hu M, Gao S. Development and validation of ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry method for the determination of raloxifene and its phase II metabolites in plasma: Application to pharmacokinetic studies in rats. J Sep Sci 2020; 43:4414-4423. [PMID: 33119204 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.202000835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study is to establish a reliable liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry method to simultaneously quantitate raloxifene, and its major metabolites, raloxifene-6-glucuronide, raloxifene-4'-glucuronide, and raloxifene-6-sulfate in rat plasma samples for pharmacokinetic studies. The separation of the analytes was achieved on a Waters BEH C18 column. Water (0.1% formic acid) and acetonitrile were used as the mobile phases for elution. A one-step protein precipitation using a mixture solvent was applied for plasma sample preparation. The method was validated following the FDA guidance. The results showed that the linear range were 1.95-1000 nM for raloxifene-6-glucuronide, and raloxifene-4'-glucuronide, 0.195-100 nM for raloxifene-6-sulfate, and 0.195-200 nM for raloxifene, respectively. The lower limit of quantification was 1.95, 1.95, 0.195, and 0.195 nM for raloxifene-6-glucuronide, raloxifene-4'-glucuronide, raloxifene-6-sulfate, and raloxifene, respectively. Only 20 µl of plasma sample was required since the method is sensitive. The intra- and interday variance is <15% and the accuracy is within 85-115%. The variance of matrix effect and recovery were <15%. The method was successfully applied in a pharmacokinetic study in rats with oral administration of raloxifene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Du
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Environmental Health Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health sciences, Texas Southern University, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Rongjin Sun
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, The University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Li Li
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, The University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Christabel Ebuzoeme
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Environmental Health Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health sciences, Texas Southern University, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Dinh Bui
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, The University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Zicong Zheng
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, The University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Taijun Yin
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, The University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Dong Liang
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Environmental Health Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health sciences, Texas Southern University, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Ming Hu
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, The University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Song Gao
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Environmental Health Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health sciences, Texas Southern University, Houston, Texas, USA
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Ye JY, Chen ZY, Huang CL, Huang B, Zheng YR, Zhang YF, Lu BY, He L, Liu CS, Long XY. A Non-Lipolysis Nanoemulsion Improved Oral Bioavailability by Reducing the First-Pass Metabolism of Raloxifene, and Related Absorption Mechanisms Being Studied. Int J Nanomedicine 2020; 15:6503-6518. [PMID: 32922013 PMCID: PMC7457831 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s259993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective A non-lipolysis nanoemulsion (NNE) was designed to reduce the first-pass metabolism of raloxifene (RAL) by intestinal UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) for increasing the oral absorption of RAL, coupled with in vitro and in vivo studies. Methods In vitro stability of NNE was evaluated by lipolysis and the UGT metabolism system. The oral bioavailability of NNE was studied in rats and pigs. Finally, the absorption mechanisms of NNE were investigated by in situ single-pass intestinal perfusion (SPIP) in rats, Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells model, and lymphatic blocking model. Results The pre-NNE consisted of isopropyl palmitate, linoleic acid, Cremophor RH40, and ethanol in a weight ratio of 3.33:1.67:3:2. Compared to lipolysis nanoemulsion of RAL (RAL-LNE), the RAL-NNE was more stable in in vitro gastrointestinal buffers, lipolysis, and UGT metabolism system (p < 0.05). The oral bioavailability was significantly improved by the NNE (203.30%) and the LNE (205.89%) relative to the suspension group in rats. However, 541.28% relative bioavailability was achieved in pigs after oral NNE intake compared to the suspension and had two-fold greater bioavailability than the LNE (p < 0.05). The RAL-NNE was mainly absorbed in the jejunum and had high permeability at the intestine of rats. The results of both SPIP and MDCK cell models demonstrated that the RAL-NNE was absorbed via endocytosis mediated by caveolin and clathrin. The other absorption route, the lymphatic transport (cycloheximide as blocking agent), was significantly improved by the NNE compared with the LNE (p < 0.05). Conclusion A NNE was successfully developed to reduce the first-pass metabolism of RAL in the intestine and enhance its lymphatic transport, thereby improving the oral bioavailability. Altogether, NNE is a promising carrier for the oral delivery of drugs with significant first-pass metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Yi Ye
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhong-Yun Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Chuan-Li Huang
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Bei Huang
- School of Chinese Medicine, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu-Rong Zheng
- School of Chinese Medicine, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying-Feng Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Ban-Yi Lu
- School of Chinese Medicine, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Lin He
- School of Chinese Medicine, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Chang-Shun Liu
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Ying Long
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, People's Republic of China.,Guangdong Engineering & Technology Research Center of Topical Precise Drug Delivery System, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, People's Republic of China
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11
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Abstract
The first-pass hydrolysis of oral ester-type prodrugs in the liver and intestine is mediated mainly by hCE1 and hCE2 of the respective predominant carboxylesterase (CES) isozymes. In order to provide high blood concentrations of the parent drugs, it is preferable that prodrugs are absorbed as an intact ester in the intestine, then rapidly converted to active parent drugs by hCE1 in the liver. In the present study, we designed a prodrug of fexofenadine (FXD) as a model parent drug that is resistant to hCE2 but hydrolyzed by hCE1, utilizing the differences in catalytic characteristics of hCE1 and hCE2. In order to precisely predict the intestinal absorption of an FXD prodrug candidate, we developed a novel high-throughput system by modifying Caco-2 cells. Further, we evaluated species differences and aging effects in the intestinal and hepatic hydrolysis of prodrugs to improve the estimation of in vivo first-pass hydrolysis of ester-type prodrugs. Consequently, it was possible to design a hepatotropic prodrug utilizing the differences in tissue distribution and substrate specificity of CESs. In addition, we successfully established three useful in vitro systems for predicting the intestinal absorption of hCE1 substrate using Caco-2 cells. However, some factors involved in estimating the bioavailability of prodrugs in human, such as changes in recognition of drug transporters by esterification, and species differences of the first-pass hydrolysis, should be comprehensively considered in prodrug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayoko Ohura
- Priority Organization for Innovation and Excellence, Kumamoto University
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12
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Kong Y, Cai H, Xing H, Ren C, Kong D, Ning C, Li N, Zhao D, Chen X, Lu Y. Pulmonary delivery alters the disposition of raloxifene in rats. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 72:185-196. [PMID: 31730290 DOI: 10.1111/jphp.13201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Pulmonary delivery is an effective way to improve the bioavailability of drugs with extensive metabolism. This research was designed to study the different pharmacokinetic behaviours of small molecule drug after pulmonary delivery and intragastric (i.g) administration. METHODS Raloxifene, a selective estrogen receptor modulator with low oral bioavailability (~2%), was chosen as the model drug. Studies were conducted systematically in rats, including plasma pharmacokinetics, excretion, tissue distribution and metabolism. KEY FINDINGS Results showed that raloxifene solution dosed by intratracheal (i.t) administration exhibited relatively quick plasma elimination (t1/2 = 1.78 ± 0.14 h) and undetected absorption process, which was similar with intravenous injection. Compared with i.g administration, the bioavailability increased by 58 times, but the major route of excretion remained faecal excretion. Drug concentration on the bone and the target efficiency were improved by 49.6 times and five times, respectively. Benefited from quick elimination in the lung, chronic toxicity might be ignored. CONCLUSIONS Pulmonary administration improved the bioavailability of raloxifene and further increased the distribution on the target organ (bone), with no obvious impact on its excretory pattern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Kong
- Clinical Pharmacokinetics Laboratory, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China.,Yantai Key Laboratory of Nanomedicine & Advanced Preparations, Yantai Institute of Materia Medica, Shandong, China
| | - Hui Cai
- Clinical Pharmacokinetics Laboratory, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Han Xing
- Clinical Pharmacokinetics Laboratory, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Chang Ren
- Clinical Pharmacokinetics Laboratory, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Dexuan Kong
- Clinical Pharmacokinetics Laboratory, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Chen Ning
- Clinical Pharmacokinetics Laboratory, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ning Li
- Clinical Pharmacokinetics Laboratory, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Di Zhao
- Clinical Pharmacokinetics Laboratory, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xijing Chen
- Clinical Pharmacokinetics Laboratory, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yang Lu
- Clinical Pharmacokinetics Laboratory, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
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13
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Hussain N, Bhardwaj M, Ahmed A, Mukherjee D. Synthesis of Sugar-Based Enones and Their Transformation into 3,5-Disubstituted Furans and 2-Acyl-Substituted 1,2,3-Trideoxy Sugars in the Presence of Lewis Acids. Org Lett 2019; 21:3034-3037. [PMID: 31002522 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.9b00680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Pd-catalyzed carbonylative cross-coupling reactions of 2-iodoglycals have been developed for the synthesis of sugar-based arylones and ynones using formic acid as the carbonyl source. Whereas acetyl-protected arylones lead to the formation of highly substituted furan derivatives in the presence of Lewis acid, benzyl-protected arylones furnished the 3-deoxy sugar derivative. In the presence of nucleophiles, an attack took place on the C-1 or C-3 carbon regio- and stereoselectively depending on the nature of the nucleophiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazar Hussain
- Natural Product Chemistry Division , Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine (IIIM) , Jammu 180001 , India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR-IIIM) , Jammu 180001 , India
| | - Monika Bhardwaj
- Natural Product Chemistry Division , Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine (IIIM) , Jammu 180001 , India
| | - Ajaz Ahmed
- Natural Product Chemistry Division , Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine (IIIM) , Jammu 180001 , India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR-IIIM) , Jammu 180001 , India
| | - Debaraj Mukherjee
- Natural Product Chemistry Division , Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine (IIIM) , Jammu 180001 , India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR-IIIM) , Jammu 180001 , India
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14
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Fontana MC, Laureano JV, Forgearini B, Chaves PDS, Araujo BVD, Beck RCR. LC-UV method to assay raloxifene hydrochloride in rat plasma and its application to a pharmacokinetic study. BRAZ J PHARM SCI 2019. [DOI: 10.1590/s2175-97902019000118052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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15
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Ketike T, Velpula VRK, Madduluri VR, Kamaraju SRR, Burri DR. Carbonylative Suzuki-Miyaura Cross-Coupling Over Pd NPs/Rice-Husk Carbon-Silica Solid Catalyst: Effect Of 1,4-Dioxane Solvent. ChemistrySelect 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.201801100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Thirupathaiah Ketike
- Inorganic & Physical Chemistry; Catalysis; Indian Institute of Chemical Technology; Uppal Road, Tarnaka Hyderabad 500007 India
| | - Venkata Ramana Kumar Velpula
- Inorganic & Physical Chemistry; Catalysis; Indian Institute of Chemical Technology; Uppal Road, Tarnaka Hyderabad 500007 India
| | - Venkata Rao Madduluri
- Inorganic & Physical Chemistry; Catalysis; Indian Institute of Chemical Technology; Uppal Road, Tarnaka Hyderabad 500007 India
| | - Seetha Rama Rao Kamaraju
- Inorganic & Physical Chemistry; Catalysis; Indian Institute of Chemical Technology; Uppal Road, Tarnaka Hyderabad 500007 India
| | - David Raju Burri
- Inorganic & Physical Chemistry; Catalysis; Indian Institute of Chemical Technology; Uppal Road, Tarnaka Hyderabad 500007 India
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16
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Ghosh P, Ganguly B, Das S. Pd‐NHC catalysed Carbonylative Suzuki coupling reaction and its application towards the synthesis of biologically active 3‐aroylquinolin‐4 (1H)‐one and acridone scaffolds. Appl Organomet Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/aoc.4173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Prasanjit Ghosh
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of North Bengal Darjeeling 734013 West Bengal India
| | - Bhaskar Ganguly
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of North Bengal Darjeeling 734013 West Bengal India
| | - Sajal Das
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of North Bengal Darjeeling 734013 West Bengal India
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17
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Hajipour AR, Tavangar-Rizi Z. Straightforward and Recyclable System for Synthesis of Biaryl Ketones via Carbonylative Coupling Reactions of Aryl Halides with PhB(OH)2
and (EtO)3
PhSi. ChemistrySelect 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.201701009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Abdol R. Hajipour
- Department of Chemistry; Isfahan University of Technology; 84154-83111 Isfahan Iran
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical School; University of Wisconsin; 1300 University Avenue Madison WI 53706-1532 USA
| | - Zeinab Tavangar-Rizi
- Department of Chemistry; Isfahan University of Technology; 84154-83111 Isfahan Iran
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18
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Ghosh P, Ganguly B, Perl E, Das S. A synthesis of biaryl ketones via the C–S bond cleavage of thiol ester by a Cu/Ag salt. Tetrahedron Lett 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2017.05.091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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19
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Dai P, Luo F, Wang Y, Jiang H, Wang L, Zhang G, Zhu L, Hu M, Wang X, Lu L, Liu Z. Species- and gender-dependent differences in the glucuronidation of a flavonoid glucoside and its aglycone determined using expressed UGT enzymes and microsomes. Biopharm Drug Dispos 2016; 36:622-35. [PMID: 26317684 DOI: 10.1002/bdd.1989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2015] [Revised: 08/13/2015] [Accepted: 08/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Flavonoids occur naturally as glucosides and aglycones. Their common phenolic hydroxyl groups may trigger extensive UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT)- catalysed metabolism. Unlike aglycones, glucosides contain glucose moieties. However, the influence of these glucose moieties on glucuronidation of glucosides and aglycones remains unclear. In this study, the flavonoid glucoside tilianin and its aglycone acacetin were used as model compounds. The glucuronidation characteristics and enzyme kinetics of tilianin and acacetin were compared using human UGT isoforms, liver microsomes and intestinal microsomes obtained from different animal species. Tilianin and acacetin were metabolized into different glucuronides, with UGT1A8 produced as the main isoform. Assessment of enzyme kinetics in UGT1A8, human liver microsomes and human intestinal microsomes revealed that compared with tilianin, acacetin displayed lower Km (0.6-, 0.7- and 0.6-fold, respectively), higher Vmax (20-, 60- and 230-fold, respectively) and higher clearance (30-, 80- and 300-fold, respectively). Furthermore, glucuronidation of acacetin and tilianin showed significant species- and gender-dependent differences. In conclusion, glucuronidation of flavonoid aglycones is faster than that of glucosides in the intestine and the liver. Understanding the metabolism and species- and gender-dependent differences between glucosides and aglycones is crucial for the development of drugs from flavonoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peimin Dai
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510515, China.,International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510006, China
| | - Feifei Luo
- International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510006, China
| | - Ying Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510515, China.,International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510006, China
| | - Huangyu Jiang
- International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510006, China
| | - Liping Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510515, China.,First Affiliated Hospital of the Medical College, Shihezi University, Xin Jiang, 832008, China
| | - Guiyu Zhang
- International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510006, China
| | - Lijun Zhu
- International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510006, China
| | - Ming Hu
- International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510006, China.,Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, 1441 Moursund Street, Houston, Texas, 77030, USA
| | - Xinchun Wang
- First Affiliated Hospital of the Medical College, Shihezi University, Xin Jiang, 832008, China
| | - Linlin Lu
- International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510006, China
| | - Zhongqiu Liu
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510515, China.,International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510006, China
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20
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Ohura K, Nishiyama H, Saco S, Kurokawa K, Imai T. Establishment and Characterization of a Novel Caco-2 Subclone with a Similar Low Expression Level of Human Carboxylesterase 1 to Human Small Intestine. Drug Metab Dispos 2016; 44:1890-1898. [PMID: 27638507 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.116.072736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Accepted: 09/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Caco-2 cells predominantly express human carboxylesterase 1 (hCE1), unlike the human intestine that predominantly expresses human carboxylesterase 2 (hCE2). Transport experiments using Caco-2 cell monolayers often lead to misestimation of the intestinal absorption of prodrugs because of this difference, as prodrugs designed to increase the bioavailability of parent drugs are made to be resistant to hCE2 in the intestine, so that they can be hydrolyzed by hCE1 in the liver. In the present study, we tried to establish a new Caco-2 subclone, with a similar pattern of carboxylase expression to human intestine, to enable a more accurate estimation of the intestinal absorption of prodrugs. Although no subclone could be identified with high expression levels of only hCE2, two subclones, #45 and #78, with extremely low expression levels of hCE1 were subcloned from parental Caco-2 cells by the limiting dilution technique. Unfortunately, subclone #45 did not form enterocyte-like cell monolayers due to low expression of claudins and β-actin. However, subclone #78 formed polarized cell monolayers over 4 weeks and showed similar paracellular and transcellular transport properties to parental Caco-2 cell monolayers. In addition, the intestinal transport of oseltamivir, a hCE1 substrate, could be evaluated in subclone #78 cell monolayers, including P-glycoprotein-mediated efflux under nonhydrolysis conditions, unlike parental Caco-2 cells. Consequently, it is proposed that subclone #78 may provide a more effective system in which to evaluate the intestinal absorption of prodrugs that are intended to be hydrolyzed by hCE1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayoko Ohura
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Hikaru Nishiyama
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Saori Saco
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Keisuke Kurokawa
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Teruko Imai
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
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21
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Zhao H, Han W. Ligand-Free Palladium-Catalyzed Oxidative Carbonylative Homocoupling of Arylboron Reagents at Ambient Pressure. European J Org Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201600689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hongyuan Zhao
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Biomedical Functional Materials; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biofunctional Materials; Key Laboratory of Applied Photochemistry; School of Chemistry and Materials Science; Nanjing Normal University; Wenyuan Road No.1 210023 Nanjing China
| | - Wei Han
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Biomedical Functional Materials; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biofunctional Materials; Key Laboratory of Applied Photochemistry; School of Chemistry and Materials Science; Nanjing Normal University; Wenyuan Road No.1 210023 Nanjing China
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22
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Peters SA, Jones CR, Ungell AL, Hatley OJD. Predicting Drug Extraction in the Human Gut Wall: Assessing Contributions from Drug Metabolizing Enzymes and Transporter Proteins using Preclinical Models. Clin Pharmacokinet 2016; 55:673-96. [PMID: 26895020 PMCID: PMC4875961 DOI: 10.1007/s40262-015-0351-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Intestinal metabolism can limit oral bioavailability of drugs and increase the risk of drug interactions. It is therefore important to be able to predict and quantify it in drug discovery and early development. In recent years, a plethora of models-in vivo, in situ and in vitro-have been discussed in the literature. The primary objective of this review is to summarize the current knowledge in the quantitative prediction of gut-wall metabolism. As well as discussing the successes of current models for intestinal metabolism, the challenges in the establishment of good preclinical models are highlighted, including species differences in the isoforms; regional abundances and activities of drug metabolizing enzymes; the interplay of enzyme-transporter proteins; and lack of knowledge on enzyme abundances and availability of empirical scaling factors. Due to its broad specificity and high abundance in the intestine, CYP3A is the enzyme that is frequently implicated in human gut metabolism and is therefore the major focus of this review. A strategy to assess the impact of gut wall metabolism on oral bioavailability during drug discovery and early development phases is presented. Current gaps in the mechanistic understanding and the prediction of gut metabolism are highlighted, with suggestions on how they can be overcome in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila Annie Peters
- Translational Quantitative Pharmacology, BioPharma, R&D Global Early Development, Merck KGaA, Frankfurter Str. 250, F130/005, 64293, Darmstadt, Germany.
| | | | - Anna-Lena Ungell
- Investigative ADME, Non-Clinical Development, UCB New Medicines, BioPharma SPRL, Braine l'Alleud, Belgium
| | - Oliver J D Hatley
- Simcyp Limited (A Certara Company), Blades Enterprise Centre, Sheffield, UK
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23
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Chang S, Jin Y, Zhang XR, Sun YB. Carbonylative Hiyama coupling of aryl halides with arylsilanes under balloon pressure of CO. Tetrahedron Lett 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2016.02.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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24
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Jones CR, Hatley OJD, Ungell AL, Hilgendorf C, Peters SA, Rostami-Hodjegan A. Gut Wall Metabolism. Application of Pre-Clinical Models for the Prediction of Human Drug Absorption and First-Pass Elimination. AAPS JOURNAL 2016; 18:589-604. [PMID: 26964996 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-016-9889-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Quantifying the multiple processes which control and modulate the extent of oral bioavailability for drug candidates is critical to accurate projection of human pharmacokinetics (PK). Understanding how gut wall metabolism and hepatic elimination factor into first-pass clearance of drugs has improved enormously. Typically, the cytochrome P450s, uridine 5'-diphosphate-glucuronosyltransferases and sulfotransferases, are the main enzyme classes responsible for drug metabolism. Knowledge of the isoforms functionally expressed within organs of first-pass clearance, their anatomical topology (e.g. zonal distribution), protein homology and relative abundances and how these differ across species is important for building models of human metabolic extraction. The focus of this manuscript is to explore the parameters influencing bioavailability and to consider how well these are predicted in human from animal models or from in vitro to in vivo extrapolation. A unique retrospective analysis of three AstraZeneca molecules progressed to first in human PK studies is used to highlight the impact that species differences in gut wall metabolism can have on predicted human PK. Compared to the liver, pharmaceutical research has further to go in terms of adopting a common approach for characterisation and quantitative prediction of intestinal metabolism. A broad strategy is needed to integrate assessment of intestinal metabolism in the context of typical DMPK activities ongoing within drug discovery programmes up until candidate drug nomination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher R Jones
- Oncology Innovative Medicines DMPK, AstraZeneca, Alderley Park, Cheshire, UK. .,Heptares Therapeutics Ltd, BioPark Broadwater Road, Welwyn Garden City, AL73AX, UK.
| | - Oliver J D Hatley
- Simcyp Limited (a Certara Company), Blades Enterprise Centre, John Street, Sheffield, S2 4SU, UK
| | - Anna-Lena Ungell
- CVMD Innovative Medicines DMPK, AstraZeneca, Mölndal, Sweden.,Investigative ADME, Non Clinical Development, UCB New Medicines, BioPharma SPRL, Chemin de Foriest, B-1420, Braine A'lleud, Belgium
| | | | - Sheila Annie Peters
- Modelling and Simulation, Respiratory, Inflammation and Autoimmunity Innovative Medicines DMPK, AstraZeneca, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Amin Rostami-Hodjegan
- Centre for Applied Pharmacokinetic Research, Manchester School of Pharmacy, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
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25
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Hao CY, Wang D, Li YW, Dong LL, Jin Y, Zhang XR, Zhu HY, Chang S. Carbonylative coupling of aryl tosylates/triflates with arylboronic acids under CO atmosphere. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra14678c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The carbonylative Suzuki–Miyaura reaction between aryl tosylates/triflates with arylboronic acid is herein reported, using base-free conditions and a balloon pressure of carbon monoxide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Yi Hao
- College of Pharmacy
- JiLin Medical University
- JiLin 132013
- PR China
| | - Dan Wang
- College of Pharmacy
- JiLin Medical University
- JiLin 132013
- PR China
| | - Ya Wei Li
- College of Pharmacy
- JiLin Medical University
- JiLin 132013
- PR China
| | - Lin Lin Dong
- College of Pharmacy
- JiLin Medical University
- JiLin 132013
- PR China
| | - Ying Jin
- College of Pharmacy
- JiLin Medical University
- JiLin 132013
- PR China
| | - Xiu Rong Zhang
- College of Pharmacy
- JiLin Medical University
- JiLin 132013
- PR China
| | - He Yun Zhu
- College of Pharmacy
- JiLin Medical University
- JiLin 132013
- PR China
| | - Sheng Chang
- College of Pharmacy
- JiLin Medical University
- JiLin 132013
- PR China
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26
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Zhou X, Wang S, Sun H, Wu B. Sulfonation of raloxifene in HEK293 cells overexpressing SULT1A3: Involvement of breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP/ABCG2) and multidrug resistance-associated protein 4 (MRP4/ABCC4) in excretion of sulfate metabolites. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2015; 30:425-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2015.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Revised: 09/07/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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27
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Gufford BT, Barr JT, González-Pérez V, Layton ME, White JR, Oberlies NH, Paine MF. Quantitative prediction and clinical evaluation of an unexplored herb-drug interaction mechanism in healthy volunteers. CPT-PHARMACOMETRICS & SYSTEMS PHARMACOLOGY 2015; 4:701-10. [PMID: 26904384 PMCID: PMC4759704 DOI: 10.1002/psp4.12047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Quantitative prediction of herb–drug interaction risk remains challenging. A quantitative framework to assess a potential interaction was used to evaluate a mechanism not previously tested in humans. The semipurified milk thistle product, silibinin, was selected as an exemplar herbal product inhibitor of raloxifene intestinal glucuronidation. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model simulations of the silibinin–raloxifene interaction predicted up to 30% increases in raloxifene area under the curve (AUC0‐inf) and maximal concentration (Cmax). Model‐informed clinical evaluation of the silibinin–raloxifene interaction indicated minimal clinical interaction liability, with observed geometric mean raloxifene AUC0‐inf and Cmax ratios lying within the predefined no effect range (0.75–1.33). Further refinement of PBPK modeling and simulation approaches will enhance confidence in predictions and facilitate generalizability to additional herb–drug combinations. This quantitative framework can be used to develop guidances to evaluate potential herb–drug interactions prospectively, providing evidenced‐based information about the risk or safety of these interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- B T Gufford
- College of Pharmacy Washington State University Spokane, Washington USA
| | - J T Barr
- College of Pharmacy Washington State University Spokane, Washington USA
| | - V González-Pérez
- College of Pharmacy Washington State University Spokane, Washington USA
| | - M E Layton
- College of Medical Sciences Washington State University Spokane, Washington USA
| | - J R White
- College of Pharmacy Washington State University Spokane, Washington USA
| | - N H Oberlies
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of North Carolina at Greensboro Greensboro North Carolina USA
| | - M F Paine
- College of Pharmacy Washington State University Spokane, Washington USA
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28
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Gufford BT, Chen G, Vergara AG, Lazarus P, Oberlies NH, Paine MF. Milk Thistle Constituents Inhibit Raloxifene Intestinal Glucuronidation: A Potential Clinically Relevant Natural Product-Drug Interaction. Drug Metab Dispos 2015; 43:1353-9. [PMID: 26070840 PMCID: PMC4538855 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.115.065086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2015] [Accepted: 06/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Women at high risk of developing breast cancer are prescribed selective estrogen response modulators, including raloxifene, as chemoprevention. Patients often seek complementary and alternative treatment modalities, including herbal products, to supplement prescribed medications. Milk thistle preparations, including silibinin and silymarin, are top-selling herbal products that may be consumed by women taking raloxifene, which undergoes extensive first-pass glucuronidation in the intestine. Key constituents in milk thistle, flavonolignans, were previously shown to be potent inhibitors of intestinal UDP-glucuronosyl transferases (UGTs), with IC50s ≤ 10 μM. Taken together, milk thistle preparations may perpetrate unwanted interactions with raloxifene. The objective of this work was to evaluate the inhibitory effects of individual milk thistle constituents on the intestinal glucuronidation of raloxifene using human intestinal microsomes and human embryonic kidney cell lysates overexpressing UGT1A1, UGT1A8, and UGT1A10, isoforms highly expressed in the intestine that are critical to raloxifene clearance. The flavonolignans silybin A and silybin B were potent inhibitors of both raloxifene 4'- and 6-glucuronidation in all enzyme systems. The Kis (human intestinal microsomes, 27-66 µM; UGT1A1, 3.2-8.3 µM; UGT1A8, 19-73 µM; and UGT1A10, 65-120 µM) encompassed reported intestinal tissue concentrations (20-310 µM), prompting prediction of clinical interaction risk using a mechanistic static model. Silibinin and silymarin were predicted to increase raloxifene systemic exposure by 4- to 5-fold, indicating high interaction risk that merits further evaluation. This systematic investigation of the potential interaction between a widely used herbal product and chemopreventive agent underscores the importance of understanding natural product-drug interactions in the context of cancer prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon T Gufford
- Experimental and Systems Pharmacology (B.T.G., M.F.P.) and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences (G.C., A.G.V., P.L.), College of Pharmacy, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington; and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, North Carolina (N.H.O.)
| | - Gang Chen
- Experimental and Systems Pharmacology (B.T.G., M.F.P.) and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences (G.C., A.G.V., P.L.), College of Pharmacy, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington; and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, North Carolina (N.H.O.)
| | - Ana G Vergara
- Experimental and Systems Pharmacology (B.T.G., M.F.P.) and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences (G.C., A.G.V., P.L.), College of Pharmacy, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington; and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, North Carolina (N.H.O.)
| | - Philip Lazarus
- Experimental and Systems Pharmacology (B.T.G., M.F.P.) and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences (G.C., A.G.V., P.L.), College of Pharmacy, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington; and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, North Carolina (N.H.O.)
| | - Nicholas H Oberlies
- Experimental and Systems Pharmacology (B.T.G., M.F.P.) and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences (G.C., A.G.V., P.L.), College of Pharmacy, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington; and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, North Carolina (N.H.O.)
| | - Mary F Paine
- Experimental and Systems Pharmacology (B.T.G., M.F.P.) and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences (G.C., A.G.V., P.L.), College of Pharmacy, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington; and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, North Carolina (N.H.O.)
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Kishi N, Takasuka A, Kokawa Y, Isobe T, Taguchi M, Shigeyama M, Murata M, Suno M, Hanioka N. Raloxifene glucuronidation in liver and intestinal microsomes of humans and monkeys: contribution of UGT1A1, UGT1A8 and UGT1A9. Xenobiotica 2015; 46:289-95. [PMID: 26247833 DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2015.1074301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
1. Raloxifene is an antiestrogen that has been marketed for the treatment of osteoporosis, and is metabolized into 6- and 4'-glucuronides by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) enzymes. In this study, the in vitro glucuronidation of raloxifene in humans and monkeys was examined using liver and intestinal microsomes and recombinant UGT enzymes (UGT1A1, UGT1A8 and UGT1A9). 2. Although the K(m) and CL(int) values for the 6-glucuronidation of liver and intestinal microsomes were similar between humans and monkeys, and species differences in Vmax values (liver microsomes, humans > monkeys; intestinal microsomes, humans < monkeys) were observed, no significant differences were noted in the K(m) or S50, Vmax and CL(int) or CLmax values for the 4'-glucuronidation of liver and intestinal microsomes between humans and monkeys. 3. The activities of 6-glucuronidation in recombinant UGT enzymes were UGT1A1 > UGT1A8 >UGT1A9 for humans, and UGT1A8 > UGT1A1 > UGT1A9 for monkeys. The activities of 4'-glucuronidation were UGT1A8 > UGT1A1 > UGT1A9 in humans and monkeys. 4. These results demonstrated that the profiles for the hepatic and intestinal glucuronidation of raloxifene by microsomes were moderately different between humans and monkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Kishi
- a Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Okayama University , Okayama , Japan
| | - Akane Takasuka
- a Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Okayama University , Okayama , Japan
| | - Yuki Kokawa
- a Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Okayama University , Okayama , Japan
| | | | - Maho Taguchi
- c Department of Clinical Pharmacy , Yokohama University of Pharmacy , Yokohama , Japan
| | - Masato Shigeyama
- c Department of Clinical Pharmacy , Yokohama University of Pharmacy , Yokohama , Japan
| | - Mikio Murata
- c Department of Clinical Pharmacy , Yokohama University of Pharmacy , Yokohama , Japan
| | - Manabu Suno
- a Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Okayama University , Okayama , Japan
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Dai P, Zhu L, Luo F, Lu L, Li Q, Wang L, Wang Y, Wang X, Hu M, Liu Z. Triple Recycling Processes Impact Systemic and Local Bioavailability of Orally Administered Flavonoids. AAPS JOURNAL 2015; 17:723-36. [PMID: 25762448 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-015-9732-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2014] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Triple recycling (i.e., enterohepatic, enteric and local recycling) plays a central role in governing the disposition of phenolics such as flavonoids, resulting in low systemic bioavailability but higher gut bioavailability and longer than expected apparent half-life. The present study aims to investigate the coexistence of these recycling schemes using model bioactive flavonoid tilianin and a four-site perfused rat intestinal model in the presence or absence of a lactase phlorizin hydrolase (LPH) inhibitor gluconolactone and/or a glucuronidase inhibitor saccharolactone. The result showed that tilianin could be metabolized into tilianin glucuronide, acacetin, and acacetin glucuronide, which are excreted into the bile and luminal perfusate (highest in the duodenum and lowest in the colon). Gluconolactone (20 mM) significantly reduced the absorption of tilianin and the enteric and biliary excretion of acacetin glucuronide. Saccharolactone (0.1 mM) alone or in combination of gluconolactone also remarkably reduced the biliary and intestinal excretion of acacetin glucuronide. Acacetin glucuronides from bile or perfusate were rapidly hydrolyzed by bacterial β-glucuronidases to acacetin, enabling enterohepatic and enteric recycling. Moreover, saccharolactone-sensitive tilianin disposition and glucuronide deconjugation, which was more active in the small intestine than the colon, points to the small intestinal origin of the deconjugation enzyme and supports the presence of local recycling scheme. In conclusion, our studies have demonstrated triple recycling of a bioactive phenolic (i.e., a model flavonoid), and this recycling may have an impact on the site and duration of polyphenols pharmacokinetics in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peimin Dai
- International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510006, China
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31
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Zhang M, Gong Y. Synthesis of 2,3,3a,4,5,6-Hexahydrobenzo[b]thiophene-3a-carbaldehydes via a Tandem Reaction of Cyclic β-Thiocyanatoenals with Electron-Deficient Alkenes Triggered by Fluoride. J Heterocycl Chem 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/jhet.2115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Min Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Huazhong University of Science and Technology; 1037 Luoyu Road Wuhan 430074 People's Republic of China
| | - Yuefa Gong
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Huazhong University of Science and Technology; 1037 Luoyu Road Wuhan 430074 People's Republic of China
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32
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Oda S, Fukami T, Yokoi T, Nakajima M. A comprehensive review of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase and esterases for drug development. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2015; 30:30-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2014.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2014] [Revised: 11/24/2014] [Accepted: 12/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Jin F, Han W. Transition-metal-free, ambient-pressure carbonylative cross-coupling reactions of aryl halides with potassium aryltrifluoroborates. Chem Commun (Camb) 2015; 51:9133-6. [PMID: 25939449 DOI: 10.1039/c5cc01968k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A transition-metal-free, ambient-pressure, and general methodology for carbonylative Suzuki coupling has been developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengli Jin
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Biomedical Functional Materials
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biofunctional Materials
- Key Laboratory of Applied Photochemistry
- School of Chemistry and Materials Science
- Nanjing Normal University
| | - Wei Han
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Biomedical Functional Materials
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biofunctional Materials
- Key Laboratory of Applied Photochemistry
- School of Chemistry and Materials Science
- Nanjing Normal University
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34
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Chae YJ, Kim DH, Lee HJ, Sung KW, Kwon OJ, Hahn SJ. Raloxifene inhibits cloned Kv4.3 channels in an estrogen receptor-independent manner. Pflugers Arch 2014; 467:1663-76. [PMID: 25231973 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-014-1602-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2014] [Revised: 08/25/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Raloxifene is widely used for the treatment and prevention of postmenopausal osteoporosis. We examined the effects of raloxifene on the Kv4.3 currents expressed in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique and on the long-term modulation of Kv4.3 messenger RNA (mRNA) by real-time PCR analysis. Raloxifene decreased the Kv4.3 currents with an IC50 of 2.0 μM and accelerated the inactivation and activation kinetics in a concentration-dependent manner. The inhibitory effects of raloxifene on Kv4.3 were time-dependent: the association and dissociation rate constants for raloxifene were 9.5 μM(-1) s(-1) and 23.0 s(-1), respectively. The inhibition by raloxifene was voltage-dependent (δ = 0.13). Raloxifene shifted the steady-state inactivation curves in a hyperpolarizing direction and accelerated the closed-state inactivation of Kv4.3. Raloxifene slowed the time course of recovery from inactivation, thus producing a use-dependent inhibition of Kv4.3. β-Estradiol and tamoxifen had little effect on Kv4.3. A preincubation of ICI 182,780, an estrogen receptor antagonist, for 1 h had no effect on the inhibitory effect of raloxifene on Kv4.3. The metabolites of raloxifene, raloxifene-4'-glucuronide and raloxifene-6'-glucuronide, had little or no effect on Kv4.3. Coexpression of KChIP2 subunits did not alter the drug potency and steady-state inactivation of Kv4.3 channels. Long-term exposure to raloxifene (24 h) significantly decreased the expression level of Kv4.3 mRNA. This effect was not abolished by the coincubation with ICI 182,780. Raloxifene inhibited Kv4.3 channels by interacting with their open state during depolarization and with the closed state at subthreshold potentials. This effect was not mediated via an estrogen receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Ju Chae
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 222 Banpo-daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137-701, South Korea
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Quantitative Assessment of Intestinal First-pass Metabolism of Oral Drugs Using Portal-vein Cannulated Rats. Pharm Res 2014; 32:604-16. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-014-1489-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2014] [Accepted: 08/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Bjerglund KM, Skrydstrup T, Molander GA. Carbonylative Suzuki couplings of aryl bromides with boronic acid derivatives under base-free conditions. Org Lett 2014; 16:1888-91. [PMID: 24635142 PMCID: PMC3993781 DOI: 10.1021/ol5003362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
The
carbonylative Suzuki–Miyaura reaction between aryl bromides
and arylboronic acid equivalents is herein reported, using base-free
conditions and a limited excess of carbon monoxide generated ex situ from stable CO-precursors. Under these conditions,
unsymmetrical biaryl ketones were obtained in modest to excellent
yields. This method was adapted to the synthesis of the triglyceride
and cholesterol regulator drug, fenofibrate, and its 13C-labeled derivative in good yields from the appropriate CO-precursor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus M Bjerglund
- Center for Insoluble Protein Structures (inSPIN), Department of Chemistry and the Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University , Gustav Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
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Ahlburg A, Lindhardt AT, Taaning RH, Modvig AE, Skrydstrup T. An Air-Tolerant Approach to the Carbonylative Suzuki–Miyaura Coupling: Applications in Isotope Labeling. J Org Chem 2013; 78:10310-8. [DOI: 10.1021/jo401696c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Ahlburg
- Center for Insoluble
Protein Structures (inSPIN), Department of Chemistry and
the Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav
Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C, Central Denmark Region, Denmark
| | - Anders T. Lindhardt
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Biological & Chemical Engineering, Department of Engineering, Aarhus University, Findlandsgade 22, 8200 Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Rolf. H. Taaning
- Center for Insoluble
Protein Structures (inSPIN), Department of Chemistry and
the Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav
Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C, Central Denmark Region, Denmark
| | - Amalie E. Modvig
- Center for Insoluble
Protein Structures (inSPIN), Department of Chemistry and
the Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav
Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C, Central Denmark Region, Denmark
| | - Troels Skrydstrup
- Center for Insoluble
Protein Structures (inSPIN), Department of Chemistry and
the Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav
Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C, Central Denmark Region, Denmark
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Kostewicz ES, Aarons L, Bergstrand M, Bolger MB, Galetin A, Hatley O, Jamei M, Lloyd R, Pepin X, Rostami-Hodjegan A, Sjögren E, Tannergren C, Turner DB, Wagner C, Weitschies W, Dressman J. PBPK models for the prediction of in vivo performance of oral dosage forms. Eur J Pharm Sci 2013; 57:300-21. [PMID: 24060672 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2013.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 218] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2013] [Revised: 08/27/2013] [Accepted: 09/11/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Drug absorption from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract is a highly complex process dependent upon numerous factors including the physicochemical properties of the drug, characteristics of the formulation and interplay with the underlying physiological properties of the GI tract. The ability to accurately predict oral drug absorption during drug product development is becoming more relevant given the current challenges facing the pharmaceutical industry. Physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling provides an approach that enables the plasma concentration-time profiles to be predicted from preclinical in vitro and in vivo data and can thus provide a valuable resource to support decisions at various stages of the drug development process. Whilst there have been quite a few successes with PBPK models identifying key issues in the development of new drugs in vivo, there are still many aspects that need to be addressed in order to maximize the utility of the PBPK models to predict drug absorption, including improving our understanding of conditions in the lower small intestine and colon, taking the influence of disease on GI physiology into account and further exploring the reasons behind population variability. Importantly, there is also a need to create more appropriate in vitro models for testing dosage form performance and to streamline data input from these into the PBPK models. As part of the Oral Biopharmaceutical Tools (OrBiTo) project, this review provides a summary of the current status of PBPK models available. The current challenges in PBPK set-ups for oral drug absorption including the composition of GI luminal contents, transit and hydrodynamics, permeability and intestinal wall metabolism are discussed in detail. Further, the challenges regarding the appropriate integration of results from in vitro models, such as consideration of appropriate integration/estimation of solubility and the complexity of the in vitro release and precipitation data, are also highlighted as important steps to advancing the application of PBPK models in drug development. It is expected that the "innovative" integration of in vitro data from more appropriate in vitro models and the enhancement of the GI physiology component of PBPK models, arising from the OrBiTo project, will lead to a significant enhancement in the ability of PBPK models to successfully predict oral drug absorption and advance their role in preclinical and clinical development, as well as for regulatory applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund S Kostewicz
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology, Goethe University, Frankfurt/Main, Germany.
| | - Leon Aarons
- Centre for Applied Pharmacokinetic Research, Manchester Pharmacy School, The University of Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Bergstrand
- Pharmacometrics Research Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | | | - Aleksandra Galetin
- Centre for Applied Pharmacokinetic Research, Manchester Pharmacy School, The University of Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Oliver Hatley
- Centre for Applied Pharmacokinetic Research, Manchester Pharmacy School, The University of Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Masoud Jamei
- Simcyp Limited (a Certara Company), Blades Enterprise Centre, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Lloyd
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, GlaxoSmithKline, Ware, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Xavier Pepin
- Department of Biopharmaceutics, Pharmaceutical Sciences R&D, Sanofi, Vitry sur Seine Cedex, France
| | - Amin Rostami-Hodjegan
- Centre for Applied Pharmacokinetic Research, Manchester Pharmacy School, The University of Manchester, United Kingdom; Simcyp Limited (a Certara Company), Blades Enterprise Centre, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Erik Sjögren
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Christer Tannergren
- Medicines Evaluation CVGI, Pharmaceutical Development, AstraZeneca R&D Mölndal, Sweden
| | - David B Turner
- Simcyp Limited (a Certara Company), Blades Enterprise Centre, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Christian Wagner
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology, Goethe University, Frankfurt/Main, Germany
| | - Werner Weitschies
- Department of Biopharmaceutics, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Jennifer Dressman
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology, Goethe University, Frankfurt/Main, Germany
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39
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Sun D, Jones NR, Manni A, Lazarus P. Characterization of raloxifene glucuronidation: potential role of UGT1A8 genotype on raloxifene metabolism in vivo. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2013; 6:719-30. [PMID: 23682072 DOI: 10.1158/1940-6207.capr-12-0448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Raloxifene is a second-generation selective estrogen receptor modulator used for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis and the prevention of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. Raloxifene is extensively metabolized by glucuronidation to form raloxifene-6-glucuronide (ral-6-Gluc) and raloxifene-4'-glucuronide (ral-4'-Gluc). The goal of the present study was to determine whether functional polymorphisms in active UGTs could play a role in altered raloxifene glucuronidation in vivo. Using homogenates from HEK293 UGT-overexpressing cell lines, raloxifene was shown to be glucuronidated primarily by the hepatic UGTs 1A1 and 1A9 and the extra-hepatic UGTs 1A8 and 1A10; no detectable raloxifene glucuronidation activity was found for UGT2B enzymes. Functional UGT1A1 transcriptional promoter genotypes were significantly (Ptrend = 0.005) associated with ral-6-Gluc formation in human liver microsomes, and, consistent with the decreased raloxifene glucuronidation activities observed in vitro with cell lines overexpressing UGT1A8 variants, the UGT1A8*2 variant was significantly (P = 0.023) correlated with total raloxifene glucuronide formation in human jejunum homogenates. While ral-4'-Gluc exhibited 1:100th the anti-estrogenic activity of raloxifene itself as measured by binding to the estrogen receptor, raloxifene glucuronides comprised about 99% of the circulating raloxifene dose in raloxifene-treated subjects, with ral-4'-Gluc comprising ~70% of raloxifene glucuronides. Plasma ral-6-Gluc (Ptrend = 0.0025), ral-4'-Gluc (Ptrend = 0.001), and total raloxifene glucuronides (Ptrend = 0.001) were increased in raloxifene-treated subjects who were predicted slow metabolizers [UGT1A8 (*1/*3)] versus intermediate metabolizers [UGT1A8 (*1/*1) or UGT1A8 (*1/*2)] versus fast metabolizers [UGT1A8 (*2/*2). These data suggest that raloxifene metabolism may be dependent on UGT1A8 genotype and that UGT1A8 genotype may play an important role in overall response to raloxifene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongxiao Sun
- Department of Pharmacology, Pennsylvania State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA
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40
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Effect of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A8 polymorphism on raloxifene glucuronidation. Eur J Pharm Sci 2013; 49:199-205. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2013.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2012] [Revised: 01/25/2013] [Accepted: 03/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Tripathi SP, Bhadauriya A, Patil A, Sangamwar AT. Substrate selectivity of human intestinal UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs): in silico and in vitro insights. Drug Metab Rev 2013; 45:231-52. [PMID: 23461702 DOI: 10.3109/03602532.2013.767345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The current drug development process aims to produce safe, effective drugs within a reasonable time and at a reasonable cost. Phase II metabolism (glucuronidation) can affect drug action and pharmacokinetics to a considerable extent and so its studies and prediction at initial stages of drug development are very imperative. Extensive glucuronidation is an obstacle to oral bioavailability because the first-pass glucuronidation [or premature clearance by UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs)] of orally administered agents frequently results in poor oral bioavailability and lack of efficacy. Modeling of new chemical entities/drugs for UGTs and their kinetic data can be useful in understanding the binding patterns to be used in the design of better molecules. This review concentrates on first-pass glucuronidation by intestinal UGTs, including their topology, expression profile, and pharmacogenomics. In addition, recent advances are discussed with respect to substrate selectivity at the binding pocket, structural requirements, and mechanism of enzyme actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satya Prakash Tripathi
- Department of Pharmacoinformatics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Punjab, India
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Bueters T, Juric S, Sohlenius-Sternbeck AK, Hu Y, Bylund J. Rat poorly predicts the combined non-absorbed and presystemically metabolized fractions in the human. Xenobiotica 2013; 43:607-16. [DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2012.752117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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43
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Xia B, Zhou Q, Zheng Z, Ye L, Hu M, Liu Z. A novel local recycling mechanism that enhances enteric bioavailability of flavonoids and prolongs their residence time in the gut. Mol Pharm 2012; 9:3246-58. [PMID: 23033922 DOI: 10.1021/mp300315d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Recycling in the gastrointestinal tract is important for endogenous substances such as bile acids and for xenobiotics such as flavonoids. Although both enterohepatic and enteric recycling mechanisms are well recognized, no one has discussed the third recycling mechanism for glucuronides: local recycling. The intestinal absorption and metabolism of wogonin and wogonoside (wogonin-7-glucuronide) was characterized by using a four-site perfused rat intestinal model, and hydrolysis of wogonoside was measured in various enzyme preparations. In the perfusion model, the wogonoside and wogonin were interconverted in all four perfused segments. Absorption of wogonoside and conversion to its aglycon at the upper small intestine was inhibited in the presence of a glucuronidase inhibitor (saccharolactone) but was not inhibited by lactase phlorizin hydrolase (LPH) inhibitor gluconolactone or antibiotics. Further investigation indicated that hydrolysis of wogonoside in the blank intestinal perfusate was not correlated with bacterial counts. Kinetic studies indicated that K(m) values from blank duodenal and jejunal perfusate were essentially identical to the K(m) values from intestinal S9 fraction but were much higher (>2-fold) than those from the microbial enzyme extract. Lastly, jejunal perfusate and S9 fraction share the same optimal pH, which was different from those of fecal extract. In conclusion, local recycling of wogonin and wogonoside is the first demonstrated example that this novel mechanism is functional in the upper small intestine without significant contribution from bacteria β-glucuronidase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bijun Xia
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, 1838 N Guangzhou Avenue, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510515, China
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Trdan Lušin T, Mrhar A, Stieger B, Kullak-Ublick GA, Marc J, Ostanek B, Zavratnik A, Kristl A, Berginc K, Delić K, Trontelj J. Influence of hepatic and intestinal efflux transporters and their genetic variants on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of raloxifene in osteoporosis treatment. Transl Res 2012; 160:298-308. [PMID: 22683417 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2012.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2011] [Revised: 02/29/2012] [Accepted: 03/01/2012] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Raloxifene exhibits a large and unexplained interindividual variability in its pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. The aim of our study was to identify transporters involved in the efflux of raloxifene and its glucuronide metabolites by various in vitro models and by an in vivo study to explore the possible involvement of P-glycoprotein (Pgp), multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP)1, MRP2, MRP3, and breast cancer resistance protein in the observed high interindividual variability. Experiments with the parallel artificial membrane permeability assay showed the highest passive permeability for raloxifene, followed by raloxifene-6-β-glucuronide (M1), raloxifene-4'-β-glucuronide (M2), and raloxifene-6,4'-diglucuronide (M3). Caco-2 cell monolayer experiments indicated an interaction of raloxifene with Pgp. The ATPase assay confirmed the raloxifene interaction with Pgp and indicated interactions of all raloxifene species with MRP1, MRP2, MRP3, and breast cancer resistance protein, except for M1, which did not show any interactions with MRP2. Furthermore, the vesicular experiments confirmed the interaction of M2 and M3 with MRP2. Although the in vivo study on osteoporotic postmenopausal women on raloxifene could not confirm a significant influence of ABCB1 and ABCC2 genetic polymorphisms on its pharmacokinetics, a clear trend toward higher total raloxifene concentrations was observed in carriers of at least 1 ABCB1 c.3435T allele. Moreover, the same polymorphism effect was also observed as a significant increase in total hip bone mineral density after 1 year of treatment. The results of our study support the involvement of efflux transporters in disposition of raloxifene and its metabolites and may partially explain the observed raloxifene variability by the influence of the ABCB1 c.3435C>T polymorphism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina Trdan Lušin
- Department of Biopharmacy and Pharmacokinetics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Dong D, Wu B. In Silico Modeling of UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase 1A10 Substrates Using the Volsurf Approach. J Pharm Sci 2012; 101:3531-9. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.23100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2012] [Revised: 01/28/2012] [Accepted: 02/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Thörn HA, Yasin M, Dickinson PA, Lennernäs H. Extensive intestinal glucuronidation of raloxifenein vivoin pigs and impact for oral drug delivery. Xenobiotica 2012; 42:917-28. [DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2012.683497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Furukawa T, Yamano K, Naritomi Y, Tanaka K, Terashita S, Teramura T. Method for predicting human intestinal first-pass metabolism of UGT substrate compounds. Xenobiotica 2012; 42:980-8. [DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2012.680620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Trdan Lušin T, Stieger B, Marc J, Mrhar A, Trontelj J, Zavratnik A, Ostanek B. Organic anion transporting polypeptides OATP1B1 and OATP1B3 and their genetic variants influence the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of raloxifene. J Transl Med 2012; 10:76. [PMID: 22533838 PMCID: PMC3476964 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-10-76] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2011] [Accepted: 04/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Raloxifene, a selective estrogen receptor modulator, exhibits quite large and unexplained interindividual variability in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. The aim of this study was to determine the role of organic-anion transporting polypeptides OATP1B1 and OATP1B3 and their genetic variants in the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of raloxifene. Methods To test the role of OATP1B1 and OATP1B3 transporters on hepatic uptake of raloxifene and its metabolites an in vitro model of Chinese Hamster Ovary cells expressing OATP1B1 or OATP1B3 was employed. The influence of OATP1B1 and OATP1B3 genetic variants on in vivo pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics was evaluated in 53 osteoporotic postmenopausal women treated with raloxifene. Results Our in vitro results showed that raloxifene and two of the three metabolites, raloxifene-4'-β-glucuronide (M2) and raloxifene-6,4'-diglucuronide (M3), interact with OATP1B1 and OATP1B3. Higher M3 and total raloxifene serum concentrations in patients correlated with lower serum levels of bone resorption marker, serum C-terminal telopeptide fragments of type I collagen, indicating a higher antiresorptive effect of raloxifene. Higher concentrations of M2 correlated with higher increase of lumbar spine bone mineral density supporting the raloxifene vertebral fracture specific protection effect. Finally, raloxifene, M3 and total raloxifene serum concentrations were significantly higher in patients with SLCO1B1 c.388A > G polymorphism and *1b haplotype implicating a considerable genetic effect on pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of raloxifene. Conclusions These findings indicate that SLCO1B1 c.388A > G polymorphism could play an important role in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of raloxifene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina Trdan Lušin
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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Furukawa T, Nakamori F, Tetsuka K, Naritomi Y, Moriguchi H, Yamano K, Terashita S, Teramura T. Quantitative prediction of intestinal glucuronidation of drugs in rats using in vitro metabolic clearance data. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2011; 27:171-80. [PMID: 21970858 DOI: 10.2133/dmpk.dmpk-11-rg-088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) is highly expressed in the small intestine and catalyzes the glucuronidation of small molecules, which may affect the oral bioavailability of drugs. However, no method of predicting the in vivo observed fraction of absorbed drug (F(a)F(g)) affected by UGT has yet been established. Here, we investigated the relationship between F(a)F(g) and in vitro clearance of nine UGT substrates (ketoprofen, tolcapone, telmisartan, raloxifene, entacapone, resveratrol, buprenorphine, quercetin, and ezetimibe) via UGT in intestinal microsomes (CL(int, UGT)) in rats. F(a)F(g) was calculated from pharmacokinetic parameters after intravenous and oral administration or using the portal-systemic concentration difference method, with values ranging from 0.027 (ezetimibe) to 1 (tolcapone). Glucuronides of model compounds were observed in the portal plasma after oral administration, with CL(int, UGT) values ranging from 57.8 (tolcapone) to 19,200 µL/min/mg (resveratrol). An inverse correlation between F(a)F(g) and CL(int, UGT) was observed for most compounds and was described using a simplified intestinal availability model reported previously. This model gave accurate predictions of F(a)F(g) values for three in-house compounds. Our results show that F(a)F(g) in rats is affected by UGT and can be predicted using CL(int, UGT). This work should hasten the development of a method to predict F(a)F(g) in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takako Furukawa
- Analysis and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Astellas Pharma Inc., Tsukuba.
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Trdan Lusin T, Trontelj J, Mrhar A. Raloxifene glucuronidation in human intestine, kidney, and liver microsomes and in human liver microsomes genotyped for the UGT1A1*28 polymorphism. Drug Metab Dispos 2011; 39:2347-54. [PMID: 21937736 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.111.041897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Raloxifene, a selective estrogen receptor modulator, exhibits quite large interindividual variability in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. In women, raloxifene is metabolized extensively by different isoforms of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) to its glucuronides. To gain an insight into intestine, kidney, liver, and lung glucuronidation of raloxifene, human microsomes of all tested organs were used. Raloxifene-6-β-glucuronide (M1) formation followed the Michaelis-Menten kinetics in intestinal, kidney, and liver microsomes; meanwhile, raloxifene-4'-β-glucuronide (M2) formation followed the substrate inhibition kinetics. Human lung microsomes did not show any glucuronidation activity. The tissue intrinsic clearances for kidney, intestine, and liver were 3.4, 28.1, and 39.6 ml · min(-1) · kg(-1), respectively. The aim of our in vitro study was to explain the mechanism behind the observed influence of UGT1A1*28 polymorphism on raloxifene pharmacokinetics in a small-sized in vivo study (Br J Clin Pharmacol 67:437-444, 2009). Incubation of raloxifene with human liver microsomes genotyped for UGT1A1*28 showed a significantly reduced metabolic clearance toward M1 in microsomes from donors with *28 allele. On the contrary, no significant genotype influence was observed on the formation of M2 because of the high variability in estimated apparent kinetic parameters, although a clear trend toward lower glucuronidation activities was observed when UGT1A1*28 polymorphism was present. The liver intrinsic clearances of both homozygotes differed significantly, whereas the clearance of heterozygotes did not differ from the wild-type and the mutated homozygotes. In conclusion, our results show the high importance of the liver and intestine in raloxifene glucuronidation. Moreover, the significant influence of UGT1A1*28 polymorphism on metabolism of raloxifene was confirmed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina Trdan Lusin
- Department of Biopharmacy and Pharmacokinetics, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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