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Yabut KCB, Winnie Wen Y, Simon KT, Isoherranen N. CYP2C9, CYP3A and CYP2C19 metabolize Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol to multiple metabolites but metabolism is affected by human liver fatty acid binding protein (FABP1). Biochem Pharmacol 2024; 228:116191. [PMID: 38583809 PMCID: PMC11410521 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2024.116191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the psychoactive constituent of cannabis. It is cleared predominantly via metabolism. Metabolism to 11-OH-THC by cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2C9 has been proposed as the main clearance pathway of THC, with the estimated fraction metabolized (fm) about 70%. The remaining clearance pathways are not well established, and it is unknown how THC is eliminated in individuals with reduced CYP2C9 activity. The goal of this study was to systematically identify the CYP enzymes contributing to THC clearance and characterize the metabolites formed. Further, this study aimed to characterize the impact of liver fatty acid binding protein (FABP1) on THC metabolism by human CYPs. THC was metabolized to at least four different metabolites including 11-OH-THC in human liver microsomes (HLMs) and with recombinant CYPs. 11-OH-THC was formed by recombinant CYP2C9 (Km,u = 0.77 nM, kcat = 12 min-1) and by recombinant CYP2C19 (Km,u = 2.2 nM, kcat = 14 min-1). The other three major metabolites were likely hydroxylations in the cyclohexenyl ring and were formed mainly by recombinant CYP3A4/5 (Km,u > 10 nM). HLM experiments confirmed the contributions of CYP2C9, CYP2C19 and CYP3A to THC metabolism. The presence of FABP1 and THC binding to FABP1 altered THC metabolism by recombinant CYPs and HLMs in an enzyme and metabolite specific manner. This suggests that FABP1 may interact with CYP enzymes and alter the fm by CYPs towards THC metabolism. In conclusion, this study is the first to systematically establish the metabolic profile of THC by human CYPs and characterize how FABP1 binding alters CYP mediated THC metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- King Clyde B Yabut
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA United States
| | - Yue Winnie Wen
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA United States
| | - Keiann T Simon
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA United States
| | - Nina Isoherranen
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA United States.
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2
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Gorbenko AA, Heuberger JAAC, Klumpers LE, de Kam ML, Strugala PK, de Visser SJ, Groeneveld GJ. Cannabidiol Increases Psychotropic Effects and Plasma Concentrations of Δ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Without Improving Its Analgesic Properties. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2024. [PMID: 39054656 DOI: 10.1002/cpt.3381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 06/29/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD), the main non-intoxicating compound in cannabis, has been hypothesized to reduce the adverse effects of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the main psychoactive and analgesic component of cannabis. This clinical trial investigated the hypothesis that CBD counteracts the adverse effects of THC and thereby potentially improves the tolerability of cannabis as an analgesic. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, five-way cross-over trial was performed in 37 healthy volunteers. On each visit, a double-placebo, THC 9 mg with placebo CBD, or THC 9 mg with 10, 30, or 450 mg CBD was administered orally. Psychoactive and analgesic effects were quantified using standardized test batteries. Pharmacokinetic sampling was performed. Data were analyzed using mixed-effects model. Co-administration of 450 mg CBD did not reduce, but instead significantly increased subjective, psychomotor, cognitive, and autonomous effects of THC (e.g., VAS "Feeling High" by 60.5% (95% CI: 12.7%, 128.5%, P < 0.01)), whereas THC effects with 10 and 30 mg CBD were not significantly different from THC alone. CBD did not significantly enhance THC analgesia at any dose level. Administration of 450 mg CBD significantly increased AUClast of THC (AUClast ratio: 2.18, 95% CI: 1.54, 3.08, P < 0.0001) and 11-OH-THC (AUClast ratio: 6.24, 95% CI: 4.27, 9.12, P < 0.0001) compared with THC alone, and 30 mg CBD significantly increased AUClast of 11-OH-THC (AUClast ratio: 1.89, 95% CI: 1.30, 2.77, P = 0.0013), and of THC (AUClast ratio: 1.44, 95% CI: 1.01, 2.04, P = 0.0446). Present findings do not support the use of CBD to reduce adverse effects of oral THC or enhance THC analgesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andriy A Gorbenko
- Centre for Human Drug Research, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Linda E Klumpers
- Verdient Science, Denver, Colorado, USA
- Tomori Pharmacology, Denver, Colorado, USA
- Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, USA
| | | | | | - Saco J de Visser
- Centre for Future Affordable and Sustainable Therapy Development (FAST), The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Geert J Groeneveld
- Centre for Human Drug Research, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
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3
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Coates S, Bardhi K, Lazarus P. Cannabinoid-Induced Inhibition of Morphine Glucuronidation and the Potential for In Vivo Drug-Drug Interactions. Pharmaceutics 2024; 16:418. [PMID: 38543313 PMCID: PMC10975434 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16030418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2024] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Opioids are commonly prescribed for the treatment of chronic pain. Approximately 50% of adults who are prescribed opioids for pain co-use cannabis with their opioid treatment. Morphine is primarily metabolized by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 2B7 to an inactive metabolite, morphine-3-glucuronide (M3G), and an active metabolite, morphine-6-glucuronide (M6G). Previous studies have shown that major cannabis constituents including Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) inhibit major UGT enzymes. To examine whether cannabinoids or their major metabolites inhibit morphine glucuronidation by UGT2B7, in vitro assays and mechanistic static modeling were performed with these cannabinoids and their major metabolites including 11-hydroxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (11-OH-THC), 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (11-COOH-THC), 7-hydroxy-cannabidiol (7-OH-CBD), and 7-carboxy-cannabidiol (7-COOH-CBD). In vitro assays with rUGT-overexpressing microsomes and human liver microsomes showed that THC and CBD and their metabolites inhibited UGT2B7-mediated morphine metabolism, with CBD and THC exhibiting the most potent Ki,u values (0.16 µM and 0.37 µM, respectively). Only 7-COOH-CBD exhibited no inhibitory activity against UGT2B7-mediated morphine metabolism. Static mechanistic modeling predicted an in vivo drug-drug interaction between morphine and THC after inhaled cannabis, and between THC, CBD, and 7-OH-CBD after oral consumption of cannabis. These data suggest that the co-use of these agents may lead to adverse drug events in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Philip Lazarus
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, 412 E. Spokane Falls Blvd, Spokane, WA 99202, USA
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4
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Kale R, Chaturvedi D, Dandekar P, Jain R. Analytical techniques for screening of cannabis and derivatives from human hair specimens. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2024; 16:1133-1149. [PMID: 38314866 DOI: 10.1039/d3ay00786c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
Cannabis and associated substances are some of the most frequently abused drugs across the globe, mainly due to their anxiolytic and euphorigenic properties. Nowadays, the analysis of hair samples has been given high importance in forensic and analytical sciences and in clinical studies because they are associated with a low risk of infection, do not require complicated storage conditions, and offer a broad window of non-invasive detection. Analysis of hair samples is very easy compared to the analysis of blood, urine, and saliva samples. This review places particular emphasis on methodologies of analyzing hair samples containing cannabis, with a special focus on the preparation of samples for analysis, which involves screening and extraction techniques, followed by confirmatory assays. Through this manuscript, we have presented an overview of the available literature on the screening of cannabis using mass spectroscopy techniques. We have presented a detailed overview of the advantages and disadvantages of this technique, to establish it as a suitable method for the analysis of cannabis from hair samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohit Kale
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai 400019, India.
| | - Deepa Chaturvedi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai 400019, India.
| | - Prajakta Dandekar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai 400019, India.
| | - Ratnesh Jain
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai 400019, India.
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5
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Ujváry I. Hexahydrocannabinol and closely related semi-synthetic cannabinoids: A comprehensive review. Drug Test Anal 2024; 16:127-161. [PMID: 37269160 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Since the early 2000s, there has been a turmoil on the global illicit cannabinoid market. Parallel to legislative changes in some jurisdictions regarding herbal cannabis, unregulated and cheap synthetic cannabinoids with astonishing structural diversity have emerged. Recently, semi-synthetic cannabinoids manufactured from hemp extracts by simple chemical transformations have also appeared as recreational drugs. The burst of these semi-synthetic cannabinoids into the market was sparked by legislative changes in the United States, where cultivation of industrial hemp restarted. By now, hemp-derived cannabidiol (CBD), initially a blockbuster product on its own, became a "precursor" to semi-synthetic cannabinoids such as hexahydrocannabinol (HHC), which appeared on the drug market in 2021. The synthesis and cannabimimetic activity of HHC were first reported eight decades ago in quest for the psychoactive principles of marijuana and hashish. Current large-scale manufacture of HHC is based on hemp-derived CBD extract, which is converted first by cyclization into a Δ8 /Δ9 -THC mixture, followed by catalytic hydrogenation to afford a mixture of (9R)-HHC and (9S)-HHC epimers. Preclinical studies indicate that (9R)-HHC has THC-like pharmacological properties. The animal metabolism of HHC is partially clarified. The human pharmacology including metabolism of HHC is yet to be investigated, and (immuno)analytical methods for the rapid detection of HHC or its metabolites in urine are lacking. Herein, the legal background for the revitalization of hemp cultivation, and available information on the chemistry, analysis, and pharmacology of HHC and related analogs, including HHC acetate (HHC-O) is reviewed.
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Herdegen T, Cascorbi I. Drug Interactions of Tetrahydrocannabinol and Cannabidiol in Cannabinoid Drugs. DEUTSCHES ARZTEBLATT INTERNATIONAL 2023; 120:833-840. [PMID: 37874128 PMCID: PMC10824494 DOI: 10.3238/arztebl.m2023.0223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cannabinoid drugs containing tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), or its structural analogues, as monotherapeutic agents or as extracts or botanical preparations with or without cannabidiol (CBD) are often prescribed to multimorbid patients who are taking multiple drugs. This raises the question of the risk of drug interactions. METHODS This review of the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of interactions with cannabinoid drugs and their potential effects is based on pertinent publications retrieved by a selective literature search. RESULTS As THC and CBD are largely metabolized in the liver, their bioavailability after oral or oral-mucosal administration is low (6-8% and 11-13%, respectively). The plasma concentrations of THC and its active metabolite 11-OH-THC can be increased by strong CYP3A4 inhibitors (verapamil, clarithromycin) and decreased by strong CYP3A4 inductors (rifampicin, carbamazepine). The clinical significance of these effects is unclear because of the variable plasma level and therapeutic spectrum of THC. The metabolism of CBD is less dependent on cytochrome P450 enzymes than that of THC. THC and CBD inhibit CYP2C and CYP3A4; the corresponding clinically relevant drug interactions probably are likely to arise only with THC doses above 30 mg/day and CBD doses above 300 mg/day. CONCLUSION Potential drug interactions with THC and CBD are probably of little importance at low or moderate doses. Strong CYP inhibitors or inductors can intensify or weaken their effect. Slowly ramping up the dose of oral cannabinoid drugs can lessen their pharmacodynamic interactions, which can generally be well controlled. Administration by inhalation can worsen the interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Herdegen
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Ingolf Cascorbi
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Kiel, Germany
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7
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Hill MN, Haney M, Hillard CJ, Karhson DS, Vecchiarelli HA. The endocannabinoid system as a putative target for the development of novel drugs for the treatment of psychiatric illnesses. Psychol Med 2023; 53:7006-7024. [PMID: 37671673 PMCID: PMC10719691 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291723002465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/07/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis is well established to impact affective states, emotion and perceptual processing, primarily through its interactions with the endocannabinoid system. While cannabis use is quite prevalent in many individuals afflicted with psychiatric illnesses, there is considerable controversy as to whether cannabis may worsen these conditions or provide some form of therapeutic benefit. The development of pharmacological agents which interact with components of the endocannabinoid system in more localized and discrete ways then via phytocannabinoids found in cannabis, has allowed the investigation if direct targeting of the endocannabinoid system itself may represent a novel approach to treat psychiatric illness without the potential untoward side effects associated with cannabis. Herein we review the current body of literature regarding the various pharmacological tools that have been developed to target the endocannabinoid system, their impact in preclinical models of psychiatric illness and the recent data emerging of their utilization in clinical trials for psychiatric illnesses, with a specific focus on substance use disorders, trauma-related disorders, and autism. We highlight several candidate drugs which target endocannabinoid function, particularly inhibitors of endocannabinoid metabolism or modulators of cannabinoid receptor signaling, which have emerged as potential candidates for the treatment of psychiatric conditions, particularly substance use disorder, anxiety and trauma-related disorders and autism spectrum disorders. Although there needs to be ongoing clinical work to establish the potential utility of endocannabinoid-based drugs for the treatment of psychiatric illnesses, the current data available is quite promising and shows indications of several potential candidate diseases which may benefit from this approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew N. Hill
- Departments of Cell Biology and Anatomy & Psychiatry, Cumming School of Medicine, Hotchkiss Brain Institute and The Mathison Centre for Mental Health Research and Education, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Margaret Haney
- Department of Psychiatry, New York State Psychiatric Institute and Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, USA
| | - Cecilia J. Hillard
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Neuroscience Research Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, USA
| | - Debra S. Karhson
- Department of Psychology, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, USA
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8
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Shenkoya B, Yellepeddi V, Mark K, Gopalakrishnan M. Predicting Maternal and Infant Tetrahydrocannabinol Exposure in Lactating Cannabis Users: A Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling Approach. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2467. [PMID: 37896227 PMCID: PMC10610403 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15102467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Revised: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
A knowledge gap exists in infant tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) data to guide breastfeeding recommendations for mothers who use cannabis. In the present study, a paired lactation and infant physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model was developed and verified. The verified model was used to simulate one hundred virtual lactating mothers (mean age: 28 years, body weight: 78 kg) who smoked 0.32 g of cannabis containing 14.14% THC, either once or multiple times. The simulated breastfeeding conditions included one-hour post smoking and subsequently every three hours. The mean peak concentration (Cmax) and area under the concentration-time curve (AUC(0-24 h)) for breastmilk were higher than in plasma (Cmax: 155 vs. 69.9 ng/mL; AUC(0-24 h): 924.9 vs. 273.4 ng·hr/mL) with a milk-to-plasma AUC ratio of 3.3. The predicted relative infant dose ranged from 0.34% to 0.88% for infants consuming THC-containing breastmilk between birth and 12 months. However, the mother-to-infant plasma AUC(0-24 h) ratio increased up to three-fold (3.4-3.6) with increased maternal cannabis smoking up to six times. Our study demonstrated the successful development and application of a lactation and infant PBPK model for exploring THC exposure in infants, and the results can potentially inform breastfeeding recommendations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babajide Shenkoya
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Venkata Yellepeddi
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Spencer Fox Eccles School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
- Department of Molecular Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Katrina Mark
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 11 S Paca, Suite 400, Baltimore, MD 21042, USA
| | - Mathangi Gopalakrishnan
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
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9
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Beers J, Authement AK, Isoherranen N, Jackson KD. Cytosolic Enzymes Generate Cannabinoid Metabolites 7-Carboxycannabidiol and 11-Nor-9-carboxytetrahydrocannabinol. ACS Med Chem Lett 2023; 14:614-620. [PMID: 37197460 PMCID: PMC10184666 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.3c00017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The cannabinoids cannabidiol (CBD) and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) undergo extensive oxidative metabolism in the liver. Although cytochromes P450 form the primary, pharmacologically active, hydroxylated metabolites of CBD and THC, less is known about the enzymes that generate the major in vivo circulating metabolites of CBD and THC, 7-carboxy-CBD and 11-carboxy-THC, respectively. The purpose of this study was to elucidate the enzymes involved in forming these metabolites. Cofactor dependence experiments with human liver subcellular fractions revealed that 7-carboxy-CBD and 11-carboxy-THC formation is largely dependent on cytosolic NAD+-dependent enzymes, with lesser contributions from NADPH-dependent microsomal enzymes. Experiments with chemical inhibitors provided evidence that 7-carboxy-CBD formation is mainly dependent on aldehyde dehydrogenases and 11-carboxy-THC formation is mediated also in part by aldehyde oxidase. This study is the first to demonstrate the involvement of cytosolic drug-metabolizing enzymes in generating major in vivo metabolites of CBD and THC and addresses a knowledge gap in cannabinoid metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica
L. Beers
- Division
of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Eshelman School of Pharmacy, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Aurora K. Authement
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, University of Washington
School of Pharmacy, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Nina Isoherranen
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, University of Washington
School of Pharmacy, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Klarissa D. Jackson
- Division
of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Eshelman School of Pharmacy, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
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10
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Chen X, Unadkat JD, Mao Q. Maternal and Fetal Exposure to (-)-Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and Its Major Metabolites in Pregnant Mice Is Differentially Impacted by P-glycoprotein and Breast Cancer Resistance Protein. Drug Metab Dispos 2023; 51:269-275. [PMID: 36446608 PMCID: PMC10029818 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.122.001110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Revised: 11/13/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
(-)-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the primary pharmacological active constituent of cannabis. 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC) and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THC-COOH) are respectively the active and nonactive circulating metabolites of THC in humans. While previous animal studies reported that THC could be a substrate of mouse P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and breast cancer resistance protein (Bcrp), we have shown, in vitro, that only THC-COOH is a weak substrate of human BCRP, but not of P-gp. To confirm these findings and to investigate the role of P-gp and/or Bcrp in the maternal-fetal disposition of THC and its metabolites, we administrated 3 mg/kg of THC retro-orbitally to FVB wild-type (WT), P-gp -/-, Bcrp -/-, or P-gp-/- /Bcrp-/- pregnant mice on gestation day 18 and estimated the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) of the cannabinoids in the maternal plasma, maternal brain, placenta, and fetus, as well as the tissue/maternal plasma AUC geometric mean ratios (GMRs) using a pooled data bootstrap approach. We found that the dose-normalized maternal plasma AUCs of THC in P-gp-/- and P-gp-/- /Bcrp-/- mice, and the placenta-to-maternal plasma AUC GMR of THC in Bcrp-/- mice were 279%, 271%, and 167% of those in WT mice, respectively. Surprisingly, the tissue-to-maternal plasma AUC GMRs of THC and its major metabolites in the maternal brain, placenta, or fetus in P-gp -/-, Bcrp -/- or P-gp-/- /Bcrp-/- mice were 28-78% of those in WT mice. This study revealed that P-gp and Bcrp do not play a role in limiting maternal brain and fetal exposure to THC and its major metabolites in pregnant mice. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This study systematically investigated whether P-gp and/or Bcrp in pregnant mice can alter the disposition of THC, 11-OH-THC, and THC-COOH. Surprisingly, except for Bcrp, which limits placental (but not fetal) exposure to THC, we found that P-gp-/- , Bcrp-/- , and/or P-gp-/- /Bcrp-/- significantly decreased exposure to THC and/or its metabolites in maternal brain, placenta, or fetus. The mechanistic basis for this decrease is unclear and needs further investigation. If replicated in humans, P-gp- or BCRP-based drug-cannabinoid interactions are not of concern.
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MESH Headings
- Pregnancy
- Mice
- Female
- Humans
- Animals
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1/genetics
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1/metabolism
- Dronabinol/metabolism
- Placenta/metabolism
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily G, Member 2/genetics
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily G, Member 2/metabolism
- ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters/metabolism
- Neoplasm Proteins/genetics
- Neoplasm Proteins/metabolism
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B/genetics
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B/metabolism
- Breast Neoplasms/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Jashvant D Unadkat
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Qingcheng Mao
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
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11
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Involvement of esterases in the pulmonary metabolism of beclomethasone dipropionate and the potential influence of cannabis use. Chem Biol Interact 2022; 368:110228. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2022.110228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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12
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Kumar AR, Patilea-Vrana GI, Anoshchenko O, Unadkat JD. Characterizing and Quantifying Extrahepatic Metabolism of (-)-Δ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and Its Psychoactive Metabolite, (±)-11-Hydroxy-Δ 9-THC (11-OH-THC). Drug Metab Dispos 2022; 50:734-740. [PMID: 35370140 PMCID: PMC9199115 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.122.000868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2023] Open
Abstract
(-)-Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the psychoactive constituent of cannabis, a drug recreationally consumed orally or by inhalation. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling can be used to predict systemic and tissue exposure to THC and its psychoactive metabolite, (±)-11-hydroxy-Δ9-THC (11-OH-THC). To populate a THC/11-OH-THC PBPK model, we previously characterized the depletion clearance of THC (by CYP2C9) and 11-OH-THC (by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT), CYP3A, and CYP2C9) in adult human liver microsomes. Here we focused on quantifying extrahepatic depletion clearance of THC/11-OH-THC, important after oral (intestine) and inhalational (lung) consumption of THC as well as prenatal THC use (placenta and fetal liver). THC (500 nM) was metabolized in adult human intestinal microsomes (n = 3-5) by CYP2C9 [Vmax: 1.1 ± 0.38 nmol/min/mg; Michaelis-Menten constant (Km): 70 nM; intrinsic clearance (CLint): 15 ± 5.4 ml/min/mg; fraction metabolized (fm): 0.89 ± 0.31 at concentration ≪ 70 nM] and CYP3A (CLint: 2.0 ± 0.86 ml/min/mg; fm: 0.11 ± 0.050). 11-OH-THC (50 nM) was metabolized by CYP3A (CLint: 0.26 ± 0.058 ml/min/mg; fm: 0.51 ± 0.11) and UGT2B7 (CLint: 0.13 ± 0.027 ml/min/mg; fm: 0.25 ± 0.053). THC at 500 nM (CLint: 4.7 ± 0.22 ml/min/mg) and 11-OH-THC at 50 nM (CLint: 2.4 ± 0.13 ml/min/mg) were predominately (fm: 0.99 and 0.80, respectively) metabolized by CYP3A in human fetal liver microsomes (n = 3). However, we did not observe significant depletion of THC/11-OH-THC in adult lung, first trimester, second trimester, or term placentae microsomes. Using PBPK modeling and simulation, these data could be used in the future to predict systemic and tissue THC/11-OH-THC exposure in healthy and special populations. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This is the first characterization and quantification of (-)-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and (±)-11-hydroxy-Δ9-THC (11-OH-THC) depletion clearance by cytochrome P450 and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase enzymes in extrahepatic human tissues: intestine, fetal liver, lung, and placenta. These data can be used to predict, through physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling and simulation, systemic and tissue THC/11-OH-THC exposure after inhalational and oral THC use in both healthy and special populations (e.g., pregnant women).
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditya R Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | | | - Olena Anoshchenko
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Jashvant D Unadkat
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
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Peng J, Ladumor MK, Unadkat JD. Estimation of fetal-to-maternal unbound steady-state plasma concentration ratio (Kp,uu,fetal ) of P-gp and/or BCRP substrate drugs using a maternal-fetal PBPK model. Drug Metab Dispos 2022; 50:613-623. [PMID: 35149540 PMCID: PMC9073947 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.121.000733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Pregnant women are frequently prescribed drugs to treat chronic diseases (e.g., HIV infection), but little is known about the benefits and risks of these drugs to the fetus which are driven by fetal drug exposure. The latter can be estimated by fetal-to-maternal unbound plasma concentration at steady-state (Kp,uu,fetal). For drugs that are substrates of placental efflux transporters (i.e., P-gp or BCRP), is expected to be <1. Here, we estimated the in vivo of selective P-gp and/or BCRP substrate drugs by maternal-fetal (m-f)-PBPK modeling of umbilical vein (UV) plasma and maternal plasma (MP) concentrations obtained simultaneously at term from multiple maternal-fetal dyads. To do so, three drugs were selected: nelfinavir (P-gp substrate), efavirenz (BCRP substrate), and imatinib (P-gp/BCRP substrate). A m-f-PBPK model for each drug was developed and validated for the non-pregnant population and pregnant women using the Simcyp simulator (v20). Then, after incorporating placental passive diffusion clearance, the in vivo of the drug was estimated by adjusting the placental efflux clearance until the predicted UV/MP values best matched the observed data ( nelfinavir=0.41, efavirenz=0.39, imatinib=0.35). Furthermore, of nelfinavir and efavirenz at gestational week (GW) 25 and 15 were predicted to be 0.34, 0.23 and 0.33, 0.27 respectively. These values can be used to adjust dosing regimens of these drugs to optimize maternal-fetal drug therapy throughout pregnancy, to assess fetal benefits and risks of these dosing regimens, and to determine if these estimated in vivo values can be predicted from in vitro studies. Significance Statement The in vivo Kp,uu,fetal of nelfinavir (P-gp substrate), efavirenz (BCRP substrate), and imatinib (P-gp and BCRP substrate) was successfully estimated using m-f- PBPK modeling. These Kp,uu,fetal values can be used to adjust dosing regimens of these drugs to optimize maternal-fetal drug therapy throughout pregnancy, to assess fetal benefits and risks of these dosing regimens, and to determine if these estimated in vivo Kp,uu,fetal values can be predicted from in vitro studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinfu Peng
- Department of Pharmacy, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, China
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Nasrin S, Watson CJW, Bardhi K, Fort G, Chen G, Lazarus P. Inhibition of UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase Enzymes by Major Cannabinoids and Their Metabolites. Drug Metab Dispos 2021; 49:1081-1089. [PMID: 34493601 PMCID: PMC11022890 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.121.000530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) family of enzymes play a central role in the metabolism and detoxification of a wide range of endogenous and exogenous compounds. UGTs exhibit a high degree of structural similarity and display overlapping substrate specificity, often making estimations of potential drug-drug interactions difficult to fully elucidate. One such interaction yet to be examined may be occurring between UGTs and cannabinoids, as the legalization of recreational and medicinal cannabis and subsequent co-usage of cannabis and therapeutic drugs increases in the United States and internationally. In the present study, the inhibition potential of the major cannabinoids Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and cannabinol (CBN), as well as their major metabolites, was determined in microsomes isolated from HEK293 cells overexpressing individual recombinant UGTs and in microsomes from human liver and kidney specimens. The highest inhibition was seen by CBD against the glucuronidation activity of UGTs 1A9, 2B4, 1A6, and 2B7, with binding-corrected IC50 values of 0.12 ± 0.020 µM, 0.22 ± 0.045 µM, 0.40 ± 0.10 µM, and 0.82 ± 0.15 µM, respectively. Strong inhibition of UGT1A9 was also demonstrated by THC and CBN, with binding-corrected IC50 values of 0.45 ± 0.12 μM and 0.51 ± 0.063 μM, respectively. Strong inhibition of UGT2B7 was also observed for THC and CBN; no or weak inhibition was observed with cannabinoid metabolites. This inhibition of UGT activity suggests that in addition to playing an important role in drug-drug interactions, cannabinoid exposure may have important implications in patients with impaired hepatic or kidney function. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Major cannabinoids found in the plasma of cannabis users inhibit several UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) enzymes, including UGT1A6, UGT1A9, UGT2B4, and UGT2B7. This study is the first to show the potential of cannabinoids and their metabolites to inhibit all the major kidney UGTs as well as the two most abundant UGTs present in liver. This study suggests that as all three major kidney UGTs are inhibited by cannabinoids, greater drug-drug interaction effects might be observed from co-use of cannabinods and therapeutics that are cleared renally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shamema Nasrin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington
| | - Christy J W Watson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington
| | - Keti Bardhi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington
| | - Gabriela Fort
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington
| | - Gang Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington
| | - Philip Lazarus
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington
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Nasrin S, Watson CJW, Perez-Paramo YX, Lazarus P. Cannabinoid Metabolites as Inhibitors of Major Hepatic CYP450 Enzymes, with Implications for Cannabis-Drug Interactions. Drug Metab Dispos 2021; 49:1070-1080. [PMID: 34493602 PMCID: PMC11022895 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.121.000442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The legalization of cannabis in many parts of the United States and other countries has led to a need for a more comprehensive understanding of cannabis constituents and their potential for drug-drug interactions. Although (-)-trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and cannabinol (CBN) are the most abundant cannabinoids present in cannabis, THC metabolites are found in plasma at higher concentrations and for a longer duration than that of the parent cannabinoids. To understand the potential for drug-drug interactions, the inhibition potential of major cannabinoids and their metabolites on major hepatic cytochrome P450 (P450) enzymes was examined. In vitro assays with P450-overexpressing cell microsomes demonstrated that the major THC metabolites 11-hydroxy-Δ9-tetra-hydrocannabinol and 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-THC-glucuronide competitively inhibited several major P450 enzymes, including CYP2B6, CYP2C9, and CYP2D6 (apparent Ki,u values = 0.086 ± 0.066 µM and 0.90 ± 0.54 µM, 0.057 ± 0.044 µM and 2.1 ± 0.81 µM, 0.15 ± 0.067 µM and 2.3 ± 0.54 µM, respectively). 11-Nor-9-carboxy-Δ9- tetrahydrocannabinol exhibited no inhibitory activity against any CYP450 tested. THC competitively inhibited CYP1A2, CYP2B6, CYP2C9, and CYP2D6; CBD competitively inhibited CYP3A4, CYP2B6, CYP2C9, CYP2D6, and CYP2E1; and CBN competitively inhibited CYP2B6, CYP2C9, and CYP2E1. THC and CBD showed mixed-type inhibition for CYP2C19 and CYP1A2, respectively. These data suggest that cannabinoids and major THC metabolites are able to inhibit the activities of multiple P450 enzymes, and basic static modeling of these data suggest the possibility of pharmacokinetic interactions between these cannabinoids and xenobiotics extensively metabolized by CYP2B6, CYP2C9, and CYP2D6. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Major cannabinoids and their metabolites found in the plasma of cannabis users inhibit several P450 enzymes, including CYP2B6, CYP2C9, and CYP2D6. This study is the first to show the inhibition potential of the most abundant plasma cannabinoid metabolite, THC-COO-Gluc, and suggests that circulating metabolites of cannabinoids play an essential role in CYP450 enzyme inhibition as well as drug-drug interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shamema Nasrin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington
| | - Christy J W Watson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington
| | - Yadira X Perez-Paramo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington
| | - Philip Lazarus
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington
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Huff HC, Vasan A, Roy P, Kaul A, Tajkhorshid E, Das A. Differential Interactions of Selected Phytocannabinoids with Human CYP2D6 Polymorphisms. Biochemistry 2021; 60:2749-2760. [PMID: 34491040 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.1c00158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) is primarily expressed in the liver and in the central nervous system. It is known to be highly polymorphic in nature. It metabolizes several endogenous substrates such as anandamide (AEA). Concomitantly, it is involved in phase 1 metabolism of several antidepressants, antipsychotics, and other drugs. Research in the field of phytocannabinoids (pCBs) has recently accelerated owing to their legalization and increasing medicinal use for pain and inflammation. The primary component of cannabis is THC, which is well-known for its psychotropic effects. Since CYP2D6 is an important brain and liver P450 and is known to be inhibited by CBD, we investigated the interactions of four important highly prevalent CYP2D6 polymorphisms with selected phytocannabinoids (CBD, THC, CBDV, THCV, CBN, CBG, CBC, β-carophyllene) that are rapidly gaining popularity. We show that there is differential binding of CYP2D6*17 to pCBs as compared to WT CYP2D6. We also perform a more detailed comparison of WT and *17 CYP2D6, which reveals the possible regulation of AEA metabolism by CBD. Furthermore, we use molecular dynamics to delineate the mechanism of this binding, inhibition, and regulation. Taken together, we have found that the interactions of CYP2D6 with pCBs vary by polymorphism and by specific pCB class.
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Chen X, Unadkat JD, Mao Q. Tetrahydrocannabinol and Its Major Metabolites are Not (or are poor) Substrates or Inhibitors of Human P-glycoprotein (P-gp/ABCB1) and Breast Cancer Resistance Protein (BCRP/ABCG2). Drug Metab Dispos 2021; 49:910-918. [PMID: 34326138 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.121.000505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
(-)-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the primary psychoactive constituent of cannabis. In humans, 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC) and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THC-COOH) are psychoactive and non-psychoactive circulating metabolites of THC, respectively. Whether these cannabinoids are substrates or inhibitors of human P-glycoprotein (P-gp) or breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) is unknown. Previous animal studies suggest that THC and its metabolites could be substrates of these transporters. Therefore, we performed Transwell, cellular accumulation, and vesicular transport assays, at pharmacologically relevant concentrations of these cannabinoids, using Madin-Darby canine kidney II (MDCKII) cells or plasma membrane vesicles overexpressing human P-gp or BCRP. Neither THC nor 11-OH-THC was found to be a substrate or inhibitor of P-gp or BCRP. The efflux ratio of THC-COOH in MDCKII-BCRP cells was 1.6, which was significantly decreased to 1.0 by the BCRP inhibitor Ko143. Likewise, cellular accumulation of THC-COOH was significantly increased 1.6-fold in the presence vs. absence of Ko143. THC-COOH also significantly inhibited BCRP-mediated transport of lucifer yellow, a BCRP substrate; however, THC-COOH was neither a substrate nor an inhibitor of P-gp. Collectively, these results indicate that THC and 11-OH-THC are not substrates or inhibitors (at pharmacologically relevant concentrations) of either P-gp or BCRP. THC-COOH is a weak substrate and inhibitor of BCRP, but not of P-gp. Accordingly, we predict that P-gp/BCRP will not modulate the disposition of these cannabinoids in humans. In addition, use of these cannabinoids will not result in P-gp- or BCRP-based drug interactions. Significance Statement In this study, we systematically investigated whether THC and its major metabolites 11-OH-THC and THC-COOH are substrates and/or inhibitors of human P-gp and BCRP at pharmacologically relevant concentrations. The results obtained are highly valuable for mechanistic understanding and prediction of the roles of P-gp and BCRP in determining the human pharmacokinetics, tissue distribution, and drug interactions of cannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Chen
- University of Washington, United States
| | | | - Qingcheng Mao
- Pharmaceutics, University of Washington, United States
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18
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Patilea-Vrana GI, Unadkat JD. Development and Verification of a Linked Δ 9-THC/11-OH-THC Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Model in Healthy, Nonpregnant Population and Extrapolation to Pregnant Women. Drug Metab Dispos 2021; 49:509-520. [PMID: 33952608 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.120.000322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Conducting clinical trials to understand the exposure risk/benefit relationship of cannabis use is not always feasible. Alternatively, physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models can be used to predict exposure of the psychoactive cannabinoid (-)-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and its active metabolite 11-hydroxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (11-OH-THC). Here, we first extrapolated in vitro mechanistic pharmacokinetic information previously quantified to build a linked THC/11-OH-THC PBPK model and verified the model with observed data after intravenous and inhalation administration of THC in a healthy, nonpregnant population. The in vitro to in vivo extrapolation of both THC and 11-OH-THC disposition was successful. The inhalation bioavailability (Finh) of THC after inhalation was higher in chronic versus casual cannabis users (Finh = 0.35 and 0.19, respectively). Sensitivity analysis demonstrated that 11-OH-THC but not THC exposure was sensitive to alterations in hepatic intrinsic clearance of the respective compound. Next, we extrapolated the linked THC/11-OH-THC PBPK model to pregnant women. Simulations showed that THC plasma area under the curve (AUC) does not change during pregnancy, but 11-OH-THC plasma AUC decreases by up to 41%. Using a maternal-fetal PBPK model, maternal and fetal THC serum concentrations were simulated and compared with the observed THC serum concentrations in pregnant women at term. To recapitulate the observed THC fetal serum concentrations, active placental efflux of THC needed to be invoked. In conclusion, we built and verified a linked THC/11-OH-THC PBPK model in healthy nonpregnant population and demonstrated how this mechanistic physiologic and pharmacokinetic platform can be extrapolated to a special population, such as pregnant women. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Although the pharmacokinetics of cannabinoids have been extensively studied clinically, limited mechanistic pharmacokinetic models exist. Here, we developed and verified a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model for (-)-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and its active metabolite, 11-hydroxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (11-OH-THC). The PBPK model was verified in healthy, nonpregnant population after intravenous and inhalation administration of THC, and then extrapolated to pregnant women. The THC/11-OH-THC PBPK model can be used to predict exposure in special populations, predict drug-drug interactions, or impact of genetic polymorphism.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jashvant D Unadkat
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
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19
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Li Y, Yin W, Zhan Y, Jia Y, Cui D, Zhang W, Chang Y. Comparative metabolome analysis provides new insights into increased larval mortality under seawater acidification in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus intermedius. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 747:141206. [PMID: 32777501 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Mortality and metabolic responses of four-armed larvae of Strongylocentrotus intermedius under CO2-induced seawater acidification were investigated. Gametes of S. intermedius were fertilized and developed to the four-armed larval stage in either current natural seawater pH levels (as Control; pH = 7.99 ± 0.01) or laboratory-controlled acidified conditions (OA1: ΔpH = -0.3 units; OA2: ΔpH = -0.4 units; OA3: ΔpH = -0.5 units) according to the predictions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The degrees of spicule exposure and asymmetry and mortality of four-armed larvae of S. intermedius were observed; each had a significant linearly increasing trend as the seawater pH level decreased. Comparative metabolome analysis identified a total of 87 significantly differentially expressed metabolites (SDMs, UP: 57, DOWN: 30) in OA-treated groups compared with the control group. Twenty-three SDMs, including carnitine, lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) 18:3, lysophosphatidyl ethanolamine (LPE) 16:1, glutathione (GSH) and L-ascorbate, exhibited a linear increasing trend with decreasing seawater pH. Nine SDMs exhibited a linear decreasing trend as the seawater pH declined, including hypoxanthine, guanine and thymidine. Among all SDMs, we further mined 48 potential metabolite biomarkers responding to seawater acidification in four-armed larvae of S. intermedius. These potential metabolite biomarkers were mainly enriched in five pathways: glycerophospholipid metabolism, glutathione metabolism, purine metabolism, pyrimidine metabolism and the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle). Our results will enrich our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms employed by sea urchins in response to CO2-induced seawater acidification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Li
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture & Stock Enhancement in North China's Sea, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning 116023, PR China
| | - Wenlu Yin
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture & Stock Enhancement in North China's Sea, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning 116023, PR China
| | - Yaoyao Zhan
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture & Stock Enhancement in North China's Sea, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning 116023, PR China.
| | - Yujie Jia
- College of Basic Medical Science, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning 116044, PR China
| | - Dongyao Cui
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture & Stock Enhancement in North China's Sea, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning 116023, PR China
| | - Weijie Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture & Stock Enhancement in North China's Sea, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning 116023, PR China
| | - Yaqing Chang
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture & Stock Enhancement in North China's Sea, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning 116023, PR China.
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Abstract
The use of Cannabis-based preparations for medicinal use has waxed and waned in the multi-millennial history of human co-existence with the plant and its cultivation. Recorded use of preparations from Cannabis is effectively as old as recorded history with examples from China, India and Ancient Egypt. Prohibition and restriction of availability allowed a number of alternatives to take the place of Cannabis preparations. However, there has been a worldwide resurgence in medicinal Cannabis advocacy from the public. Media interest has been piqued by particular evocative cases. Altogether, therefore, there is pressure on healthcare professionals to prescribe and dispense Cannabis-based preparations. This review enunciates some of the barriers which are slowing the wider adoption of medicinal Cannabis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Ph Alexander
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham Medical School, Nottingham, UK
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21
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Neradugomma NK, Drafton K, Mor GG, Mao Q. Marijuana-derived cannabinoids inhibit uterine endometrial stromal cell decidualization and compromise trophoblast-endometrium cross-talk. Reprod Toxicol 2019; 87:100-107. [PMID: 31154070 PMCID: PMC6613995 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2019.05.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Marijuana (cannabis) use by pregnant women in the United States is increasing and there is a dire need to understand the beneficial or harmful effects of cannabis during pregnancy. Uterine endometrial stromal cells are fibroblast-like cells that differentiate into secretory cells, a process called decidualization, to create a microenvironment conducive for placenta formation and early embryonic growth. In this study, using model human cell lines, we for the first time demonstrate that Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN) inhibit endometrial stromal cell decidualization and have adverse effects on trophoblast-endometrium cross-talk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naveen K Neradugomma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
| | - Kaitlyn Drafton
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Gil G Mor
- Division of Reproductive Sciences, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Qingcheng Mao
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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Patilea-Vrana GI, Unadkat JD. Quantifying Hepatic Enzyme Kinetics of (-)-∆ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and Its Psychoactive Metabolite, 11-OH-THC, through In Vitro Modeling. Drug Metab Dispos 2019; 47:743-752. [PMID: 31048453 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.119.086470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of cannabis use and the concentrations of the psychoactive cannabinoid in cannabis, (-)-∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), are rising. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling and simulations (PBPK M&S) can mechanistically predict exposure of THC and its major and active metabolite, 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC). To build a THC/11-OH-THC PBPK model, mechanistic information about the disposition of these compounds is necessary, including the drug-metabolizing enzymes (DMEs) involved and the fraction metabolized (fm) and metabolic kinetic parameters (intrinsic clearance, maximal formation rate, and Km) via the identified enzymes. We previously identified and quantified the fm of DMEs involved in hepatic depletion of THC and 11-OH-THC. In this study, we extend this work to characterize the enzyme kinetics of THC and 11-OH-THC by monitoring their depletion and formation of some of their metabolites in pooled human liver microsomes. A P450 and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) kinetic model was fitted to the concentration-time depletion/formation profiles to establish the contribution and kinetics of the individual DME pathways. CYP2C9 pathway was the major pathway for depletion of THC (fm = 0.91, Km,u = 3 nM) and formation of 11-OH-THC. The remaining THC depletion pathway was attributed to CYP2D6. 11-OH-THC was depleted by UGTs (fm = 0.67 and Km,u = 39 nM), CYP3A4 (fm = 0.18, Km,u = 824 nM), and CYP2C9 (fm = 0.15, Km,u = 33 nM). These mechanistic in vitro data can be used to predict the exposure of THC and 11-OH-THC in healthy and special populations, including in the presence of drug-drug interactions, via PBPK M&S.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jashvant D Unadkat
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
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