1
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Basnet R, Hu J. Understanding and tuning magnetism in van der Waals-type metal thiophosphates. NANOSCALE 2024; 16:15851-15883. [PMID: 39129678 DOI: 10.1039/d4nr01577k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/13/2024]
Abstract
Over the past two decades, significant progress in two-dimensional (2D) materials has invigorated research in condensed matter and material physics in low dimensions. While traditionally studied in three-dimensional systems, magnetism has now been extended to the 2D realm. Recent breakthroughs in 2D magnetism have attracted substantial interest from the scientific community, owing to the stable magnetic order achievable in atomically thin layers of the van der Waals (vdW)-type layered magnetic materials. These advances offer an exciting platform for investigating related phenomena in low dimensions and hold promise for spintronic applications. Consequently, vdW magnetic materials with tunable magnetism have attracted significant attention. Specifically, antiferromagnetic metal thiophosphates MPX3 (M = transition metal, P = phosphorus, X = chalcogen) have been investigated extensively. These materials exhibit long-range magnetic order spanning from bulk to the 2D limit. The magnetism in MPX3 arises from localized moments associated with transition metal ions, making it tunable via substitutions and intercalations. In this review, we focus on such tuning by providing a comprehensive summary of various metal- and chalcogen-substitution and intercalation studies, along with the mechanism of magnetism modulation, and a perspective on the development of this emergent material family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rabindra Basnet
- Department of Chemistry & Physics, University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff, Pine Bluff, AR, 71603 USA.
| | - Jin Hu
- Department of Physics, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701, USA
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, Institute for Nanoscience and Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701, USA.
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2
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Mahatha SK, Phillips J, Corral-Sertal J, Subires D, Korshunov A, Kar A, Buck J, Diekmann F, Garbarino G, Ivanov YP, Chuvilin A, Mondal D, Vobornik I, Bosak A, Rossnagel K, Pardo V, Fumega AO, Blanco-Canosa S. Self-Stacked 1T-1H Layers in 6R-NbSeTe and the Emergence of Charge and Magnetic Correlations Due to Ligand Disorder. ACS NANO 2024. [PMID: 39086092 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.4c02005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/02/2024]
Abstract
The emergence of correlated phenomena arising from the combination of 1T and 1H van der Waals layers is the focus of intense research. Here, we synthesize a self-stacked 6R phase in NbSeTe, showing perfect alternating 1T and 1H layers that grow coherently along the c-direction, as revealed by scanning transmission electron microscopy. Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy shows a mixed contribution of the trigonal and octahedral Nb bands to the Fermi level. Diffuse scattering reveals temperature-independent short-range charge fluctuations with propagation vector qCO = (0.25 0), derived from the condensation of a longitudinal mode in the 1T layer, while the long-range charge density wave is quenched by ligand disorder. Magnetization measurements suggest the presence of an inhomogeneous, short-range magnetic order, further supported by the absence of a clear phase transition in the specific heat. These experimental analyses in combination with ab initio calculations indicate that the ground state of 6R-NbSeTe is described by a statistical distribution of short-range charge-modulated and spin-correlated regions driven by ligand disorder. Our results demonstrate how natural 1T-1H self-stacked bulk heterostructures can be used to engineer emergent phases of matter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjoy K Mahatha
- UGC-DAE Consortium for Scientific Research, University Campus, Khandwa Road, Indore 452001, India
- Ruprecht Haensel Laboratory, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jan Phillips
- Departamento de Física Aplicada, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Sur s/n, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
- Instituto de Materiais iMATUS, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Sur s/n, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Javier Corral-Sertal
- Departamento de Física Aplicada, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Sur s/n, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
- CiQUS, Centro Singular de Investigacion en Quimica Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares, Departamento de Quimica-Fisica, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - David Subires
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), E-20018 San Sebastián, Spain
- University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Basque Country, Bilbao 48080 Spain
| | - Artem Korshunov
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF), BP 220, F-38043 Grenoble Cedex, France
| | - Arunava Kar
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), E-20018 San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Jens Buck
- Ruprecht Haensel Laboratory, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
- Institut für Experimentelle und Angewandte Physik, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, D-24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Florian Diekmann
- Ruprecht Haensel Laboratory, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
- Institut für Experimentelle und Angewandte Physik, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, D-24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Gaston Garbarino
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF), BP 220, F-38043 Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| | - Yurii P Ivanov
- Electron Spectroscopy and Nanoscopy, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30, 16163 Genova, Italy
| | - Andrey Chuvilin
- CIC Nanogune, E-20018 San Sebastián, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, 48013 Bilbao, Spain
| | - Debashis Mondal
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR)- Istituto Officina dei Materiali (IOM), Laboratorio TASC in Area Science, 34149 Trieste, Italy
- Sovarani Memorial College, Jagatballavpur, Howrah 711408, India
| | - Ivana Vobornik
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR)- Istituto Officina dei Materiali (IOM), Laboratorio TASC in Area Science, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Alexei Bosak
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF), BP 220, F-38043 Grenoble Cedex, France
| | - Kai Rossnagel
- Ruprecht Haensel Laboratory, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
- Institut für Experimentelle und Angewandte Physik, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, 24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Victor Pardo
- Departamento de Física Aplicada, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Sur s/n, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
- Instituto de Materiais iMATUS, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Sur s/n, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Adolfo O Fumega
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, 02150 Espoo, Finland
| | - Santiago Blanco-Canosa
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), E-20018 San Sebastián, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, 48013 Bilbao, Spain
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3
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Phillips J, Lado JL, Pardo V, Fumega AO. Self-doped flat band and spin-triplet superconductivity in monolayer 1T-TaSe 2-xTe x. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2024; 36:385804. [PMID: 38885693 DOI: 10.1088/1361-648x/ad5946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
Two-dimensional van der Waals materials have become an established platform to engineer flat bands which can lead to strongly-correlated emergent phenomena. In particular, the family of Ta dichalcogenides in the 1T phase presents a star-of-David charge density wave that creates a flat band at the Fermi level. For TaS2and TaSe2this flat band is at half filling leading to a magnetic insulating phase. In this work, we theoretically demonstrate that ligand substitution in the TaSe2-xTexsystem produces a transition from the magnetic insulator to a non-magnetic metal in which the flat band gets doped away from half-filling. Forx∈[0.846,1.231]the spin-polarized flat band is self-doped and the system becomes a magnetic metal. In this regime, we show that attractive interactions promote three different spin-triplet superconducting phases as a function ofx, corresponding to a nodal f-wave and two topologically-different chiral p-wave superconducting phases. Our results establish monolayer TaSe2-xTexas a promising platform for correlated flat band physics leading to unconventional superconducting states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Phillips
- Departamento de Física Aplicada, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Campus Sur s/n, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
- Instituto de Materiais iMATUS, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Campus Sur s/n, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Jose L Lado
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, 02150 Espoo, Finland
| | - Víctor Pardo
- Departamento de Física Aplicada, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Campus Sur s/n, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
- Instituto de Materiais iMATUS, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Campus Sur s/n, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Adolfo O Fumega
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, 02150 Espoo, Finland
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4
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Zhang Y, Zhang D, Gao B, Xu Q. 2D Heterostructure of CoCl 2 /Co 3 O 4 Built for Strong Enhanced Magnetism. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024; 20:e2305641. [PMID: 37914667 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202305641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
As a remarkable structure, 2D magnetic heterojunctions have attracted researchers' attention owing to their controlled manipulation in the electronic device. However, successful fabrication as well as modulation of their structure and compound remain challenging. Herein, a novel method is designed to obtain a CoCl2 /Co3 O4 heterojunction on Si/SiO2 substrate with the assistance of supercritical CO2 (SC CO2 ), and the as-fabricated sample has significantly increased coercivity and saturation magnetization, which is 11 times higher than pure Co3 O4 . Further, it can be found that the CO2 pressure has the decisive effect on the saturation magnetization of the sample. Therefore, it suggests that the tunable electronic-magnetic device can be anticipated to be obtained in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunxiao Zhang
- College of Materials Science & Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, P. R. China
| | - Di Zhang
- College of Materials Science & Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, P. R. China
| | - Bo Gao
- College of Materials Science & Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, P. R. China
| | - Qun Xu
- College of Materials Science & Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, P. R. China
- Henan Institute of Advanced Technology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450003, P. R. China
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5
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Zhao Y, Lei Z, Wang Y, Yan W, Tan R, Jing T, Sun Q. Theoretical prediction of two-dimensional ferromagnetic Mn 2X 2 (X = As, Sb) with strain-controlled magnetocrystalline anisotropy. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2024; 26:2324-2331. [PMID: 38165825 DOI: 10.1039/d3cp03691j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2024]
Abstract
Two-dimensional (2D) magnetic materials with large and tunable magnetocrystalline anisotropy (MCA) provide unique opportunities to develop various spintronic devices. We, herein, propose an experimentally feasible 2D material platform, Mn2X2 (X = As, Sb), which is a family of intrinsic ferromagnet. Using first-principles calculations, we show that 2D Mn2X2 (X = As, Sb) with a robust ferromagnetic ground state exhibits not only a large perpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA), but also significant strain-driven modulation behaviors under external biaxial strain. The analysis of the results demonstrates that the dominant contribution to the change of MCA of Mn2As2 and Mn2Sb2 primarily arises from the Mn and Sb atoms, respectively. Moreover, we reveal that the underlying origin is the competitive mechanism for the spin-orbit coupling (SOC) between different orbitals and spin channels. These findings indicate that 2D Mn2X2 (X = As, Sb) provides a promising material platform for the next generation of ultra-low energy memory devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhao
- School of Science, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, Shandong 250101, China.
| | - Zesen Lei
- School of Science, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, Shandong 250101, China.
| | - Yonghao Wang
- School of Science, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, Shandong 250101, China.
| | - Wei Yan
- School of Science, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, Shandong 250101, China.
| | - Ruishan Tan
- School of Science, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, Shandong 250101, China.
| | - Tao Jing
- College of Science, Kaili University, Kaili, Guizhou 556011, China
| | - Qilong Sun
- School of Science, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, Shandong 250101, China.
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6
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Yang S, Xu X, Han B, Gu P, Guzman R, Song Y, Lin Z, Gao P, Zhou W, Yang J, Chen Z, Ye Y. Controlling the 2D Magnetism of CrBr 3 by van der Waals Stacking Engineering. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:28184-28190. [PMID: 38096486 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c10777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
The manipulation of two-dimensional (2D) magnetic order is of significant importance to facilitate future 2D magnets for low-power and high-speed spintronic devices. van der Waals stacking engineering makes promises for controllable magnetism via interlayer magnetic coupling. However, directly examining the stacking order changes accompanying magnetic order transitions at the atomic scale and preparing device-ready 2D magnets with controllable magnetic orders remain elusive. Here, we demonstrate the effective control of interlayer stacking in exfoliated CrBr3 via thermally assisted strain engineering. The stable interlayer ferromagnetic (FM), antiferromagnetic (AFM), and FM-AFM coexistent ground states confirmed by the magnetic circular dichroism measurements are realized. Combined with the first-principles calculations, the atomically resolved imaging technique reveals the correlation between magnetic order and interlayer stacking order in CrBr3 flakes unambiguously. A tunable exchange bias effect is obtained in the mixed phase of FM and AFM states. This work will introduce new magnetic properties by controlling the stacking order and sequence of 2D magnets, providing ample opportunities for their application in spintronic devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiqi Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics and Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Xiaolong Xu
- School of Integrated Circuits and Electronics, MIIT Key Laboratory for Low-Dimensional Quantum Structure and Devices, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Bo Han
- Electron Microscopy Laboratory, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- International Center for Quantum Materials, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Pingfan Gu
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics and Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Roger Guzman
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yiwen Song
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics and Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Zhongchong Lin
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics and Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Peng Gao
- Electron Microscopy Laboratory, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- International Center for Quantum Materials, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- Interdisciplinary Institute of Light-Element Quantum Materials and Research Center for Light-Element Advanced Materials, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- Collaborative Innovation Centre of Quantum Matter, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Wu Zhou
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jinbo Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics and Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Zuxin Chen
- School of Semiconductor Science and Technology, South China Normal University, Foshan 528225, China
| | - Yu Ye
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics and Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- Collaborative Innovation Centre of Quantum Matter, Beijing 100871, China
- Yangtze Delta Institute of Optoelectronics, Peking University, Nantong, Jiangsu 226010, China
- Liaoning Academy of Materials, Shenyang 110167, China
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7
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Ganguli SC, Aapro M, Kezilebieke S, Amini M, Lado JL, Liljeroth P. Visualization of Moiré Magnons in Monolayer Ferromagnet. NANO LETTERS 2023; 23:3412-3417. [PMID: 37040471 PMCID: PMC10141560 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.3c00417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Two-dimensional magnetic materials provide an ideal platform to explore collective many-body excitations associated with spin fluctuations. In particular, it should be feasible to explore, manipulate, and ultimately design magnonic excitations in two-dimensional van der Waals magnets in a controllable way. Here we demonstrate the emergence of moiré magnon excitations, stemming from the interplay of spin-excitations in monolayer CrBr3 and the moiré pattern arising from the lattice mismatch with the underlying substrate. The existence of moiré magnons is further confirmed via inelastic quasiparticle interference, showing the appearance of a dispersion pattern correlated with the moiré length scale. Our results provide a direct visualization in real-space of the dispersion of moiré magnons, demonstrating the versatility of moiré patterns in creating emergent many-body excitations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Markus Aapro
- Department
of Applied Physics, Aalto University, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
| | - Shawulienu Kezilebieke
- Department
of Physics, Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience Center, University of Jyväskylä, FI-40014 Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Mohammad Amini
- Department
of Applied Physics, Aalto University, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
| | - Jose L. Lado
- Department
of Applied Physics, Aalto University, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
| | - Peter Liljeroth
- Department
of Applied Physics, Aalto University, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
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8
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Emergence of electric-field-tunable interfacial ferromagnetism in 2D antiferromagnet heterostructures. Nat Commun 2022; 13:7348. [PMID: 36522317 PMCID: PMC9755235 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-34812-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Van der Waals (vdW) magnet heterostructures have emerged as new platforms to explore exotic magnetic orders and quantum phenomena. Here, we study heterostructures of layered antiferromagnets, CrI3 and CrCl3, with perpendicular and in-plane magnetic anisotropy, respectively. Using magneto-optical Kerr effect microscopy, we demonstrate out-of-plane magnetic order in the CrCl3 layer proximal to CrI3, with ferromagnetic interfacial coupling between the two. Such an interlayer exchange field leads to higher critical temperature than that of either CrI3 or CrCl3 alone. We further demonstrate significant electric-field control of the coercivity, attributed to the naturally broken structural inversion symmetry of the heterostructure allowing unprecedented direct coupling between electric field and interfacial magnetism. These findings illustrate the opportunity to explore exotic magnetic phases and engineer spintronic devices in vdW heterostructures.
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9
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Liu W, Guo X, Schwartz J, Xie H, Dhale NU, Sung SH, Kondusamy ALN, Wang X, Zhao H, Berman D, Hovden R, Zhao L, Lv B. A Three-Stage Magnetic Phase Transition Revealed in Ultrahigh-Quality van der Waals Bulk Magnet CrSBr. ACS NANO 2022; 16:15917-15926. [PMID: 36149801 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c02896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
van der Waals (vdW) magnets are receiving ever-growing attention nowadays due to their significance in both fundamental research on low-dimensional magnetism and potential applications in spintronic devices. The high crystalline quality of vdW magnets is the key to maintaining intrinsic magnetic and electronic properties, especially when exfoliated down to the two-dimensional limit. Here, ultrahigh-quality air-stable vdW CrSBr crystals are synthesized using the direct solid-vapor synthesis method. The high single crystallinity and spatial homogeneity have been thoroughly evidenced at length scales from submm to atomic resolution by X-ray diffraction, second harmonic generation, and scanning transmission electron microscopy. More importantly, specific heat measurements of ultrahigh-quality CrSBr crystals show three thermodynamic anomalies at 185, 156, and 132 K, revealing a stage-by-stage development of the magnetic order upon cooling, which is also corroborated with the magnetization and transport results. Our ultrahigh-quality CrSBr can further be exfoliated down to monolayers and bilayers easily, providing the building blocks of heterostructures for spintronic and magneto-optoelectronic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhao Liu
- Department of Physics, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas 75080, United States
| | - Xiaoyu Guo
- Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Jonathan Schwartz
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Hongchao Xie
- Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Nikhil Uday Dhale
- Department of Physics, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas 75080, United States
| | - Suk Hyun Sung
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | | | - Xiqu Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas 77004, United States
| | - Haonan Zhao
- Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Diana Berman
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas 76203, United States
| | - Robert Hovden
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Applied Physics Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Liuyan Zhao
- Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Bing Lv
- Department of Physics, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas 75080, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas 75080 United States
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10
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Klein J, Pham T, Thomsen JD, Curtis JB, Denneulin T, Lorke M, Florian M, Steinhoff A, Wiscons RA, Luxa J, Sofer Z, Jahnke F, Narang P, Ross FM. Control of structure and spin texture in the van der Waals layered magnet CrSBr. Nat Commun 2022; 13:5420. [PMID: 36109520 PMCID: PMC9478124 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-32737-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Controlling magnetism at nanometer length scales is essential for realizing high-performance spintronic, magneto-electric and topological devices and creating on-demand spin Hamiltonians probing fundamental concepts in physics. Van der Waals (vdW)-bonded layered magnets offer exceptional opportunities for such spin texture engineering. Here, we demonstrate nanoscale structural control in the layered magnet CrSBr with the potential to create spin patterns without the environmental sensitivity that has hindered such manipulations in other vdW magnets. We drive a local phase transformation using an electron beam that moves atoms and exchanges bond directions, effectively creating regions that have vertical vdW layers embedded within the initial horizontally vdW bonded exfoliated flakes. We calculate that the newly formed two-dimensional structure is ferromagnetically ordered in-plane with an energy gap in the visible spectrum, and weak antiferromagnetism between the planes, suggesting possibilities for creating spin textures and quantum magnetic phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Klein
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.
| | - T Pham
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - J D Thomsen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - J B Curtis
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - T Denneulin
- Ernst Ruska-Centre for Microscopy and Spectroscopy with Electrons and Peter Grünberg Institute, Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425, Jülich, Germany
| | - M Lorke
- Institut für Theoretische Physik, Universität Bremen, P.O. Box 330 440, 28334, Bremen, Germany
| | - M Florian
- Institut für Theoretische Physik, Universität Bremen, P.O. Box 330 440, 28334, Bremen, Germany
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - A Steinhoff
- Institut für Theoretische Physik, Universität Bremen, P.O. Box 330 440, 28334, Bremen, Germany
| | - R A Wiscons
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, 10027, NY, USA
| | - J Luxa
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, 166 28, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Z Sofer
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, 166 28, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - F Jahnke
- Institut für Theoretische Physik, Universität Bremen, P.O. Box 330 440, 28334, Bremen, Germany
| | - P Narang
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - F M Ross
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.
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11
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Yao J, Wang H, Yuan B, Hu Z, Wu C, Zhao A. Ultrathin Van der Waals Antiferromagnet CrTe 3 for Fabrication of In-Plane CrTe 3 /CrTe 2 Monolayer Magnetic Heterostructures. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2200236. [PMID: 35419894 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202200236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Revised: 04/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Ultrathin van der Waals (vdW) magnets are heavily pursued for potential applications in developing high-density miniaturized electronic/spintronic devices as well as for topological physics in low-dimensional structures. Despite the rapid advances in ultrathin ferromagnetic vdW magnets, the antiferromagnetic counterparts, as well as the antiferromagnetic junctions, are much less studied owing to the difficulties in both material fabrication and magnetism characterization. Ultrathin CrTe3 layers have been theoretically proposed to be a vdW antiferromagnetic semiconductor with intrinsic intralayer antiferromagnetism. Herein, the epitaxial growth of monolayer (ML) and bilayer CrTe3 on graphite surface is demonstrated. The structure, electronic and magnetic properties of the ML CrTe3 are characterized by combining scanning tunneling microscopy/spectroscopy and non-contact atomic force microscopy and confirmed by density functional theory calculations. The CrTe3 MLs can be further utilized for the fabrication of a lateral heterojunction consisting of ML CrTe2 and ML CrTe3 with an atomically sharp and seamless interface. Since ML CrTe2 is a metallic vdW magnet, such a heterostructure presents the first in-plane magnetic metal-semiconductor heterojunction made of two vdW materials. The successful fabrication of ultrathin antiferromagnetic CrTe3 , as well as the magnetic heterojunction, will stimulate the development of miniaturized antiferromagnetic spintronic devices based on vdW materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Yao
- Department of Chemical Physics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, 230026, China
- School of Physical Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Han Wang
- School of Physics, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Bingkai Yuan
- School of Chemistry and Materials Science, CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, and CAS Key Laboratory of Mechanical Behavior and Design of Materials, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Zhenpeng Hu
- School of Physics, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Changzheng Wu
- School of Chemistry and Materials Science, CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, and CAS Key Laboratory of Mechanical Behavior and Design of Materials, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Aidi Zhao
- School of Physical Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
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12
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Wang QH, Bedoya-Pinto A, Blei M, Dismukes AH, Hamo A, Jenkins S, Koperski M, Liu Y, Sun QC, Telford EJ, Kim HH, Augustin M, Vool U, Yin JX, Li LH, Falin A, Dean CR, Casanova F, Evans RFL, Chshiev M, Mishchenko A, Petrovic C, He R, Zhao L, Tsen AW, Gerardot BD, Brotons-Gisbert M, Guguchia Z, Roy X, Tongay S, Wang Z, Hasan MZ, Wrachtrup J, Yacoby A, Fert A, Parkin S, Novoselov KS, Dai P, Balicas L, Santos EJG. The Magnetic Genome of Two-Dimensional van der Waals Materials. ACS NANO 2022; 16:6960-7079. [PMID: 35442017 PMCID: PMC9134533 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c09150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Magnetism in two-dimensional (2D) van der Waals (vdW) materials has recently emerged as one of the most promising areas in condensed matter research, with many exciting emerging properties and significant potential for applications ranging from topological magnonics to low-power spintronics, quantum computing, and optical communications. In the brief time after their discovery, 2D magnets have blossomed into a rich area for investigation, where fundamental concepts in magnetism are challenged by the behavior of spins that can develop at the single layer limit. However, much effort is still needed in multiple fronts before 2D magnets can be routinely used for practical implementations. In this comprehensive review, prominent authors with expertise in complementary fields of 2D magnetism (i.e., synthesis, device engineering, magneto-optics, imaging, transport, mechanics, spin excitations, and theory and simulations) have joined together to provide a genome of current knowledge and a guideline for future developments in 2D magnetic materials research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Hua Wang
- Materials
Science and Engineering, School for Engineering of Matter, Transport
and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
| | - Amilcar Bedoya-Pinto
- NISE
Department, Max Planck Institute of Microstructure
Physics, 06120 Halle, Germany
- Instituto
de Ciencia Molecular (ICMol), Universitat
de València, 46980 Paterna, Spain
| | - Mark Blei
- Materials
Science and Engineering, School for Engineering of Matter, Transport
and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
| | - Avalon H. Dismukes
- Department
of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
| | - Assaf Hamo
- Department
of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Sarah Jenkins
- Twist
Group,
Faculty of Physics, University of Duisburg-Essen, Campus Duisburg, 47057 Duisburg, Germany
| | - Maciej Koperski
- Institute
for Functional Intelligent Materials, National
University of Singapore, 117544 Singapore
| | - Yu Liu
- Condensed
Matter Physics and Materials Science Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
| | - Qi-Chao Sun
- Physikalisches
Institut, University of Stuttgart, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Evan J. Telford
- Department
of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
- Department
of Physics, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
| | - Hyun Ho Kim
- School
of Materials Science and Engineering, Department of Energy Engineering
Convergence, Kumoh National Institute of
Technology, Gumi 39177, Korea
| | - Mathias Augustin
- Institute
for Condensed Matter Physics and Complex Systems, School of Physics
and Astronomy, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3FD, United Kingdom
- Donostia
International Physics Center (DIPC), 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Basque Country, Spain
| | - Uri Vool
- Department
of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
- John Harvard
Distinguished Science Fellows Program, Harvard
University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Jia-Xin Yin
- Laboratory
for Topological Quantum Matter and Spectroscopy, Department of Physics, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Lu Hua Li
- Institute
for Frontier Materials, Deakin University, Geelong Waurn Ponds Campus, Waurn Ponds, Victoria 3216, Australia
| | - Alexey Falin
- Institute
for Frontier Materials, Deakin University, Geelong Waurn Ponds Campus, Waurn Ponds, Victoria 3216, Australia
| | - Cory R. Dean
- Department
of Physics, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
| | - Fèlix Casanova
- CIC nanoGUNE
BRTA, 20018 Donostia - San Sebastián, Basque
Country, Spain
- IKERBASQUE,
Basque Foundation for Science, 48013 Bilbao, Basque Country, Spain
| | - Richard F. L. Evans
- Department
of Physics, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Mairbek Chshiev
- Université
Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, Spintec, 38000 Grenoble, France
- Institut
Universitaire de France, 75231 Paris, France
| | - Artem Mishchenko
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, University of
Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom
- National
Graphene Institute, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Cedomir Petrovic
- Condensed
Matter Physics and Materials Science Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
| | - Rui He
- Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas Tech University, 910 Boston Avenue, Lubbock, Texas 79409, United
States
| | - Liuyan Zhao
- Department
of Physics, University of Michigan, 450 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Adam W. Tsen
- Institute
for Quantum Computing and Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Brian D. Gerardot
- SUPA, Institute
of Photonics and Quantum Sciences, Heriot-Watt
University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, United Kingdom
| | - Mauro Brotons-Gisbert
- SUPA, Institute
of Photonics and Quantum Sciences, Heriot-Watt
University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, United Kingdom
| | - Zurab Guguchia
- Laboratory
for Muon Spin Spectroscopy, Paul Scherrer
Institute, CH-5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Xavier Roy
- Department
of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
| | - Sefaattin Tongay
- Materials
Science and Engineering, School for Engineering of Matter, Transport
and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
| | - Ziwei Wang
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, University of
Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom
- National
Graphene Institute, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - M. Zahid Hasan
- Materials
Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Princeton
Institute for Science and Technology of Materials, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
- National
High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Florida
State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, United States
| | - Joerg Wrachtrup
- Physikalisches
Institut, University of Stuttgart, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
- Max Planck
Institute for Solid State Research, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Amir Yacoby
- Department
of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
- John A.
Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Albert Fert
- Donostia
International Physics Center (DIPC), 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Basque Country, Spain
- Unité
Mixte de Physique, CNRS, Thales, Université Paris-Saclay, 91767 Palaiseau, France
- Department
of Materials Physics UPV/EHU, 20018 Donostia - San Sebastián, Basque Country, Spain
| | - Stuart Parkin
- NISE
Department, Max Planck Institute of Microstructure
Physics, 06120 Halle, Germany
| | - Kostya S. Novoselov
- Institute
for Functional Intelligent Materials, National
University of Singapore, 117544 Singapore
| | - Pengcheng Dai
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Luis Balicas
- National
High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Florida
State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, United States
- Department
of Physics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, United States
| | - Elton J. G. Santos
- Institute
for Condensed Matter Physics and Complex Systems, School of Physics
and Astronomy, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3FD, United Kingdom
- Donostia
International Physics Center (DIPC), 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Basque Country, Spain
- Higgs Centre
for Theoretical Physics, The University
of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, United Kingdom
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13
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Xue F, Haney PM. Intrinsic staggered spin-orbit torque for the electrical control of antiferromagnets - application to CrI 3. PHYSICAL REVIEW. B 2021; 104:10.1103/PhysRevB.104.224414. [PMID: 36589897 PMCID: PMC9805323 DOI: 10.1103/physrevb.104.224414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Spin-orbit torque enables the electrical control of the orientation of ferromagnets' or antiferromagnets' order parameter. In this work we consider antiferromagnets in which the magnetic sublattices are connected by inversion+time reversal symmetry, and in which the exchange and anisotropy energies are similar in magnitude. We identify the staggered dampinglike spin-orbit torque as the key mechanism for electrical excitation of the Néel vector for this case. To illustrate this scenario, we examine the 2-d Van der Waals antiferromagnetic bilayer CrI3, in the n-doped regime. Using a combination of first-principles calculations of the spin-orbit torque and an analysis of the ensuing spin dynamics, we show that the deterministic electrical switching of the Néel vector is the result of dampinglike spin-orbit torque which is staggered on the magnetic sublattices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Xue
- Physical Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USA
- Institute for Research in Electronics and Applied Physics & Maryland Nanocenter, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
- Department of Physics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Paul M Haney
- Physical Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USA
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14
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Tokmachev AM, Averyanov DV, Taldenkov AN, Sokolov IS, Karateev IA, Parfenov OE, Storchak VG. Two-Dimensional Magnets beyond the Monolayer Limit. ACS NANO 2021; 15:12034-12041. [PMID: 34128650 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c03312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Intrinsic two-dimensional (2D) magnetism has been demonstrated in various materials scaled down to a single monolayer. However, the question is whether 2D magnetism extends beyond the monolayer limit, to chemical species formed by sparse but regular 2D arrays of magnetic atoms. Here we show that sub-monolayer superstructures of Eu atoms self-assembled on the silicon surface exhibit strong magnetic signals. Robust easy-plane magnetism is discovered in both one- and two-dimensionally ordered structures with Eu coverage of half monolayer and above. The emergence of 2D magnetism manifests itself by a strong dependence of the effective transition temperature on weak magnetic fields. The results constitute a versatile platform for miniaturization of 2D magnetic systems and seed an expandable class of atomically thin magnets for applications in information technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey M Tokmachev
- National Research Center "Kurchatov Institute", Kurchatov Sq. 1, Moscow 123182, Russia
| | - Dmitry V Averyanov
- National Research Center "Kurchatov Institute", Kurchatov Sq. 1, Moscow 123182, Russia
| | - Alexander N Taldenkov
- National Research Center "Kurchatov Institute", Kurchatov Sq. 1, Moscow 123182, Russia
| | - Ivan S Sokolov
- National Research Center "Kurchatov Institute", Kurchatov Sq. 1, Moscow 123182, Russia
| | - Igor A Karateev
- National Research Center "Kurchatov Institute", Kurchatov Sq. 1, Moscow 123182, Russia
| | - Oleg E Parfenov
- National Research Center "Kurchatov Institute", Kurchatov Sq. 1, Moscow 123182, Russia
| | - Vyacheslav G Storchak
- National Research Center "Kurchatov Institute", Kurchatov Sq. 1, Moscow 123182, Russia
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15
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Dupont M, Kvashnin YO, Shiranzaei M, Fransson J, Laflorencie N, Kantian A. Monolayer CrCl_{3} as an Ideal Test Bed for the Universality Classes of 2D Magnetism. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2021; 127:037204. [PMID: 34328783 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.127.037204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The monolayer halides CrX_{3} (X=Cl, Br, I) attract significant attention for realizing 2D magnets with genuine long-range order (LRO), challenging the Mermin-Wagner theorem. Here, we show that monolayer CrCl_{3} has the unique benefit of exhibiting tunable magnetic anisotropy upon applying a compressive strain. This opens the possibility to use CrCl_{3} for producing and studying both ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic 2D Ising-type LRO as well as the Berezinskii-Kosterlitz-Thouless (BKT) regime of 2D magnetism with quasi-LRO. Using state-of-the-art density functional theory, we explain how realistic compressive strain could be used to tune the monolayer's magnetic properties so that it could exhibit any of these phases. Building on large-scale quantum Monte Carlo simulations, we compute the phase diagram of strained CrCl_{3}, as well as the magnon spectrum with spin-wave theory. Our results highlight the eminent suitability of monolayer CrCl_{3} to achieve very high BKT transition temperatures, around 50 K, due to their singular dependence on the weak easy-plane anisotropy of the material.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Dupont
- Department of Physics, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - Y O Kvashnin
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Uppsala University, Box 516, S-751 20 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - M Shiranzaei
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Uppsala University, Box 516, S-751 20 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - J Fransson
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Uppsala University, Box 516, S-751 20 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - N Laflorencie
- Laboratoire de Physique Théorique, IRSAMC, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, 31062 Toulouse, France
| | - A Kantian
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Uppsala University, Box 516, S-751 20 Uppsala, Sweden
- SUPA, Institute of Photonics and Quantum Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, United Kingdom
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16
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Bergeron H, Lebedev D, Hersam MC. Polymorphism in Post-Dichalcogenide Two-Dimensional Materials. Chem Rev 2021; 121:2713-2775. [PMID: 33555868 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Two-dimensional (2D) materials exhibit a wide range of atomic structures, compositions, and associated versatility of properties. Furthermore, for a given composition, a variety of different crystal structures (i.e., polymorphs) can be observed. Polymorphism in 2D materials presents a fertile landscape for designing novel architectures and imparting new functionalities. The objective of this Review is to identify the polymorphs of emerging 2D materials, describe their polymorph-dependent properties, and outline methods used for polymorph control. Since traditional 2D materials (e.g., graphene, hexagonal boron nitride, and transition metal dichalcogenides) have already been studied extensively, the focus here is on polymorphism in post-dichalcogenide 2D materials including group III, IV, and V elemental 2D materials, layered group III, IV, and V metal chalcogenides, and 2D transition metal halides. In addition to providing a comprehensive survey of recent experimental and theoretical literature, this Review identifies the most promising opportunities for future research including how 2D polymorph engineering can provide a pathway to materials by design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadallia Bergeron
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Dmitry Lebedev
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Mark C Hersam
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States.,Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States.,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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