Strong water isotopic anomalies in the martian atmosphere: probing current and ancient reservoirs

Martian atmospheric hydrogen and deuterium: Seasonal changes and paradigm for escape to space

Mars' water history is fundamental to understanding Earth-like planet evolution. Water escapes to space as atoms, and hydrogen atoms escape faster than deuterium giving an increase in the residual D/H ratio. The present ratio reflects the total water Mars has lost. Observations with the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) and Hubble Space Telescope (HST) spacecraft provide atomic densities and escape rates for H and D. Large increases near perihelion observed each martian year are consistent with a strong upwelling of water vapor. Short-term changes require processes in addition to thermal escape, likely from atmospheric dynamics and superthermal atoms. Including escape from hot atoms, both H and D escape rapidly, and the escape fluxes are limited by resupply from the lower atmosphere. In this paradigm for the escape of water, the D/H ratio of the escaping atoms and the enhancement in water are determined by upwelling water vapor and atmospheric dynamics rather than by the specific details of atomic escape.

Water and other volatiles on Mars

This perspective reviews the recent advances in martian water and other volatiles and addresses the associated scientific questions for future martian exploration missions.

Quantifying the Potential for Nitrate-Dependent Iron Oxidation on Early Mars: Implications for the Interpretation of Gale Crater Organics

Geological evidence and atmospheric and climate models suggest habitable conditions occurred on early Mars, including in a lake in Gale crater. Instruments aboard the Curiosity rover measured organic compounds of unknown provenance in sedimentary mudstones at Gale crater. Additionally, Curiosity measured nitrates in Gale crater sediments, which suggests that nitrate-dependent Fe2+ oxidation (NDFO) may have been a viable metabolism for putative martian life. Here, we perform the first quantitative assessment of an NDFO community that could have existed in an ancient Gale crater lake and quantify the long-term preservation of biological necromass in lakebed mudstones. We find that an NDFO community would have the capacity to produce cell concentrations of up to 106 cells mL-1, which is comparable to microbes in Earth's oceans. However, only a concentration of <104 cells mL-1, due to organisms that inefficiently consume less than 10% of precipitating nitrate, would be consistent with the abundance of organics found at Gale. We also find that meteoritic sources of organics would likely be insufficient as a sole source for the Gale crater organics, which would require a separate source, such as abiotic hydrothermal or atmospheric production or possibly biological production from a slowly turning over chemotrophic community.

Atacama Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope (AtLAST) science: Planetary and cometary atmospheres

The study of planets and small bodies within our Solar System is fundamental for understanding the formation and evolution of the Earth and other planets. Compositional and meteorological studies of the giant planets provide a foundation for understanding the nature of the most commonly observed exoplanets, while spectroscopic observations of the atmospheres of terrestrial planets, moons, and comets provide insights into the past and present-day habitability of planetary environments, and the availability of the chemical ingredients for life. While prior and existing (sub)millimeter observations have led to major advances in these areas, progress is hindered by limitations in the dynamic range, spatial and temporal coverage, as well as sensitivity of existing telescopes and interferometers. Here, we summarize some of the key planetary science use cases that factor into the design of the Atacama Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope (AtLAST), a proposed 50-m class single dish facility: (1) to more fully characterize planetary wind fields and atmospheric thermal structures, (2) to measure the compositions of icy moon atmospheres and plumes, (3) to obtain detections of new, astrobiologically relevant gases and perform isotopic surveys of comets, and (4) to perform synergistic, temporally-resolved measurements in support of dedicated interplanetary space missions. The improved spatial coverage (several arcminutes), resolution (~ 1.2'' - 12''), bandwidth (several tens of GHz), dynamic range (~ 10 5) and sensitivity (~ 1 mK km s -1) required by these science cases would enable new insights into the chemistry and physics of planetary environments, the origins of prebiotic molecules and the habitability of planetary systems in general.

Exploring the evidence of Middle Amazonian aquifer sedimentary outburst residues in a Martian chaotic terrain

The quest for past Martian life hinges on locating surface formations linked to ancient habitability. While Mars' surface is considered to have become cryogenic ~3.7 Ga, stable subsurface aquifers persisted long after this transition. Their extensive collapse triggered megafloods ~3.4 Ga, and the resulting outflow channel excavation generated voluminous sediment eroded from the highlands. These materials are considered to have extensively covered the northern lowlands. Here, we show evidence that a lacustrine sedimentary residue within Hydraotes Chaos formed due to regional aquifer upwelling and ponding into an interior basin. Unlike the northern lowland counterparts, its sedimentary makeup likely consists of aquifer-expelled materials, offering a potential window into the nature of Mars' subsurface habitability. Furthermore, the lake's residue's estimated age is ~1.1 Ga (~3.2 Ga post-peak aquifer drainage during the Late Hesperian), enhancing the prospects for organic matter preservation. This deposit's inferred fine-grained composition, coupled with the presence of coexisting mud volcanoes and diapirs, suggest that its source aquifer existed within abundant subsurface mudstones, water ice, and evaporites, forming part of the region's extremely ancient (~ 4 Ga) highland stratigraphy. Our numerical models suggest that magmatically induced phase segregation within these materials generated enormous water-filled chambers. The meltwater, originating from varying thermally affected mudstone depths, could have potentially harbored diverse biosignatures, which could have become concentrated within the lake's sedimentary residue. Thus, we propose that Hydraotes Chaos merits priority consideration in future missions aiming to detect Martian biosignatures.

Evidence for marine sedimentary rocks in Utopia Planitia: Zhurong rover observations

Decades of research using remotely sensed data have extracted evidence for the presence of an ocean in the northern lowlands of Mars in the Hesperian (∼3.3 Ga), but these claims have remained controversial due to the lack of in situ analysis of the associated geologic unit, the Vastitas Borealis Formation (VBF). The Tianwen-1/Zhurong rover was targeted to land within the VBF near its southern margin and has traversed almost 2 km southward toward the interpreted shoreline. We report here on the first in situ analysis of the VBF that reveals sedimentary structures and features in surface rocks that suggest that the VBF was deposited in a marine environment, providing direct support for the existence of an ancient (Hesperian) ocean on Mars.

Influence of a Single Deuterium Substitution for Protium on the Frequency Generation of Different-Size Bubbles in IFNA17

The influence of a single 2H/1H replacement on the frequency generation of different-size bubbles in the human interferon alpha-17 gene (IFNA17) under various energies was studied by a developed algorithm and mathematical modeling without simplifications or averaging. This new approach showed the efficacy of researching DNA bubbles and open states both when all hydrogen bonds in nitrogenous base pairs are protium and after an 2H-substitution. After a single deuterium substitution under specific energies, it was demonstrated that the non-coding region of IFNA17 had a more significant regulatory role in bubble generation in the whole gene than the promoter had. It was revealed that a single deuterium substitution for protium has an influence on the frequency generation of DNA bubbles, which also depends on their size and is always higher for the smaller bubbles under the largest number of the studied energies. Wherein, compared to the natural condition under the same critical value of energy, the bigger raises of the bubble frequency occurrence (maximums) were found for 11-30 base pair (bp) bubbles (higher by 319%), 2-4 bp bubbles (higher by 300%), and 31 bp and over ones (higher by 220%); whereas the most significant reductions of the indicators (minimums) were observed for 11-30 bp bubbles (lower by 43%) and bubbles size over 30 bp (lower by 82%). In this study, we also analyzed the impact of several circumstances on the AT/GC ratio in the formation of DNA bubbles, both under natural conditions and after a single hydrogen isotope exchange. Moreover, based on the obtained data, substantial positive and inverse correlations were revealed between the AT/GC ratio and some factors (energy values, size of DNA bubbles). So, this modeling and variant of the modified algorithm, adapted for researching DNA bubbles, can be useful to study the regulation of replication and transcription in the genes under different isotopic substitutions in the nucleobases.

Prebiotic Synthesis of ATP: A Terrestrial Volcanism-Dependent Pathway

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a multifunctional small molecule, necessary for all modern Earth life, which must be a component of the last universal common ancestor (LUCA). However, the relatively complex structure of ATP causes doubts about its accessibility on prebiotic Earth. In this paper, based on previous studies on the synthesis of ATP components, a plausible prebiotic pathway yielding this key molecule is constructed, which relies on terrestrial volcanism to provide the required materials and suitable conditions.

Late delivery of exotic chromium to the crust of Mars by water-rich carbonaceous asteroids

The terrestrial planets endured a phase of bombardment following their accretion, but the nature of this late accreted material is debated, preventing a full understanding of the origin of inner solar system volatiles. We report the discovery of nucleosynthetic chromium isotope variability (μ⁵⁴Cr) in Martian meteorites that represent mantle-derived magmas intruded in the Martian crust. The μ⁵⁴Cr variability, ranging from -33.1 ± 5.4 to +6.8 ± 1.5 parts per million, correlates with magma chemistry such that samples having assimilated crustal material define a positive μ⁵⁴Cr endmember. This compositional endmember represents the primordial crust modified by impacting outer solar system bodies of carbonaceous composition. Late delivery of this volatile-rich material to Mars provided an exotic water inventory corresponding to a global water layer >300 meters deep, in addition to the primordial water reservoir from mantle outgassing. This carbonaceous material may also have delivered a source of biologically relevant molecules to early Mars.

Global Variations in Water Vapor and Saturation State Throughout the Mars Year 34 Dusty Season

To understand the evolving martian water cycle, a global perspective of the combined vertical and horizontal distribution of water is needed in relation to supersaturation and water loss and how it varies spatially and temporally. The global vertical water vapor distribution is investigated through an analysis that unifies water, temperature and dust retrievals from several instruments on multiple spacecraft throughout Mars Year (MY) 34 with a global circulation model. During the dusty season of MY 34, northern polar latitudes are largely absent of water vapor below 20 km with variations above this altitude due to transport from mid-latitudes during a global dust storm, the downwelling branch of circulation during perihelion season and the intense MY 34 southern summer regional dust storm. Evidence is found of supersaturated water vapor breaking into the northern winter polar vortex. Supersaturation above around 60 km is found for most of the time period, with lower altitudes showing more diurnal variation in the saturation state of the atmosphere. Discrete layers of supersaturated water are found across all latitudes. The global dust storm and southern summer regional dust storm forced water vapor at all latitudes in a supersaturated state to 60-90 km where it is more likely to escape from the atmosphere. The reanalysis data set provides a constrained global perspective of the water cycle in which to investigate the horizontal and vertical transport of water throughout the atmosphere, of critical importance to understand how water is exchanged between different reservoirs and escapes the atmosphere.

From Atmospheric Evolution to the Search of Species of Astrobiological Interest in the Solar System—Case Studies Using the Planetary Spectrum Generator

The study of minor chemical species in terrestrial planets’ atmospheres can teach us about the chemistry, dynamics and evolution of the atmospheres through time. Phosphine or methane on terrestrial planets are potential biosignatures, such that their detection may signify the presence of life on a planet. Therefore, the search for these species in the solar system is an important step for the subsequent application of the same techniques to exoplanetary atmospheres. To study atmospheric depletion and the evolution of water abundance in the atmospheres of terrestrial planets, the estimation of the D/H ratio and its spatial and temporal variability is used. We used the Planetary Spectrum Generator (PSG), a radiative transfer suite, with the goal of simulating spectra from observations of Venus, Mars and Jupiter, searching for minor chemical species. The present study contributes to highlight that the PSG is an efficient tool for studying minor chemical species and compounds of astrobiological interest in planetary atmospheres, allowing to perform the detection and retrieval of the relevant molecular species. Regarding detection, it is effective in disentangling different molecular opacities affecting observations. In order to contribute to the scientific community that is focused on the study of minor chemical species in the solar system’s atmospheres, using this tool, in this work, we present the results from an analysis of observations of Venus, Mars and Jupiter, by comparison of observations with simulations in the infrared (IR). The first step was to clearly identify the position of molecular features using our model simulations, since the molecular absorption/emission features of different molecules tend to overlap. For this step, we used the method of the variation of abundances. The second step was to determine the molecular abundances and compare them with values from the literature using the retrieval method and the line depth ratio method. For Venus, our study of SO2-related observations by the Texas Echelon Cross Echelle Spectrograph (TEXES) at 7.4 μm enabled the identification of absorption lines due to sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide as well as constrain the abundance of SO2 at the cloud top. Phosphine was not detected in the comparison between the simulation and TEXES IR observations around 10.5 μm. For Mars, both a positive and a non-detection of methane were studied using PSG simulations. The related spectra observations in the IR, at approximately 3.3 μm, correspond, respectively, to the Mars Express (MEx) and ExoMars space probes. Moreover, an estimate of the deuterium-to-hydrogen ratio (D/H ratio) was obtained by comparing the simulations with observations by the Echelon Cross Echelle Spectrograph (EXES) onboard the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) at approximately 7.19–7.23 μm. For Jupiter, the detection of ammonia, phosphine, deuterated methane and methane was studied, by comparing the simulations with IR observations by the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) at approximately 7–12 μm. Moreover, the retrieval of the profiles of ammonia and phosphine was performed.

Long-term drying of Mars by sequestration of ocean-scale volumes of water in the crust

Geological evidence shows that ancient Mars had large volumes of liquid water. Models of past hydrogen escape to space, calibrated with observations of the current escape rate, cannot explain the present-day deuterium-to-hydrogen isotope ratio (D/H). We simulated volcanic degassing, atmospheric escape, and crustal hydration on Mars, incorporating observational constraints from spacecraft, rovers, and meteorites. We found that ancient water volumes equivalent to a 100 to 1500 meter global layer are simultaneously compatible with the geological evidence, loss rate estimates, and D/H measurements. In our model, the volume of water participating in the hydrological cycle decreased by 40 to 95% over the Noachian period (~3.7 billion to 4.1 billion years ago), reaching present-day values by ~3.0 billion years ago. Between 30 and 99% of martian water was sequestered through crustal hydration, demonstrating that irreversible chemical weathering can increase the aridity of terrestrial planets.

First-Principles Diffusivity Ratios for Atmospheric Isotope Fractionation on Mars and Titan

Recent work used the kinetic theory of molecular gases, along with state-of-the-art intermolecular potentials, to calculate from first principles the diffusivity ratios necessary for modeling kinetic fractionation of water isotopes in air. Here, we extend that work to the Martian atmosphere, employing potential-energy surfaces for the interaction of water with carbon dioxide and with nitrogen. We also derive diffusivity ratios for methane isotopes in the atmosphere of Titan by using a high-quality potential for the methane-nitrogen pair. The Mars calculations cover 100 K to 400 K, while the Titan calculations cover 50 K to 200 K. Surprisingly, the simple hard-sphere theory that is inaccurate for Earth's atmosphere is in good agreement with the rigorous results for the diffusion of water isotopes in the Martian atmosphere. A modest disagreement with the hard-sphere results is observed for the diffusivity ratio of CH3D in the atmosphere of Titan. We present temperature-dependent correlations, as well as estimates of uncertainty, for the diffusivity ratios involving HDO, H2 17O, and H2 18O in the Martian atmosphere, and for CH3D and 13CH4 in the atmosphere of Titan, providing for the first time the necessary data to be able to model kinetic isotope fractionation in these environments.

Water heavily fractionated as it ascends on Mars as revealed by ExoMars/NOMAD

Isotopic ratios and, in particular, the water D/H ratio are powerful tracers of the evolution and transport of water on Mars. From measurements performed with ExoMars/NOMAD, we observe marked and rapid variability of the D/H along altitude on Mars and across the whole planet. The observations (from April 2018 to April 2019) sample a broad range of events on Mars, including a global dust storm, the evolution of water released from the southern polar cap during southern summer, the equinox phases, and a short but intense regional dust storm. In three instances, we observe water at very high altitudes (>80 km), the prime region where water is photodissociated and starts its escape to space. Rayleigh distillation appears the be the driving force affecting the D/H in many cases, yet in some instances, the exchange of water reservoirs with distinctive D/H could be responsible.

Water on Mars: Insights from apatite in regolith breccia Northwest Africa 7034

Determining the source of planetary water from the hydrogen isotope compositions of crustal samples is complicated by the overprinting of isotopically diverse source material by geologic and atmospheric processes. As Mars has no plate tectonics, crustal material, which may have isotopically exchanged with the martian atmosphere, is not recycled into the mantle keeping the water reservoirs in the mantle and atmosphere mostly isolated, buffered by the crust. As the only known martian samples that are regolith breccias with a composition representative of the average crust of Mars, Northwest Africa (NWA) 7034 and its paired stones provide an important opportunity to investigate the water content and hydrogen isotope composition of the martian crust. In particular, apatites in distinct clasts as well as the brecciated matrix of NWA 7034 record a complex history including magmatic and impact processes, and exchange with crustal fluids.

Deposits from giant floods in Gale crater and their implications for the climate of early Mars

This study reports in-situ sedimentologic evidence of giant floods in Gale crater, Mars, during the Noachian Period. Features indicative of floods are a series of symmetrical, 10 m-high gravel ridges that occur in the Hummocky Plains Unit (HPU). Their regular spacing, internal sedimentary structures, and bedload transport of fragments as large as 20 cm suggest that these ridges are antidunes: a type of sedimentary structure that forms under very strong flows. Their 150 m wavelength indicates that the north-flowing water that deposited them was at least 24 m deep and had a minimum velocity of 10 m/s. Floods waned rapidly, eroding antidune crests, and re-deposited removed sediments as patches on the up-flow limbs and trough areas between these ridges forming the Striated Unit (SU). Each patch of the SU is 50-200 m wide and long and consists of 5-10 m of south-dipping layers. The strike and dip of the SU layers mimic the attitude of the flank of the antidune on which they were deposited. The most likely mechanism that generated flood waters of this magnitude on a planet whose present-day average temperature is - 60 °C was the sudden heat produced by a large impact. The event vaporized frozen reservoirs of water and injected large amounts of CO2 and CH4 from their solid phases into the atmosphere. It temporarily interrupted a cold and dry climate and generated a warm and wet period. Torrential rainfall occurred planetwide some of which entered Gale crater and combined with water roaring down from Mt. Sharp to cause gigantic flash floods that deposited the SU and the HPU on Aeolis Palus. The warm and wet climate persisted even after the flooding ended, but its duration cannot be determined by our study.

Simulating Mars Drilling Mission for Searching for Life: Ground-Truthing Lipids and Other Complex Microbial Biomarkers in the Iron-Sulfur Rich Río Tinto Analog

Sulfate and iron oxide deposits in Río Tinto (Southwestern Spain) are a terrestrial analog of early martian hematite-rich regions. Understanding the distribution and drivers of microbial life in iron-rich environments can give critical clues on how to search for biosignatures on Mars. We simulated a robotic drilling mission searching for signs of life in the martian subsurface, by using a 1m-class planetary prototype drill mounted on a full-scale mockup of NASA's Phoenix and InSight lander platforms. We demonstrated fully automated and aseptic drilling on iron and sulfur rich sediments at the Río Tinto riverbanks, and sample transfer and delivery to sterile containers and analytical instruments. As a ground-truth study, samples were analyzed in the field with the life detector chip immunoassay for searching microbial markers, and then in the laboratory with X-ray diffraction to determine mineralogy, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry for lipid composition, isotope-ratio mass spectrometry for isotopic ratios, and 16S/18S rRNA genes sequencing for biodiversity. A ubiquitous presence of microbial biomarkers distributed along the 1m-depth subsurface was influenced by the local mineralogy and geochemistry. The spatial heterogeneity of abiotic variables at local scale highlights the importance of considering drill replicates in future martian drilling missions. The multi-analytical approach provided proof of concept that molecular biomarkers varying in compositional nature, preservation potential, and taxonomic specificity can be recovered from shallow drilling on iron-rich Mars analogues by using an automated life-detection lander prototype, such as the one proposed for NASA's IceBreaker mission proposal.

The Global Search for Liquid Water on Mars from Orbit: Current and Future Perspectives

Due to its significance in astrobiology, assessing the amount and state of liquid water present on Mars today has become one of the drivers of its exploration. Subglacial water was identified by the Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and Ionosphere Sounding (MARSIS) aboard the European Space Agency spacecraft Mars Express through the analysis of echoes, coming from a depth of about 1.5 km, which were stronger than surface echoes. The cause of this anomalous characteristic is the high relative permittivity of water-bearing materials, resulting in a high reflection coefficient. A determining factor in the occurrence of such strong echoes is the low attenuation of the MARSIS radar pulse in cold water ice, the main constituent of the Martian polar caps. The present analysis clarifies that the conditions causing exceptionally strong subsurface echoes occur solely in the Martian polar caps, and that the detection of subsurface water under a predominantly rocky surface layer using radar sounding will require thorough electromagnetic modeling, complicated by the lack of knowledge of many subsurface physical parameters. Higher-frequency radar sounders such as SHARAD cannot penetrate deep enough to detect basal echoes over the thickest part of the polar caps. Alternative methods such as rover-borne Ground Penetrating Radar and time-domain electromagnetic sounding are not capable of providing global coverage. MARSIS observations over the Martian polar caps have been limited by the need to downlink data before on-board processing, but their number will increase in coming years. The Chinese mission to Mars that is to be launched in 2020, Tianwen-1, will carry a subsurface sounding radar operating at frequencies that are close to those of MARSIS, and the expected signal-to-noise ratio of subsurface detection will likely be sufficient for identifying anomalously bright subsurface reflectors. The search for subsurface water through radar sounding is thus far from being concluded.

Factoring Origin of Life Hypotheses into the Search for Life in the Solar System and Beyond

Two widely-cited alternative hypotheses propose geological localities and biochemical mechanisms for life's origins. The first states that chemical energy available in submarine hydrothermal vents supported the formation of organic compounds and initiated primitive metabolic pathways which became incorporated in the earliest cells; the second proposes that protocells self-assembled from exogenous and geothermally-delivered monomers in freshwater hot springs. These alternative hypotheses are relevant to the fossil record of early life on Earth, and can be factored into the search for life elsewhere in the Solar System. This review summarizes the evidence supporting and challenging these hypotheses, and considers their implications for the search for life on various habitable worlds. It will discuss the relative probability that life could have emerged in environments on early Mars, on the icy moons of Jupiter and Saturn, and also the degree to which prebiotic chemistry could have advanced on Titan. These environments will be compared to ancient and modern terrestrial analogs to assess their habitability and biopreservation potential. Origins of life approaches can guide the biosignature detection strategies of the next generation of planetary science missions, which could in turn advance one or both of the leading alternative abiogenesis hypotheses.

Multiple early-formed water reservoirs in the interior of Mars

The abundance and distribution of water within Mars through time plays a fundamental role in constraining its geological evolution and habitability. The isotopic composition of martian hydrogen provides insights into the interplay between different water reservoirs on Mars. However, D/H (deuterium/hydrogen) ratios of martian rocks and of the martian atmosphere span a wide range of values. This has complicated identification of distinct water reservoirs in and on Mars within the confines of existing models that assume an isotopically homogenous mantle. Here we present D/H data collected by secondary ion mass spectrometry for two martian meteorites. These data indicate that the martian crust has been characterized by a constant D/H ratio over the last 3.9 billion years. The crust represents a reservoir with a D/H ratio that is intermediate between at least two isotopically distinct primordial water reservoirs within the martian mantle, sampled by partial melts from geochemically depleted and enriched mantle sources. From mixing calculations, we find that a subset of depleted martian basalts are consistent with isotopically light hydrogen (low D/H) in their mantle source, whereas enriched shergottites sampled a mantle source containing heavy hydrogen (high D/H). We propose that the martian mantle is chemically heterogeneous with multiple water reservoirs, indicating poor mixing within the mantle after accretion, differentiation, and its subsequent thermochemical evolution.

Stormy water on Mars: The distribution and saturation of atmospheric water during the dusty season

The loss of water from Mars to space is thought to result from the transport of water to the upper atmosphere, where it is dissociated to hydrogen and escapes the planet. Recent observations have suggested large, rapid seasonal intrusions of water into the upper atmosphere, boosting the hydrogen abundance. We use the Atmospheric Chemistry Suite on the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter to characterize the water distribution by altitude. Water profiles during the 2018-2019 southern spring and summer stormy seasons show that high-altitude water is preferentially supplied close to perihelion, and supersaturation occurs even when clouds are present. This implies that the potential for water to escape from Mars is higher than previously thought.

Transport of impact ejecta from Mars to its moons as a means to reveal Martian history

Throughout the history of the solar system, Mars has experienced continuous asteroidal impacts. These impacts have produced impact-generated Mars ejecta, and a fraction of this debris is delivered to Earth as Martian meteorites. Another fraction of the ejecta is delivered to the moons of Mars, Phobos and Deimos. Here, we studied the amount and condition of recent delivery of impact ejecta from Mars to its moons. Using state-of-the-art numerical approaches, we report, for the first time, that materials delivered from Mars to its moons are physically and chemically different from the Martian meteorites, which are all igneous rocks with a limited range of ages. We show that Mars ejecta mixed in the regolith of its moons potentially covers all its geological eras and consists of all types of rocks, from sedimentary to igneous. A Martian moons sample-return mission will bring such materials back to Earth, and the samples will provide a wealth of “time-resolved” geochemical information about the evolution of Martian surface environments.

A portable miniaturized laser heterodyne radiometer (mini‑LHR) for remote measurements of column CH4 and CO2

We present the design of a portable version of our miniaturized laser heterodyne radiometer (mini-LHR) that simultaneously measures methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmospheric column. The mini-LHR fits on a backpack frame, operates autonomously, and requires no infrastructure because it is powered by batteries charged by a folding 30 W solar panel. Similar to our earlier instruments, the mini-LHR is a passive laser heterodyne radiometer that operates by collecting sunlight that has undergone absorption by CH4 and CO2. Within the mini-LHR, sunlight is mixed with light from a distributive feedback (DFB) laser centered at approximately 1.64 μm where both gases have absorption features. The laser scans across these absorption features roughly every minute and the resulting beat signal is collected in the radio frequency (RF). Scans are averaged into half hour and hour data products and analyzed using the Planetary Spectrum Generator (PSG) retrieval to extract column mole fractions. Instrument performance is demonstrated through two deployments at significantly different sites in interior Alaska and Hawaii. The resolving power (λ/∆λ) is greater than 500,000 at 1.64 μm with precisions of better than 20 ppb and 1 ppm for CH4 and CO2, respectively. Because mini-LHR instruments are portable and can be co-located, they can be used to characterize bias between larger, stationary, column observing instruments. In addition, mini-LHRs can be deployed quickly to respond to transient events such as methane leaks or can be used for field studies targeting geographical regions.

Deuterium-Depleted Water Influence on the Isotope 2H/1H Regulation in Body and Individual Adaptation

This review article presents data about the influence of deuterium-depleted water (DDW) on biological systems. It is known that the isotope abundances of natural and bottled waters are variable worldwide. That is why different drinking rations lead to changes of stable isotopes content in body water fluxes in human and animal organisms. Also, intracellular water isotope ratios in living systems depends on metabolic activity and food consumption. We found the 2H/1H gradient in human fluids (δ2H saliva >> δ2H blood plasma > δ2Hbreast milk), which decreases significantly during DDW intake. Moreover, DDW induces several important biological effects in organism (antioxidant, metabolic detoxification, anticancer, rejuvenation, behavior, etc.). Changing the isotope 2H/1H gradient from "2H blood plasma > δ2H visceral organs" to "δ2H blood plasma << δ2H visceral organs" via DDW drinking increases individual adaptation by isotopic shock. The other possible mechanisms of long-term adaptation is DDW influence on the growth rate of cells, enzyme activity and cellular energetics (e.g., stimulation of the mitochondrion activity). In addition, DDW reduces the number of single-stranded DNA breaks and modifies the miRNA profile.

Martian dust storm impact on atmospheric H2O and D/H observed by ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter

Global dust storms on Mars are rare^1,2 but can affect the Martian atmosphere for several months. They can cause changes in atmospheric dynamics and inflation of the atmosphere³, primarily owing to solar heating of the dust³. In turn, changes in atmospheric dynamics can affect the distribution of atmospheric water vapour, with potential implications for the atmospheric photochemistry and climate on Mars⁴. Recent observations of the water vapour abundance in the Martian atmosphere during dust storm conditions revealed a high-altitude increase in atmospheric water vapour that was more pronounced at high northern latitudes^5,6, as well as a decrease in the water column at low latitudes^7,8. Here we present concurrent, high-resolution measurements of dust, water and semiheavy water (HDO) at the onset of a global dust storm, obtained by the NOMAD and ACS instruments onboard the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter. We report the vertical distribution of the HDO/H₂O ratio (D/H) from the planetary boundary layer up to an altitude of 80 kilometres. Our findings suggest that before the onset of the dust storm, HDO abundances were reduced to levels below detectability at altitudes above 40 kilometres. This decrease in HDO coincided with the presence of water-ice clouds. During the storm, an increase in the abundance of H₂O and HDO was observed at altitudes between 40 and 80 kilometres. We propose that these increased abundances may be the result of warmer temperatures during the dust storm causing stronger atmospheric circulation and preventing ice cloud formation, which may confine water vapour to lower altitudes through gravitational fall and subsequent sublimation of ice crystals³. The observed changes in H₂O and HDO abundance occurred within a few days during the development of the dust storm, suggesting a fast impact of dust storms on the Martian atmosphere.

The Coevolution of Life and Environment on Mars: An Ecosystem Perspective on the Robotic Exploration of Biosignatures

Earth's biological and environmental evolution are intertwined and inseparable. This coevolution has become a fundamental concept in astrobiology and is key to the search for life beyond our planet. In the case of Mars, whether a coevolution took place is unknown, but analyzing the factors at play shows the uniqueness of each planetary experiment regardless of similarities. Early Earth and early Mars shared traits. However, biological processes on Mars, if any, would have had to proceed within the distinctive context of an irreversible atmospheric collapse, greater climate variability, and specific planetary characteristics. In that, Mars is an important test bed for comparing the effects of a unique set of spatiotemporal changes on an Earth-like, yet different, planet. Many questions remain unanswered about Mars' early environment. Nevertheless, existing data sets provide a foundation for an intellectual framework where notional coevolution models can be explored. In this framework, the focus is shifted from planetary-scale habitability to the prospect of habitats, microbial ecotones, pathways to biological dispersal, biomass repositories, and their meaning for exploration. Critically, as we search for biosignatures, this focus demonstrates the importance of starting to think of early Mars as a biosphere and vigorously integrating an ecosystem approach to landing site selection and exploration. Key Words: Astrobiology-Biosignatures-Coevolution of Earth and life-Mars. Astrobiology 18, 1-27.

Mineralization and Preservation of an extremotolerant Bacterium Isolated from an Early Mars Analog Environment

The artificial mineralization of a polyresistant bacterial strain isolated from an acidic, oligotrophic lake was carried out to better understand microbial (i) early mineralization and (ii) potential for further fossilisation. Mineralization was conducted in mineral matrixes commonly found on Mars and Early-Earth, silica and gypsum, for 6 months. Samples were analyzed using microbiological (survival rates), morphological (electron microscopy), biochemical (GC-MS, Microarray immunoassay, Rock-Eval) and spectroscopic (EDX, FTIR, RAMAN spectroscopy) methods. We also investigated the impact of physiological status on mineralization and long-term fossilisation by exposing cells or not to Mars-related stresses (desiccation and radiation). Bacterial populations remained viable after 6 months although the kinetics of mineralization and cell-mineral interactions depended on the nature of minerals. Detection of biosignatures strongly depended on analytical methods, successful with FTIR and EDX but not with RAMAN and immunoassays. Neither influence of stress exposure, nor qualitative and quantitative changes of detected molecules were observed as a function of mineralization time and matrix. Rock-Eval analysis suggests that potential for preservation on geological times may be possible only with moderate diagenetic and metamorphic conditions. The implications of our results for microfossil preservation in the geological record of Earth as well as on Mars are discussed.

New Martian valley network volume estimate consistent with ancient ocean and warm and wet climate

The volume of Martian valley network (VN) cavity and the amount of water needed to create the cavity by erosion are of significant importance for understanding the early Martian climate, the style and rate of hydrologic cycling, and the possibility of an ancient ocean. However, previous attempts at estimating these two quantities were based on selected valleys or at local sites using crude estimates of VN length, width and depth. Here we employed an innovative progressive black top hat transformation method to estimate them on a global scale based on the depth of each valley pixel. The conservative estimate of the minimum global VN volume is 1.74 × 10¹⁴ m³ and minimum cumulative volume of water required is 6.86 × 10¹⁷ m³ (or ∼5 km of global equivalent layer, GEL). Both are much larger than previous estimates and are consistent with an early warm and wet climate with active hydrologic cycling involving an ocean.

To understand the early Martian climate, the volume of the global Martian valley network is required. Here, the authors use a black top hat transformation method and find that the minimum global valley network volume is 1.74 × 1,014 m³ with a minimum cumulative volume of water required of 6.86 × 1,017 m³.

D/H ratios of the inner Solar System

The original hydrogen isotope (D/H) ratios of different planetary bodies may indicate where each body formed in the Solar System. However, geological and atmospheric processes can alter these ratios through time. Over the past few decades, D/H ratios in meteorites from Vesta and Mars, as well as from S- and C-type asteroids, have been measured. The aim of this article is to bring together all previously published data from these bodies, as well as the Earth, in order to determine the original D/H ratio for each of these inner Solar System planetary bodies. Once all secondary processes have been stripped away, the inner Solar System appears to be relatively homogeneous in terms of water D/H, with the original water D/H ratios of Vesta, Mars, the Earth, and S- and C-type asteroids all falling between δD values of -100‰ and -590‰. This homogeneity is in accord with the 'Grand tack' model of Solar System formation, where giant planet migration causes the S- and C-type asteroids to be mixed within 1 AU to eventually form the terrestrial planets.This article is part of the themed issue 'The origin, history and role of water in the evolution of the inner Solar System'.

Laboratory measurements of HDO/H2O isotopic fractionation during ice deposition in simulated cirrus clouds

The stable isotopologues of water have been used in atmospheric and climate studies for over 50 years, because their strong temperature-dependent preferential condensation makes them useful diagnostics of the hydrological cycle. However, the degree of preferential condensation between vapor and ice has never been directly measured at temperatures below 233 K (-40 °C), conditions necessary to form cirrus clouds in the Earth's atmosphere, routinely observed in polar regions, and typical for the near-surface atmospheric layers of Mars. Models generally assume an extrapolation from the warmer experiments of Merlivat and Nief [Merlivat L, Nief G (1967) Tellus 19:122-127]. Nonequilibrium kinetic effects that should alter preferential partitioning have also not been well characterized experimentally. We present here direct measurements of HDO/H₂O equilibrium fractionation between vapor and ice ([Formula: see text]) at cirrus-relevant temperatures, using in situ spectroscopic measurements of the evolving isotopic composition of water vapor during cirrus formation experiments in a cloud chamber. We rule out the recent proposed upward modification of [Formula: see text], and find values slightly lower than Merlivat and Nief. These experiments also allow us to make a quantitative validation of the kinetic modification expected to occur in supersaturated conditions in the ice-vapor system. In a subset of diffusion-limited experiments, we show that kinetic isotope effects are indeed consistent with published models, including allowing for small surface effects. These results are fundamental for inferring processes on Earth and other planets from water isotopic measurements. They also demonstrate the utility of dynamic in situ experiments for studying fractionation in geochemical systems.

Meteorite impacts on ancient oceans opened up multiple NH3 production pathways

A recent series of shock experiments by Nakazawa et al. starting in 2005 (e.g. [Nakazawa et al., Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 2005, 235, 356]) suggested that meteorite impacts on ancient oceans would have yielded a considerable amount of NH₃ to the early Earth from atmospheric N₂ and oceanic H₂O through reduction by meteoritic iron. To clarify the mechanisms, we imitated the impact events by performing multi-scale shock technique-based ab initio molecular dynamics in the framework of density functional theory in combination with multi-scale shock technique (MSST) simulations. Our previous simulations with impact energies close to that of the experiments revealed picosecond-order rapid NH₃ production during shock compression [Shimamura et al., Sci. Rep., 2016, 6, 38952]. It was also shown that the reduction of N₂ took place with an associative mechanism as seen in the catalysis of nitrogenase enzymes. In this study, we performed an MSST-AIMD simulation to investigate the production by meteorite impacts with higher energies, which are closer to the expected values on the early Earth. It was found that the amount of NH₃ produced further increased. We also found that the increased NH₃ production is due to the emergence of multiple reaction mechanisms at increased impact energies. We elucidated that the reduction of N₂ was not only attributed to the associative mechanism but also to a dissociative mechanism as seen in the Haber-Bosch process and to a mechanism through a hydrazinium ion. The emergence of these multiple production mechanisms capable of providing a large amount of NH₃ would support the suggestions from recent experiments much more strongly than was previously believed, i.e., shock-induced NH₃ production played a key role in the origin of life on Earth.

Biosignature Preservation and Detection in Mars Analog Environments

This review of material relevant to the Conference on Biosignature Preservation and Detection in Mars Analog Environments summarizes the meeting materials and discussions and is further expanded upon by detailed references to the published literature. From this diverse source material, there is a detailed discussion on the habitability and biosignature preservation potential of five primary analog environments: hydrothermal spring systems, subaqueous environments, subaerial environments, subsurface environments, and iron-rich systems. Within the context of exploring past habitable environments on Mars, challenges common to all of these key environments are laid out, followed by a focused discussion for each environment regarding challenges to orbital and ground-based observations and sample selection. This leads into a short section on how these challenges could influence our strategies and priorities for the astrobiological exploration of Mars. Finally, a listing of urgent needs and future research highlights key elements such as development of instrumentation as well as continued exploration into how Mars may have evolved differently from Earth and what that might mean for biosignature preservation and detection. Key Words: Biosignature preservation-Biosignature detection-Mars analog environments-Conference report-Astrobiological exploration. Astrobiology 17, 363-400.

Meteorite Impact-Induced Rapid NH3 Production on Early Earth: Ab Initio Molecular Dynamics Simulation

NH₃ is an essential molecule as a nitrogen source for prebiotic amino acid syntheses such as the Strecker reaction. Previous shock experiments demonstrated that meteorite impacts on ancient oceans would have provided a considerable amount of NH₃ from atmospheric N₂ and oceanic H₂O through reduction by meteoritic iron. However, specific production mechanisms remain unclear, and impact velocities employed in the experiments were substantially lower than typical impact velocities of meteorites on the early Earth. Here, to investigate the issues from the atomistic viewpoint, we performed multi-scale shock technique-based ab initio molecular dynamics simulations. The results revealed a rapid production of NH₃ within several picoseconds after the shock, indicating that shocks with greater impact velocities would provide further increase in the yield of NH₃. Meanwhile, the picosecond-order production makes one expect that the important nitrogen source precursors of amino acids were obtained immediately after the impact. It was also observed that the reduction of N₂ proceeded according to an associative mechanism, rather than a dissociative mechanism as in the Haber-Bosch process.

The Argyre Region as a Prime Target for in situ Astrobiological Exploration of Mars

At the time before ∼3.5 Ga that life originated and began to spread on Earth, Mars was a wetter and more geologically dynamic planet than it is today. The Argyre basin, in the southern cratered highlands of Mars, formed from a giant impact at ∼3.93 Ga, which generated an enormous basin approximately 1800 km in diameter. The early post-impact environment of the Argyre basin possibly contained many of the ingredients that are thought to be necessary for life: abundant and long-lived liquid water, biogenic elements, and energy sources, all of which would have supported a regional environment favorable for the origin and the persistence of life. We discuss the astrobiological significance of some landscape features and terrain types in the Argyre region that are promising and accessible sites for astrobiological exploration. These include (i) deposits related to the hydrothermal activity associated with the Argyre impact event, subsequent impacts, and those associated with the migration of heated water along Argyre-induced basement structures; (ii) constructs along the floor of the basin that could mark venting of volatiles, possibly related to the development of mud volcanoes; (iii) features interpreted as ice-cored mounds (open-system pingos), whose origin and development could be the result of deeply seated groundwater upwelling to the surface; (iv) sedimentary deposits related to the formation of glaciers along the basin's margins, such as evidenced by the ridges interpreted to be eskers on the basin floor; (v) sedimentary deposits related to the formation of lakes in both the primary Argyre basin and other smaller impact-derived basins along the margin, including those in the highly degraded rim materials; and (vi) crater-wall gullies, whose morphology points to a structural origin and discharge of (wet) flows.

The Case for a Gaian Bottleneck: The Biology of Habitability

The prerequisites and ingredients for life seem to be abundantly available in the Universe. However, the Universe does not seem to be teeming with life. The most common explanation for this is a low probability for the emergence of life (an emergence bottleneck), notionally due to the intricacies of the molecular recipe. Here, we present an alternative Gaian bottleneck explanation: If life emerges on a planet, it only rarely evolves quickly enough to regulate greenhouse gases and albedo, thereby maintaining surface temperatures compatible with liquid water and habitability. Such a Gaian bottleneck suggests that (i) extinction is the cosmic default for most life that has ever emerged on the surfaces of wet rocky planets in the Universe and (ii) rocky planets need to be inhabited to remain habitable. In the Gaian bottleneck model, the maintenance of planetary habitability is a property more associated with an unusually rapid evolution of biological regulation of surface volatiles than with the luminosity and distance to the host star.

Assessing the Ecophysiology of Methanogens in the Context of Recent Astrobiological and Planetological Studies

Among all known microbes capable of thriving under extreme and, therefore, potentially extraterrestrial environmental conditions, methanogens from the domain Archaea are intriguing organisms. This is due to their broad metabolic versatility, enormous diversity, and ability to grow under extreme environmental conditions. Several studies revealed that growth conditions of methanogens are compatible with environmental conditions on extraterrestrial bodies throughout the Solar System. Hence, life in the Solar System might not be limited to the classical habitable zone. In this contribution we assess the main ecophysiological characteristics of methanogens and compare these to the environmental conditions of putative habitats in the Solar System, in particular Mars and icy moons. Eventually, we give an outlook on the feasibility and the necessity of future astrobiological studies concerning methanogens.

Biosignatures on Mars: What, Where, and How? Implications for the Search for Martian Life

The search for traces of life is one of the principal objectives of Mars exploration. Central to this objective is the concept of habitability, the set of conditions that allows the appearance of life and successful establishment of microorganisms in any one location. While environmental conditions may have been conducive to the appearance of life early in martian history, habitable conditions were always heterogeneous on a spatial scale and in a geological time frame. This "punctuated" scenario of habitability would have had important consequences for the evolution of martian life, as well as for the presence and preservation of traces of life at a specific landing site. We hypothesize that, given the lack of long-term, continuous habitability, if martian life developed, it was (and may still be) chemotrophic and anaerobic. Obtaining nutrition from the same kinds of sources as early terrestrial chemotrophic life and living in the same kinds of environments, the fossilized traces of the latter serve as useful proxies for understanding the potential distribution of martian chemotrophs and their fossilized traces. Thus, comparison with analog, anaerobic, volcanic terrestrial environments (Early Archean >3.5-3.33 Ga) shows that the fossil remains of chemotrophs in such environments were common, although sparsely distributed, except in the vicinity of hydrothermal activity where nutrients were readily available. Moreover, the traces of these kinds of microorganisms can be well preserved, provided that they are rapidly mineralized and that the sediments in which they occur are rapidly cemented. We evaluate the biogenicity of these signatures by comparing them to possible abiotic features. Finally, we discuss the implications of different scenarios for life on Mars for detection by in situ exploration, ranging from its non-appearance, through preserved traces of life, to the presence of living microorganisms.

KEY WORDS

Mars-Early Earth-Anaerobic chemotrophs-Biosignatures-Astrobiology missions to Mars.