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Uzal FA, Henderson E, Asin J. Botulism in fish: a review. J Vet Diagn Invest 2024; 36:312-318. [PMID: 38465871 PMCID: PMC11110784 DOI: 10.1177/10406387241236725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Published information about fish botulism is scant. We review here the current literature on fish botulism. Freshwater fish are susceptible to botulism. Only anecdotal evidence exists about possible botulism cases in saltwater fish. With only a few exceptions, the etiology of all cases of fish botulism reported is Clostridium botulinum type E, although fish are sensitive to, and may carry, various C. botulinum types. Clinical signs of botulism in fish include loss of equilibrium and motion, abducted opercula, open mouths, dark pigmentation, and head up/tail down orientation in which attempts to swim result in breaching the surface of the water. Dark pigmentation is thought to be associated with acetylcholine imbalance in botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT)-affected fish. Rarely, but similar to the situation in other animal species, fish can recover from botulism. Fish botulism can cause secondary outbreaks of the disease in birds, as botulism-affected fish stand out from normal fish, and are selectively preyed upon by fish-eating birds, which thus become intoxicated by the BoNT present in sick fish. The source of BoNT in fish has not been definitively confirmed. Fish may ingest C. botulinum spores that then germinate in their digestive tract, but the possibility that fish ingest preformed BoNT from the environment (e.g., dead fish, shellfish, insects) cannot be ruled out. The presumptive diagnosis of botulism in fish is established based on clinical signs, and as in other species, confirmation should be based on detection of BoNT in intestinal content, liver, and/or serum of affected fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco A. Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System–San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California–Davis, CA, USA
| | - Eileen Henderson
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System–San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California–Davis, CA, USA
| | - Javier Asin
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System–San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California–Davis, CA, USA
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Raymo G, Ali A, Ahmed RO, Salem M. Early-Life Fecal Transplantation from High Muscle Yield Rainbow Trout to Low Muscle Yield Recipients Accelerates Somatic Growth through Respiratory and Mitochondrial Efficiency Modulation. Microorganisms 2024; 12:261. [PMID: 38399665 PMCID: PMC10893187 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12020261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 01/21/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Previous studies conducted in our lab revealed microbial assemblages to vary significantly between high (ARS-FY-H) and low fillet yield (ARS-FY-L) genetic lines in adult rainbow trout. We hypothesized that a high ARS-FY-H donor microbiome can accelerate somatic growth in microbiome-depleted rainbow trout larvae of the ARS-FY-L line. Germ-depleted larvae of low ARS-FY-L line trout reared in sterile environments were exposed to high- or low-fillet yield-derived microbiomes starting at first feeding for 27 weeks. Despite weight-normalized diets, somatic mass was significantly increased in larvae receiving high fillet yield microbiome cocktails at 27 weeks post-hatch. RNA-seq from fish tails reveals enrichment in NADH dehydrogenase activity, oxygen carrier, hemoglobin complex, gas transport, and respiratory pathways in high fillet yield recolonized larvae. Transcriptome interrogation suggests a relationship between electron transport chain inputs and body weight assimilation, mediated by the gut microbiome. These findings suggest that microbiome payload originating from high fillet yield adult donors primarily accelerates juvenile somatic mass assimilation through respiratory and mitochondrial input modulation. Further microbiome studies are warranted to assess how increasing beneficial microbial taxa could be a basis for formulating appropriate pre-, pro-, or post-biotics in the form of feed additives and lead to fecal transplantation protocols for accelerated feed conversion and fillet yield in aquaculture.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Mohamed Salem
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742-231, USA; (G.R.); (A.A.); (R.O.A.)
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Hendrickx D, Varela Martínez C, Contzen M, Wagner-Wiening C, Janke KH, Hernando Jiménez P, Massing S, Pichler J, Tichaczek-Dischinger P, Burckhardt F, Stark K, Katz K, Jurke A, Thole S, Carbó R, del Pobil Ferré MP, Nieto M, Zamora MJ, Sisó A, Pallares García P, Valdezate S, Schaade L, Worbs S, Dorner BG, Frank C, Dorner MB. First cross-border outbreak of foodborne botulism in the European Union associated with the consumption of commercial dried roach ( Rutilus rutilus). Front Public Health 2023; 10:1039770. [PMID: 36684858 PMCID: PMC9846170 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.1039770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Botulism outbreaks due to commercial products are extremely rare in the European Union. Here we report on the first international outbreak of foodborne botulism caused by commercial salt-cured, dried roach (Rutilus rutilus). Between November and December 2016, an outbreak of six foodborne botulism type E cases from five unrelated households was documented in Germany and Spain. The outbreak involved persons of Russian and Kazakh backgrounds, all consumed unheated salt-cured, dried roach-a snack particularly favored in Easter-European countries. The implicated food batches had been distributed by an international wholesaler and were recalled from Europe-wide outlets of a supermarket chain and other independent retailers. Of interest, and very unlike to other foodborne disease outbreaks which usually involves a single strain or virus variant, different Clostridium botulinum strains and toxin variants could be identified even from a single patient's sample. Foodborne botulism is a rare but potentially life-threatening disease and almost exclusively involves home-made or artisan products and thus, outbreaks are limited to individual or few cases. As a consequence, international outbreaks are the absolute exception and this is the first one within the European Union. Additional cases were likely prevented by a broad product recall, underscoring the importance of timely public health action. Challenges and difficulties on the diagnostic and epidemiological level encountered in the outbreak are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Hendrickx
- Landesgesundheitsamt Baden-Württemberg, Ministerium für Soziales, Gesundheit und Integration Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart, Germany
- European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, European Programme for Intervention Epidemiology Training (EPIET), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Carmen Varela Martínez
- National Centre of Epidemiology, Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Matthias Contzen
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Stuttgart, Ministerium für Ernährung, Ländlichen Raum und Verbraucherschutz Baden-Württemberg, Fellbach, Germany
| | - Christiane Wagner-Wiening
- Landesgesundheitsamt Baden-Württemberg, Ministerium für Soziales, Gesundheit und Integration Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Karl-Heinz Janke
- Landesgesundheitsamt Baden-Württemberg, Ministerium für Soziales, Gesundheit und Integration Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Pablo Hernando Jiménez
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Karlsruhe, Ministerium für Ernährung, Ländlichen Raum und Verbraucherschutz Baden Württemberg, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Susanne Massing
- Landratsamt Böblingen, Veterinärdienst und Lebensmittelüberwachung, Böblingen, Germany
| | | | - Petra Tichaczek-Dischinger
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Stuttgart, Ministerium für Ernährung, Ländlichen Raum und Verbraucherschutz Baden-Württemberg, Fellbach, Germany
| | - Florian Burckhardt
- Landesuntersuchungsamt Rheinland-Pfalz, Rhineland-Palatinate, Koblenz, Germany
| | - Klaus Stark
- Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Katharina Katz
- GE 2.3 Epidemiologie übertragbarer Krankheiten, Landesamt für Gesundheit und Lebensmittelsicherheit, Oberschleißheim, Germany
| | - Annette Jurke
- Landeszentrum Gesundheit Nordrhein-Westfalen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Bochum, Germany
| | - Sebastian Thole
- Landeszentrum Gesundheit Nordrhein-Westfalen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Bochum, Germany
| | - Rosa Carbó
- Servicio de Vigilancia y Control Epidemiológico, Dirección General de Salud Pública, Valencia, Spain
| | | | - Milagros Nieto
- National Food Centre (CNA), Spanish Agency for Consumer Affairs Food Safety (AESAN), Majadahonda, Spain
| | - María Jesús Zamora
- National Food Centre (CNA), Spanish Agency for Consumer Affairs Food Safety (AESAN), Majadahonda, Spain
| | - Ana Sisó
- National Food Centre (CNA), Spanish Agency for Consumer Affairs Food Safety (AESAN), Majadahonda, Spain
| | | | - Sylvia Valdezate
- National Centre of Microbiology, Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Lars Schaade
- Consultant Laboratory for Neurotoxin-Producing Clostridia (Botulism, Tetanus), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sylvia Worbs
- Consultant Laboratory for Neurotoxin-Producing Clostridia (Botulism, Tetanus), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Brigitte Gertrud Dorner
- Consultant Laboratory for Neurotoxin-Producing Clostridia (Botulism, Tetanus), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christina Frank
- Landesuntersuchungsamt Rheinland-Pfalz, Rhineland-Palatinate, Koblenz, Germany
| | - Martin Bernhard Dorner
- Consultant Laboratory for Neurotoxin-Producing Clostridia (Botulism, Tetanus), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
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Le Bouquin S, Lucas C, Souillard R, Le Maréchal C, Petit K, Kooh P, Jourdan-Da Silva N, Meurens F, Guillier L, Mazuet C. Human and animal botulism surveillance in France from 2008 to 2019. Front Public Health 2022; 10:1003917. [PMID: 36504929 PMCID: PMC9730534 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.1003917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Botulism is a human and animal neurological disease caused by the action of bacterial neurotoxins (botulinum toxins) produced by bacteria from the genus Clostridium. This disease induces flaccid paralysis that can result in respiratory paralysis and heart failure. Due to its serious potential impact on public health, botulism is a closely monitored notifiable disease in France through a case-based passive surveillance system. In humans, this disease is rare, with an average of 10 outbreaks reported each year, mainly due to the consumption of contaminated foods. Type B and to a lesser extend type A are responsible for the majority of cases of foodborne botulism. Each year, an average of 30 outbreaks are recorded on poultry farms, about 20 cases in wild birds and about 10 outbreaks in cattle, involving a large number of animals. Mosaic forms C/D and D/C in birds and cattle, respectively, are the predominant types in animals in France. Types C and D have also been observed to a lesser extent in animals. With the exception of botulinum toxin E, which was exceptionally detected throughout the period in wild birds, the types of botulism found in animal outbreaks are different from those identified in human outbreaks over the last ten years in France and no human botulism outbreaks investigated have been linked to animal botulism. In line with the One Health concept, we present the first integrative approach to the routine surveillance of botulism in humans and animals in France.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Le Bouquin
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), National Reference Laboratory for Avian Botulism, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, Ploufragan, France,*Correspondence: Sophie Le Bouquin
| | - Camille Lucas
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), National Reference Laboratory for Avian Botulism, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, Ploufragan, France
| | - Rozenn Souillard
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), National Reference Laboratory for Avian Botulism, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, Ploufragan, France
| | - Caroline Le Maréchal
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), National Reference Laboratory for Avian Botulism, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, Ploufragan, France
| | - Karine Petit
- ANSES, Risk Assessment Department, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Pauline Kooh
- ANSES, Risk Assessment Department, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Nathalie Jourdan-Da Silva
- Sante Publique France (French Public Health Agency), Direction des Maladies Infectieuses, Saint Maurice, France
| | - François Meurens
- French National Research Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment (INRAE), Oniris, Unit of Biology, Epidemiology and Risk Analysis in Animal Health (BIOEPAR), Nantes, France,Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Immunology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | | | - Christelle Mazuet
- Institut Pasteur, National Reference Center for Anaerobic Bacteria and Botulism, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
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Hamad G, Ombarak RA, Eskander M, Mehany T, Anees FR, Elfayoumy RA, Omar SA, Lorenzo JM, Abou-Alella SAE. Detection and inhibition of Clostridium botulinum in some Egyptian fish products by probiotics cell-free supernatants as bio-preservation agents. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2022.113603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Rasetti-Escargueil C, Lemichez E, Popoff MR. Public Health Risk Associated with Botulism as Foodborne Zoonoses. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 12:E17. [PMID: 31905908 PMCID: PMC7020394 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12010017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Revised: 12/23/2019] [Accepted: 12/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Botulism is a rare but severe neurological disease in man and animals that is caused by botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) produced by Clostridium botulinum and atypical strains from other Clostridium and non-Clostridium species. BoNTs are divided into more than seven toxinotypes based on neutralization with specific corresponding antisera, and each toxinotype is subdivided into subtypes according to amino acid sequence variations. Animal species show variable sensitivity to the different BoNT toxinotypes. Thereby, naturally acquired animal botulism is mainly due to BoNT/C, D and the mosaic variants CD and DC, BoNT/CD being more prevalent in birds and BoNT/DC in cattle, whereas human botulism is more frequently in the types A, B and E, and to a lower extent, F. Botulism is not a contagious disease, since there is no direct transmission from diseased animals or man to a healthy subject. Botulism occurs via the environment, notably from food contaminated with C. botulinum spores and preserved in conditions favorable for C. botulinum growth and toxin production. The high prevalence of botulism types C, D and variants DC and CD in farmed and wild birds, and to a lower extent in cattle, raises the risk of transmission to human beings. However, human botulism is much rarer than animal botulism, and botulism types C and D are exceptional in humans. Only 15 cases or suspected cases of botulism type C and one outbreak of botulism type D have been reported in humans to date. In contrast, animal healthy carriers of C. botulinum group II, such as C. botulinum type E in fish of the northern hemisphere, and C. botulinum B4 in pigs, represent a more prevalent risk of botulism transmission to human subjects. Less common botulism types in animals but at risk of transmission to humans, can sporadically be observed, such as botulism type E in farmed chickens in France (1998-2002), botulism type B in cattle in The Netherlands (1977-1979), botulism types A and B in horses, or botulism type A in dairy cows (Egypt, 1976). In most cases, human and animal botulisms have distinct origins, and cross transmissions between animals and human beings are rather rare, accidental events. But, due to the severity of this disease, human and animal botulism requires a careful surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Michel R. Popoff
- Institut Pasteur, Département de Microbiologie, Unité des Toxines Bactériennes, CNRS ERL6002, 75724 Paris, France; (C.R.-E.); (E.L.)
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Mansfield MJ, Doxey AC. Genomic insights into the evolution and ecology of botulinum neurotoxins. Pathog Dis 2018; 76:4978416. [PMID: 29684130 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/fty040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Mansfield
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Andrew C Doxey
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
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Princé K, Chipault JG, White CL, Zuckerberg B. Environmental conditions synchronize waterbird mortality events in the Great Lakes. J Appl Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.13063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Karine Princé
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology; University of Wisconsin-Madison; Madison WI USA
| | | | - C. LeAnn White
- US Geological Survey; National Wildlife Health Center; Madison WI USA
| | - Benjamin Zuckerberg
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology; University of Wisconsin-Madison; Madison WI USA
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Differentiating Botulinum Neurotoxin-Producing Clostridia with a Simple, Multiplex PCR Assay. Appl Environ Microbiol 2017; 83:AEM.00806-17. [PMID: 28733282 PMCID: PMC5583490 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00806-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Diverse members of the genus Clostridium produce botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs), which cause a flaccid paralysis known as botulism. While multiple species of clostridia produce BoNTs, the majority of human botulism cases have been attributed to Clostridium botulinum groups I and II. Recent comparative genomic studies have demonstrated the genomic diversity within these BoNT-producing species. This report introduces a multiplex PCR assay for differentiating members of C. botulinum group I, C. sporogenes, and two major subgroups within C. botulinum group II. Coding region sequences unique to each of the four species/subgroups were identified by in silico analyses of thousands of genome assemblies, and PCR primers were designed to amplify each marker. The resulting multiplex PCR assay correctly assigned 41 tested isolates to the appropriate species or subgroup. A separate PCR assay to determine the presence of the ntnh gene (a gene associated with the botulinum neurotoxin gene cluster) was developed and validated. The ntnh gene PCR assay provides information about the presence or absence of the botulinum neurotoxin gene cluster and the type of gene cluster present (ha positive [ha+] or orfX+). The increased availability of whole-genome sequence data and comparative genomic tools enabled the design of these assays, which provide valuable information for characterizing BoNT-producing clostridia. The PCR assays are rapid, inexpensive tests that can be applied to a variety of sample types to assign isolates to species/subgroups and to detect clostridia with botulinum neurotoxin gene (bont) clusters. IMPORTANCE Diverse clostridia produce the botulinum neurotoxin, one of the most potent known neurotoxins. In this study, a multiplex PCR assay was developed to differentiate clostridia that are most commonly isolated in connection with human botulism cases: C. botulinum group I, C. sporogenes, and two major subgroups within C. botulinum group II. Since BoNT-producing and nontoxigenic isolates can be found in each species, a PCR assay to determine the presence of the ntnh gene, which is a universally present component of bont gene clusters, and to provide information about the type (ha+ or orfX+) of bont gene cluster present in a sample was also developed. The PCR assays provide simple, rapid, and inexpensive tools for screening uncharacterized isolates from clinical or environmental samples. The information provided by these assays can inform epidemiological studies, aid with identifying mixtures of isolates and unknown isolates in culture collections, and confirm the presence of bacteria of interest.
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Le Maréchal C, Rouxel S, Ballan V, Houard E, Poezevara T, Bayon-Auboyer MH, Souillard R, Morvan H, Baudouard MA, Woudstra C, Mazuet C, Le Bouquin S, Fach P, Popoff M, Chemaly M. Development and Validation of a New Reliable Method for the Diagnosis of Avian Botulism. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0169640. [PMID: 28076405 PMCID: PMC5226734 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0169640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Liver is a reliable matrix for laboratory confirmation of avian botulism using real-time PCR. Here, we developed, optimized, and validated the analytical steps preceding PCR to maximize the detection of Clostridium botulinum group III in avian liver. These pre-PCR steps included enrichment incubation of the whole liver (maximum 25 g) at 37°C for at least 24 h in an anaerobic chamber and DNA extraction using an enzymatic digestion step followed by a DNA purification step. Conditions of sample storage before analysis appear to have a strong effect on the detection of group III C. botulinum strains and our results recommend storage at temperatures below -18°C. Short-term storage at 5°C is possible for up to 24 h, but a decrease in sensitivity was observed at 48 h of storage at this temperature. Analysis of whole livers (maximum 25 g) is required and pooling samples before enrichment culturing must be avoided. Pooling is however possible before or after DNA extraction under certain conditions. Whole livers should be 10-fold diluted in enrichment medium and homogenized using a Pulsifier® blender (Microgen, Surrey, UK) instead of a conventional paddle blender. Spiked liver samples showed a limit of detection of 5 spores/g liver for types C and D and 250 spores/g for type E. Using the method developed here, the analysis of 268 samples from 73 suspected outbreaks showed 100% specificity and 95.35% sensitivity compared with other PCR-based methods considered as reference. The mosaic type C/D was the most common neurotoxin type found in examined samples, which included both wild and domestic birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Le Maréchal
- ANSES, Laboratoire de Ploufragan – Plouzané, Unité Hygiène et qualité des produits avicoles et porcins, Université Bretagne-Loire, Ploufragan, France
| | - Sandra Rouxel
- ANSES, Laboratoire de Ploufragan – Plouzané, Unité Hygiène et qualité des produits avicoles et porcins, Université Bretagne-Loire, Ploufragan, France
| | - Valentine Ballan
- ANSES, Laboratoire de Ploufragan – Plouzané, Unité Hygiène et qualité des produits avicoles et porcins, Université Bretagne-Loire, Ploufragan, France
| | - Emmanuelle Houard
- ANSES, Laboratoire de Ploufragan – Plouzané, Unité Hygiène et qualité des produits avicoles et porcins, Université Bretagne-Loire, Ploufragan, France
| | - Typhaine Poezevara
- ANSES, Laboratoire de Ploufragan – Plouzané, Unité Hygiène et qualité des produits avicoles et porcins, Université Bretagne-Loire, Ploufragan, France
| | | | - Rozenn Souillard
- ANSES, Laboratoire de Ploufragan – Plouzané, Unité d’Epidémiologie et bien-être en aviculture et cuniculture, Université Bretagne-Loire, Ploufragan, France
| | | | | | - Cédric Woudstra
- ANSES, Laboratoire de sécurité des aliments, Maisons Alfort, France
| | | | - Sophie Le Bouquin
- ANSES, Laboratoire de Ploufragan – Plouzané, Unité d’Epidémiologie et bien-être en aviculture et cuniculture, Université Bretagne-Loire, Ploufragan, France
| | - Patrick Fach
- ANSES, Laboratoire de sécurité des aliments, Maisons Alfort, France
| | - Michel Popoff
- Institut Pasteur, Bactéries anaérobies et Toxines, Paris, France
| | - Marianne Chemaly
- ANSES, Laboratoire de Ploufragan – Plouzané, Unité Hygiène et qualité des produits avicoles et porcins, Université Bretagne-Loire, Ploufragan, France
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Minias P, Włodarczyk R, Janiszewski T. Minor differentiation of foraging niche may have a major impact on the incidence of avian botulism in shorebirds. Basic Appl Ecol 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.baae.2016.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Pandian SJ, Subramanian M, Vijayakumar G, Balasubramaniam GA, Sukumar K. Therapeutic management of botulism in dairy cattle. Vet World 2015; 8:1305-9. [PMID: 27047034 PMCID: PMC4774742 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2015.1305-1309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Revised: 10/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM To report the successful recovery of few dairy cattle from botulism in response to a modified therapeutic strategy. MATERIALS AND METHODS Seventy four naturally-occurring clinical cases of bovine botulism encountered during the period of 2012-2014 which were confirmed by mouse lethality test became material for this study. Affected animals were made into three groups based on the treatment modifications made during the course of study. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION With the modified therapeutic regimen, 17 animals recovered after 7-10 days of treatment. Clinical recovery took 2-30 days. Animals which were not given intravenous fluid and calcium recovered uneventfully. Cattle which were already treated with intravenous fluids, calcium borogluconate, and antibiotics did not recover. They were either died or slaughtered for salvage. CONCLUSION In cattle with botulism, administration of Vitamin AD3E and activated charcoal aid the clinical recovery. Besides, strictly avoiding anti-clostridial antibiotics, fluid therapy, and calcium therapy may facilitate the clinical recovery. Upon fluid administration, the pulmonary congestion existed in the ailing cattle might have worsened the anoxia. Administration of antibiotics like penicillin, aminoglycosides, and tetracyclines further worsen the neuronal paralysis by increasing the availability of botulinum neurotoxin. Cattle in early botulism have fair chances of recovery with the modified therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Jegaveera Pandian
- Division of Livestock and Fisheries Management, ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region, Patna, Bihar, India
| | - M Subramanian
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal- 637 002, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - G Vijayakumar
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal- 637 002, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - G A Balasubramaniam
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal- 637 002, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - K Sukumar
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Veterinary College and Research Institute, Tirunelveli- 627 001, Tamil Nadu, India
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Clostridium botulinum Group II Isolate Phylogenomic Profiling Using Whole-Genome Sequence Data. Appl Environ Microbiol 2015; 81:5938-48. [PMID: 26116673 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01155-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium botulinum group II isolates (n = 163) from different geographic regions, outbreaks, and neurotoxin types and subtypes were characterized in silico using whole-genome sequence data. Two clusters representing a variety of botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) types and subtypes were identified by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and core single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis. While one cluster included BoNT/B4/F6/E9 and nontoxigenic members, the other comprised a wide variety of different BoNT/E subtype isolates and a nontoxigenic strain. In silico MLST and core SNP methods were consistent in terms of clade-level isolate classification; however, core SNP analysis showed higher resolution capability. Furthermore, core SNP analysis correctly distinguished isolates by outbreak and location. This study illustrated the utility of next-generation sequence-based typing approaches for isolate characterization and source attribution and identified discrete SNP loci and MLST alleles for isolate comparison.
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14
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Spatial, Temporal, and Matrix Variability of Clostridium botulinum Type E Toxin Gene Distribution at Great Lakes Beaches. Appl Environ Microbiol 2015; 81:4306-15. [PMID: 25888178 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00098-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2015] [Accepted: 04/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium botulinum type E toxin is responsible for extensive mortality of birds and fish in the Great Lakes. The C. botulinum bontE gene that produces the type E toxin was amplified with quantitative PCR from 150 sloughed algal samples (primarily Cladophora species) collected during summer 2012 from 10 Great Lakes beaches in five states; concurrently, 74 sediment and 37 water samples from four sites were also analyzed. The bontE gene concentration in algae was significantly higher than in water and sediment (P < 0.05), suggesting that algal mats provide a better microenvironment for C. botulinum. The bontE gene was detected most frequently in algae at Jeorse Park and Portage Lake Front beaches (Lake Michigan) and Bay City State Recreation Area beach on Saginaw Bay (Lake Huron), where 77, 100, and 83% of these algal samples contained the bontE gene, respectively. The highest concentration of bontE was detected at Bay City (1.98 × 10(5) gene copies/ml of algae or 5.21 × 10(6) g [dry weight]). This study revealed that the bontE gene is abundant in the Great Lakes but that it has spatial, temporal, and matrix variability. Further, embayed beaches, low wave height, low wind velocity, and greater average water temperature enhance the bontE occurrence.
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15
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Lan Chun C, Kahn CI, Borchert AJ, Byappanahalli MN, Whitman RL, Peller J, Pier C, Lin G, Johnson EA, Sadowsky MJ. Prevalence of toxin-producing Clostridium botulinum associated with the macroalga Cladophora in three Great Lakes: growth and management. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 511:523-529. [PMID: 25577739 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.12.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2014] [Revised: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 12/22/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The reemergence of avian botulism caused by Clostridium botulinum type E has been observed across the Great Lakes in recent years. Evidence suggests an association between the nuisance algae, Cladophora spp., and C. botulinum in nearshore areas of the Great Lakes. However, the nature of the association between Cladophora and C. botulinum is not fully understood due, in part, to the complex food web interactions in this disease etiology. In this study, we extensively evaluated their association by quantitatively examining population size and serotypes of C. botulinum in algal mats collected from wide geographic areas in lakes Michigan, Ontario, and Erie in 2011-2012 and comparing them with frequencies in other matrices such as sand and water. A high prevalence (96%) of C. botulinum type E was observed in Cladophora mats collected from shorelines of the Great Lakes in 2012. Among the algae samples containing detectable C. botulinum, the population size of C. Botulinum type E was 10(0)-10(4) MPN/g dried algae, which was much greater (up to 10(3) fold) than that found in sand or the water column, indicating that Cladophora mats are sources of this pathogen. Mouse toxinantitoxin bioassays confirmed that the putative C. botulinum belonged to the type E serotype. Steam treatment was effective in reducing or eliminating C. botulinum type E viable cells in Cladophora mats, thereby breaking the potential transmission route of toxin up to the food chain. Consequently, our data suggest that steam treatment incorporated with a beach cleaning machine may be an effective treatment of Cladophora-borne C. botulinum and may reduce bird mortality and human health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chan Lan Chun
- BioTechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, United States
| | - Chase I Kahn
- BioTechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, United States
| | - Andrew J Borchert
- BioTechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, United States
| | - Muruleedhara N Byappanahalli
- Lake Michigan Ecological Research Station, Great Lakes Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, Porter, IN 46304, United States
| | - Richard L Whitman
- Lake Michigan Ecological Research Station, Great Lakes Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, Porter, IN 46304, United States
| | - Julie Peller
- Department of Chemistry, Physics and Astronomy, Indiana University Northwest, Gary, IN 46408, United States
| | - Christina Pier
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - Guangyun Lin
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - Eric A Johnson
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - Michael J Sadowsky
- BioTechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, United States; Department of Soil, Water, and Climate, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, United States.
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16
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An atypical outbreak of food-borne botulism due to Clostridium botulinum types B and E from ham. J Clin Microbiol 2014; 53:722-6. [PMID: 25428161 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.02942-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
An outbreak of human botulism was due to consumption of ham containing botulinum neurotoxins B and E. A Clostridium botulinum type E strain isolated from ham was assigned to a new subtype (E12) based on bont/E gene sequencing and belongs to a new multilocus sequence subtype, as analyzed by whole-genome sequencing.
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17
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Wang D, Krilich J, Baudys J, Barr JR, Kalb SR. Optimization of peptide substrates for botulinum neurotoxin E improves detection sensitivity in the Endopep-MS assay. Anal Biochem 2014; 468:15-21. [PMID: 25232998 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2014.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Revised: 08/20/2014] [Accepted: 08/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) produced by Clostridium botulinum are the most poisonous substances known to humankind. It is essential to have a simple, quick, and sensitive method for the detection and quantification of botulinum toxin in various media, including complex biological matrices. Our laboratory has developed a mass spectrometry-based Endopep-MS assay that is able to rapidly detect and differentiate all types of BoNTs by extracting the toxin with specific antibodies and detecting the unique cleavage products of peptide substrates. Botulinum neurotoxin type E (BoNT/E) is a member of a family of seven distinctive BoNT serotypes (A-G) and is the causative agent of botulism in both humans and animals. To improve the sensitivity of the Endopep-MS assay, we report here the development of novel peptide substrates for the detection of BoNT/E activity through systematic and comprehensive approaches. Our data demonstrate that several optimal peptides could accomplish 500-fold improvement in sensitivity compared with the current substrate for the detection of both not-trypsin-activated and trypsin-activated BoNT/E toxin complexes. A limit of detection of 0.1 mouse LD50/ml was achieved using the novel peptide substrate in the assay to detect not-trypsin-activated BoNT/E complex spiked in serum, stool, and food samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongxia Wang
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Joan Krilich
- Battelle Memorial Institute under contract at Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Jakub Baudys
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - John R Barr
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Suzanne R Kalb
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA.
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18
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Espelund M, Klaveness D. Botulism outbreaks in natural environments - an update. Front Microbiol 2014; 5:287. [PMID: 24966853 PMCID: PMC4052663 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2014] [Accepted: 05/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium botulinum comprises a diverse group of botulinum toxin-producing anaerobic rod-shaped spore-forming bacteria that are ubiquitously distributed in soils and aquatic sediments. Decomposition of plants, algae, and animals creates anaerobic environments that facilitate growth of C. botulinum, which may then enter into food webs leading to intoxication of animals. Via saprophytic utilization of nutrients, the bacteria rapidly sporulate, creating a reservoir of highly robust spores. In the present review, we focus on the occurrence of C. botulinum in non-clinical environments, and examine factors influencing growth and environmental factors associated with botulism outbreaks. We also outline cases involving specific environments and their biota. In wetlands, it has been found that some C. botulinum strains can associate with toxin-unaffected organisms–-including algae, plants, and invertebrates–-in which the bacteria appear to germinate and stay in the vegetative form for longer periods of time. We suggest the need for future investigations to resolve issues related to the environments in which C. botulinum spores may accumulate and germinate, and where the vegetative forms may multiply.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mari Espelund
- Protection and Societal Security Division, Norwegian Defence Research Establishment Kjeller, Norway
| | - Dag Klaveness
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Oslo Oslo, Norway
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Chun CL, Ochsner U, Byappanahalli MN, Whitman RL, Tepp WH, Lin G, Johnson EA, Peller J, Sadowsky MJ. Association of toxin-producing Clostridium botulinum with the macroalga Cladophora in the Great Lakes. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2013; 47:2587-2594. [PMID: 23421373 DOI: 10.1021/es304743m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Avian botulism, a paralytic disease of birds, often occurs on a yearly cycle and is increasingly becoming more common in the Great Lakes. Outbreaks are caused by bird ingestion of neurotoxins produced by Clostridium botulinum, a spore-forming, gram-positive, anaerobe. The nuisance, macrophytic, green alga Cladophora (Chlorophyta; mostly Cladophora glomerata L.) is a potential habitat for the growth of C. botulinum. A high incidence of botulism in shoreline birds at Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore (SLBE) in Lake Michigan coincides with increasingly massive accumulations of Cladophora in nearshore waters. In this study, free-floating algal mats were collected from SLBE and other shorelines of the Great Lakes between June and October 2011. The abundance of C. botulinum in algal mats was quantified and the type of botulism neurotoxin (bont) genes associated with this organism were determined by using most-probable-number PCR (MPN-PCR) and five distinct bont gene-specific primers (A, B, C, E, and F). The MPN-PCR results showed that 16 of 22 (73%) algal mats from the SLBE and 23 of 31(74%) algal mats from other shorelines of the Great Lakes contained the bont type E (bont/E) gene. C. botulinum was present up to 15000 MPN per gram dried algae based on gene copies of bont/E. In addition, genes for bont/A and bont/B, which are commonly associated with human diseases, were detected in a few algal samples. Moreover, C. botulinum was present as vegetative cells rather than as dormant spores in Cladophora mats. Mouse toxin assays done using supernatants from enrichment of Cladophora containing high densities of C. botulinum (>1000 MPN/g dried algae) showed that Cladophora-borne C. botulinum were toxin-producing species (BoNT/E). Our results indicate that Cladophora provides a habitat for C. botulinum, warranting additional studies to better understand the relationship between this bacterium and the alga, and how this interaction potentially contributes to botulism outbreaks in birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chan Lan Chun
- BioTechnology Institute, University of Minnesota , St. Paul, Minnesota 55108, USA
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20
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Raphael BH, Lautenschlager M, Kalb SR, de Jong LIT, Frace M, Lúquez C, Barr JR, Fernández RA, Maslanka SE. Analysis of a unique Clostridium botulinum strain from the Southern hemisphere producing a novel type E botulinum neurotoxin subtype. BMC Microbiol 2012; 12:245. [PMID: 23113872 PMCID: PMC3558463 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2180-12-245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2012] [Accepted: 10/30/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Clostridium botulinum strains that produce botulinum neurotoxin type E (BoNT/E) are most commonly isolated from botulism cases, marine environments, and animals in regions of high latitude in the Northern hemisphere. A strain of C. botulinum type E (CDC66177) was isolated from soil in Chubut, Argentina. Previous studies showed that the amino acid sequences of BoNT/E produced by various strains differ by < 6% and that the type E neurotoxin gene cluster inserts into the rarA operon. Results Genetic and mass spectral analysis demonstrated that the BoNT/E produced by CDC66177 is a novel toxin subtype (E9). Toxin gene sequencing indicated that BoNT/E9 differed by nearly 11% at the amino acid level compared to BoNT/E1. Mass spectrometric analysis of BoNT/E9 revealed that its endopeptidase substrate cleavage site was identical to other BoNT/E subtypes. Further analysis of this strain demonstrated that its 16S rRNA sequence clustered with other Group II C. botulinum (producing BoNT types B, E, and F) strains. Genomic DNA isolated from strain CDC66177 hybridized with fewer probes using a Group II C. botulinum subtyping microarray compared to other type E strains examined. Whole genome shotgun sequencing of strain CDC66177 revealed that while the toxin gene cluster inserted into the rarA operon similar to other type E strains, its overall genome content shared greater similarity with a Group II C. botulinum type B strain (17B). Conclusions These results expand our understanding of the global distribution of C. botulinum type E strains and suggest that the type E toxin gene cluster may be able to insert into C. botulinum strains with a more diverse genetic background than previously recognized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian H Raphael
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.
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21
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Kornis MS, Mercado-Silva N, Vander Zanden MJ. Twenty years of invasion: a review of round goby Neogobius melanostomus biology, spread and ecological implications. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2012; 80:235-85. [PMID: 22268429 DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2011.03157.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
The round goby Neogobius melanostomus is one of the most wide-ranging invasive fish on earth, with substantial introduced populations within the Laurentian Great Lakes watershed, the Baltic Sea and several major European rivers. Rapid expansion and deleterious ecosystem effects have motivated extensive research on this species; here this research is synthesized. Maps of the global distribution are provided and the invasion history of N. melanostomus, which spread more rapidly at first in North America, but has undergone substantial expansion over the past decade in the Baltic Sea, is summarized. Meta-analyses comparing their size at age, diet, competitors and predators in North American and European ecosystems are provided. Size at age is region specific, with saline habitats typically supporting larger and faster growing individuals than fresh water. Neogobius melanostomus prey differs substantially between regions, demonstrating a capacity to adapt to locally abundant food sources. Neogobius melanostomus comprise at least 50% of the diet of eight taxa in at least one site or life stage; in total, 16 predator taxa are documented from the Laurentian Great Lakes v. five from Eurasia. Invasive N. melanostomus are the only common forage fish to heavily exploit mussels in the Laurentian Great Lakes and the Baltic Sea, facilitating the transfer of energy from mussels to higher trophic levels in both systems. Neogobius melanostomus morphology, life history, reproduction, habitat preferences, environmental tolerances, parasites, environmental effects, sampling strategies and management are also discussed. Neogobius melanostomus inhabit a wide range of temperate freshwater and brackish-water ecosystems and will probably continue to spread via ballast water, accidental bait release and natural dispersal worldwide. Climate change will probably enhance N. melanostomus expansion by elevating water temperatures closer to its energetic optimum of 26° C. Future research needs are presented; most pressing are evaluating the economic effects of N. melanostomus invasion, determining long-term population level effects of egg predation on game-fish recruitment and comparing several variables (density, ecological effects morphology and life history) among invaded ecosystems. This review provides a central reference as researchers continue studying N. melanostomus, often as examples for advancing basic ecology and invasion biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Kornis
- Center for Limnology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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22
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In vitro detection and quantification of botulinum neurotoxin type e activity in avian blood. Appl Environ Microbiol 2011; 77:7815-22. [PMID: 21908624 DOI: 10.1128/aem.06165-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxin serotype E (BoNT/E) outbreaks in the Great Lakes region cause large annual avian mortality events, with an estimated 17,000 bird deaths reported in 2007 alone. During an outbreak investigation, blood collected from bird carcasses is tested for the presence of BoNT/E using the mouse lethality assay. While sensitive, this method is labor-intensive and low throughput and can take up to 7 days to complete. We developed a rapid and sensitive in vitro assay, the BoTest Matrix E assay, that combines immunoprecipitation with high-affinity endopeptidase activity detection by Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) to rapidly quantify BoNT/E activity in avian blood with detection limits comparable to those of the mouse lethality assay. On the basis of the analysis of archived blood samples (n = 87) collected from bird carcasses during avian mortality investigations, BoTest Matrix E detected picomolar quantities of BoNT/E following a 2-h incubation and femtomolar quantities of BoNT/E following extended incubation (24 h) with 100% diagnostic specificity and 91% diagnostic sensitivity.
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