Host defenses in murine malaria: analysis of plasmodial infection-caused defects in macrophage microbicidal capacities

Listeria monocytogenes Inoculation Impedes the Development of Brain Pathology in Experimental Cerebral Malaria by Inhibition of Parasitemia

Cerebral malaria (CM) is a serious central nervous system dysfunction caused by Plasmodium falciparum infection. In this study, we investigated the effect of Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) inoculation on experimental cerebral malaria (ECM) using Plasmodium berghei ANKA (PbA)-infected C57BL/6 mice. Live Lm inoculation inhibited the parasitemia and alleviated ECM symptoms. The protective effect against ECM symptoms was connected with improved brain pathology manifested as a less-damaged blood-brain barrier, decreased parasite sequestration, and milder local inflammation. Meanwhile, Lm inoculation decreased expression of cell adhesion molecules (ICAM-1 and VCAM-1) and accumulation of pathogenic CD8⁺ T cells in the brain. In keeping with the suppression of parasitemia, there was an upregulation of IFN-γ, IL-12, MCP-1, and NO expression in the spleen by Lm inoculation upon PbA infection. Early treatment with exogenous IFN-γ exhibited a similar effect to Lm inoculation on PbA infection. Taken together, Lm inoculation impedes the development of brain pathology in ECM, and early systemic IFN-γ production may play a critical role in these protective effects.

Infection-related hemolysis and susceptibility to Gram-negative bacterial co-infection

Increased susceptibility to co-infection with enteric Gram-negative bacteria, particularly non-typhoidal Salmonella, is reported in malaria and Oroya fever (Bartonella bacilliformis infection), and can lead to increased mortality. Accumulating epidemiological evidence indicates a causal association with risk of bacterial co-infection, rather than just co-incidence of common risk factors. Both malaria and Oroya fever are characterized by hemolysis, and observations in humans and animal models suggest that hemolysis causes the susceptibility to bacterial co-infection. Evidence from animal models implicates hemolysis in the impairment of a variety of host defense mechanisms, including macrophage dysfunction, neutrophil dysfunction, and impairment of adaptive immune responses. One mechanism supported by evidence from animal models and human data, is the induction of heme oxygenase-1 in bone marrow, which impairs the ability of developing neutrophils to mount a competent oxidative burst. As a result, dysfunctional neutrophils become a new niche for replication of intracellular bacteria. Here we critically appraise and summarize the key evidence for mechanisms which may contribute to these very specific combinations of co-infections, and propose interventions to ameliorate this risk.

Malaria impairs resistance to Salmonella through heme- and heme oxygenase-dependent dysfunctional granulocyte mobilization

In sub-Saharan Africa, invasive non-Typhoid Salmonella (NTS) is a common and often fatal complication of Plasmodium falciparum infection. Induction of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) mediates tolerance to the cytotoxic effects of heme during malarial hemolysis but might impair resistance to NTS by limiting production of bactericidal reactive oxygen species. We show that co-infection of mice with Plasmodium yoelii 17XNL (Py17XNL) and S. typhimurium causes acute, fatal bacteremia with increased bacterial load; features reproduced by phenylhydrazine hemolysis or hemin administration. S. typhimurium localized predominantly in granulocytes. Py17XNL, phenylhydrazine and hemin caused premature mobilization of granulocytes from bone marrow with a quantitative defect in the oxidative burst. Inhibition of HO by tin protoporphyrin abrogated the impairment of resistance to S. typhimurium by hemolysis. Thus a mechanism of tolerance to one infection, malaria, impairs resistance to another, NTS. Furthermore, HO inhibitors may be useful adjunctive therapy for NTS infection in the context of hemolysis.

Diminished organelle motion in murine Kupffer cells during the erythrocytic stage of malaria

Parasitized erythrocytes are ingested by murine hepatic macrophages during malaria infection. We non-invasively monitored how this altered the motion of intracellular phagosomes in Kupffer cells using magnetometry. Submicrometric γFe(2)O(3) particles were injected prior to malaria infection. They were cleared from the blood, primarily by Kupffer cells, and retained within their phagosomes. The mice were periodically magnetized. After removing this external magnet, the aligned iron particles created a remnant magnetic field (RMF) which then decayed (relaxation), reflecting the motion of particle-containing phagosomes. After baseline measurements of relaxation, the mice were injected intravenously with Plasmodium chabaudi-parasitized or normal murine red blood cells (RBCs). During the next 15 days, relaxation measurements, parasitaemia and haematocrit values were monitored. At 6 days post injection with 3 × 10(7) parasitized RBCs, relaxation rates had decreased. At this time, all mice had parasitaemias greater than 58 per cent and haematocrits less than 20 per cent. At day 7, while the parasitaemias were declining, the rate of relaxation continued to decrease. Throughout the experiment, relaxation remained constant in animals injected with normal RBCs. Electron microscopy revealed Kupffer cells filled with damaged and parasitized erythrocytes, and haemoglobin degradation pigment. We conclude that ingestion and metabolism of parasitized erythrocytes by liver macrophages during malaria infection decreases their organelle motion with likely consequences of compromised host defences.

The survival of Plasmodium Under oxidant stress

Oxidant stress is associated with the generation of reactive oxygen-derived species, which are considered as the ultimate agents responsible for the damage of a variety of cellular components. Transition metals such as iron ions serve as catalytic centers for the repeated conversion of superoxide radicals or ascorbate to the highly reactive and deleterious hydroxyl radicals and, indeed, increasing amounts of redox-active iron become available during plasmodial development within the parasitized erythrocytes. Thus, the survival of an intracellular parasite depends on the delicate balance of oxidant stress and defense mechanisms. This balance is continuously changing and the parasite must cope with increasing oxidant stress and the decline of protective capacity.

Continuation of chloroquine-susceptible Plasmodium falciparum parasitemia in volunteers receiving chloroquine therapy

Volunteers infected with a chloroquine-susceptible line of Plasmodium falciparum were administered standard oral chloroquine therapy at the first detection of parasites in the blood. Parasitemias progressed in the face of therapy for up to 5 days and to levels up to 100-fold greater than those at the initiation of treatment. Thereafter, infections cleared without a requirement for additional chemotherapy. This course of infection and response to treatment has not been previously reported and may have been detected because volunteers were exposed to an unusually large number of sporozoites. The observations are consistent with the hypothesis that prolonged parasitemia resulted from the continued release of merozoites from liver.

Plasmodium berghei: long lasting immunity induced by a permanent attenuated mutant

A long-lasting immunity against challenge with highly virulent Plasmodium berghei (NK65) was observed in Balb/c mice immunized with a permanently attenuated parasite (XAT), a derivative (XAT) of the NK65 strain. Mice infected with living XAT parasites showed an extremely low self-resolving type of parasitaemia followed by a strong immunity against a challenge with the lethal parent NK65 strain. This immunity lasted for nearly one year. Cross immunity was also observed in the immune mice after challenges with P. berghei ANKA, P. yoelii 17XL, P. vinckei, and P. chabaudi. In addition stage specific immunity was found after P. yoelii nigeriensis sporozoites were inoculated into immune mice. Late radical treatment of immunized mice had little effect on the immunity. Both IgG and IgM anti-Plasmodium titers did not correlate with the degree of immunity. Immune suppression was not observed in the test mice as far as responsiveness of spleen cells to several mitogens is concerned.

Listeria monocytogenes infection in Biozzi mouse lines with high or low antibody responses, or with high (Hi/PHA) or low (Lo/PHA) responses to phytohemagglutinin

Dependent and independent variables influencing natural and acquired resistance to Listeria monocytogenes in Biozzi mouse lines, genetically selected for their antibody responses, were analyzed. Variations in interline (IL) difference were shown to depend upon the inoculum dose, age, and sex of the mice used. Further, when IL differences were measured using the growth curves of L. monocytogenes, it appeared that LL mice were more resistant than HL mice, while the opposite was observed when IL differences were appreciated using the mortality rate. Attempts to analyze such apparently contradictory results showed that the predominant mechanism in LL mice was a higher natural bactericidal capacity of resident macrophages, which might be compensated for in HL mice by a higher ability to recruit blood-borne monocytes during the secondary, nonspecific phase of resistance, being reinforced and associated with a higher DTH reaction to L. monocytogenes antigen. A similar, higher antilisterial resistance was also observed in other Biozzi lines, genetically selected for their high in vitro CMI response to PHA as compared with the Lo/PHA line.

In vivo analysis of impaired macrophage bactericidal capacity during experimental African trypanosomiasis

Since innate resistance of mice to Salmonella typhimurium depends on an intact macrophage system, we have used this bacterium to investigate the effect of Trypanosoma brucei subsp. rhodesiense infection on macrophage phagocytic and cytolytic function. CBA/CaJ mice infected with T. brucei subsp. rhodesiense have decreased resistance to S. typhimurium, since doubly infected mice rapidly succumb to sublethal doses of S. typhimurium. Although trypanosomiasis is known to suppress antibody formation, such a suppression of antibody does not seem to play a role in trypanosome-induced sensitivity to S. typhimurium. A trypanosome-induced blockade of the reticuloendothelial system also does not occur, since parasitized and control mice clear S. typhimurium from the blood equally well. Early killing (0 to 48 h) of S. typhimurium in the liver and spleen is mainly macrophage mediated, and mice infected with trypanosomes kill S. typhimurium in the liver and spleen very poorly. Apparently trypanosomiasis inhibits macrophage bactericidal activity, but has no effect on phagocytosis.

T-cell mediated immunity in murine malaria. I. Induction of T-cell dependent proliferative responses to Plasmodium chabaudi

To investigate the mechanisms of cell mediated immunity to malaria, we studied different systems to measure specific activation of T lymphocytes by P. chabaudi antigens. Mice were primed by subcutaneous administration of parasite antigens followed by co-cultivation of lymphocytes taken from the draining lymph nodes in the presence of the priming antigen. A marked proliferative response was observed which was shown to be antigen specific, T-cell mediated and accessory cell dependent. Continuous T-cell lines were propagated in culture by repetitive restimulation in the presence of antigen and accessory cells, followed by expansion in a conditioned medium containing T-cell growth factors. These lines could be induced to proliferate to the priming antigen only in the presence of syngeneic accessory cells thus indicating that H-2 restriction operates in the recognition of plasmodium antigens by T cells. We also induced parasite specific T cells by the use of an in vitro primary 'education' system. Lymphocytes from unprimed mice were sensitized on parasite-fed macrophages and were then injected subcutaneously into each hind foot pad of syngeneic animals. This led to recruitment of antigen-reactive cells which were assayed in vitro by the ability of lymphocytes taken from the draining popliteal lymph nodes to proliferate in response to the sensitizing antigen. In vivo immunization with Plasmodium antigen fed macrophages also signalled antigen specific T cells that recruited reactive T cells in the draining lymph nodes.

Cell-mediated killing of protozoa

Cell-mediated immunity represents an important host defence mechanism against protozoal infections. The effector cells directly involved are neutrophils, macrophages and, ultimately, activated macrophages. Within this simple scheme there are, however, considerable variations in activity. Effector cells from different animal species, and even from different strains of the same species, may be more or less effective in controlling a certain protozoal infection. Different protozoa differ in their susceptibility to cell-mediated killing according to genus, species, strain and morphological form. The most susceptible morphological form is that which occurs in the insect vector, and which has not yet adapted to protect itself from the vertebrate host. Epimastigotes of Trypanosoma and promastigotes of Leishmania are readily killed by phagocytic cells, while the corresponding trypomastigote and amastigote forms are considerably more resistant. Protozoa which live in macrophages, such as amastigotes of Leishmania, endozoites (tachyzoites) of Toxoplasma and amastigotes of reticulotropic strains of T. cruzi, have developed a remarkable resistance to the microbicidal activity of the host cell. Conversely, amastigotes of myotropic strains of T. cruzi, which live in muscle cells, have not developed this resistance to cell-mediated killing by macrophages. Readily accessible protozoa, such as T. brucei trypomastigotes and Plasmodium merozoites in the bloodstream, while they lack the marked resistance developed by reticulotropic protozoa, have a partial protection since they are attacked by phagocytic cells only when specific antibody is present. Granulocyte-mediated killing can be largely attributed to neutrophils. Eosinophils appear to play only a minor role and compete ineffectually when neutrophils are also present. The only group of protozoal species which may be significantly controlled by eosinophils are the stercorarian species of Trypanosoma. In vitro experiments show that antibody-coated trypomastigotes of T. cruzi can be killed by eosinophils, although there is little evidence that this occurs in vivo. Interestingly, this is the only species that has been reported to be susceptible to the major basic protein of eosinophils, a toxic component of the lysosomal granules which is very active against helminths. Neutrophils are not very active against endozoites of Toxoplasma gondii, Trypanosoma, trypomastigotes of salivarian Trypanosoma, free merozoites of Plasmodium, and promastigotes and amastigotes of Leishmania.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)