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Vite-Garín T, Estrada-Cruz NA, Hernández-Castro R, Fuentes-Venado CE, Zarate-Segura PB, Frías-De-León MG, Martínez-Castillo M, Martínez-Herrera E, Pinto-Almazán R. Remarkable Phenotypic Virulence Factors of Microsporum canis and Their Associated Genes: A Systematic Review. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2533. [PMID: 38473782 PMCID: PMC10932039 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25052533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Microsporum canis is a widely distributed dermatophyte, which is among the main etiological agents of dermatophytosis in humans and domestic animals. This fungus invades, colonizes and nourishes itself on the keratinized tissues of the host through various virulence factors. This review will bring together the known information about the mechanisms, enzymes and their associated genes relevant to the pathogenesis processes of the fungus and will provide an overview of those virulence factors that should be better studied to establish effective methods of prevention and control of the disease. Public databases using the MeSH terms "Microsporum canis", "virulence factors" and each individual virulence factor were reviewed to enlist a series of articles, from where only original works in English and Spanish that included relevant information on the subject were selected. Out of the 147 articles obtained in the review, 46 were selected that reported virulence factors for M. canis in a period between 1988 and 2023. The rest of the articles were discarded because they did not contain information on the topic (67), some were written in different languages (3), and others were repeated in two or more databases (24) or were not original articles (7). The main virulence factors in M. canis are keratinases, fungilisins and subtilisins. However, less commonly reported are biofilms or dipeptidylpeptidases, among others, which have been little researched because they vary in expression or activity between strains and are not considered essential for the infection and survival of the fungus. Although it is known that they are truly involved in resistance, infection and metabolism, we recognize that their study could strengthen the knowledge of the pathogenesis of M. canis with the aim of achieving effective treatments, as well as the prevention and control of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tania Vite-Garín
- Sección de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón s/n, Col. Casco de Santo Tomas, Alcaldía Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México 11340, Mexico; (T.V.-G.); (N.A.E.-C.); (C.E.F.-V.); (M.M.-C.)
- Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Investigación Científica, C.U., Coyoacán, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico
| | - Norma Angélica Estrada-Cruz
- Sección de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón s/n, Col. Casco de Santo Tomas, Alcaldía Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México 11340, Mexico; (T.V.-G.); (N.A.E.-C.); (C.E.F.-V.); (M.M.-C.)
| | - Rigoberto Hernández-Castro
- Departamento de Ecología de Agentes Patógenos, Hospital General “Dr. Manuel Gea González”, Ciudad de México 14080, Mexico;
| | - Claudia Erika Fuentes-Venado
- Sección de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón s/n, Col. Casco de Santo Tomas, Alcaldía Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México 11340, Mexico; (T.V.-G.); (N.A.E.-C.); (C.E.F.-V.); (M.M.-C.)
- Servicio de Medicina Física y Rehabilitación, Hospital General de Zona No 197, Texcoco 56108, Mexico
| | - Paola Berenice Zarate-Segura
- Laboratorio de Medicina Traslacional, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México 11340, Mexico
| | - María Guadalupe Frías-De-León
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica, Hospital Regional de Alta Especialidad de Ixtapaluca, Pueblo de Zoquiapan, Ixtapaluca 56530, Mexico;
| | - Macario Martínez-Castillo
- Sección de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón s/n, Col. Casco de Santo Tomas, Alcaldía Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México 11340, Mexico; (T.V.-G.); (N.A.E.-C.); (C.E.F.-V.); (M.M.-C.)
| | - Erick Martínez-Herrera
- Sección de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón s/n, Col. Casco de Santo Tomas, Alcaldía Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México 11340, Mexico; (T.V.-G.); (N.A.E.-C.); (C.E.F.-V.); (M.M.-C.)
- Fundación Vithas, Grupo Hospitalario Vithas, 28043 Madrid, Spain
- Efficiency, Quality, and Costsin Health Services Research Group (EFISALUD), Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IISGS), Servizo Galego de Saúde-Universidade de Vigo (UVIGO), 36213 Vigo, Spain
| | - Rodolfo Pinto-Almazán
- Sección de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón s/n, Col. Casco de Santo Tomas, Alcaldía Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México 11340, Mexico; (T.V.-G.); (N.A.E.-C.); (C.E.F.-V.); (M.M.-C.)
- Fundación Vithas, Grupo Hospitalario Vithas, 28043 Madrid, Spain
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2
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Deng R, Wang X, Li R. Dermatophyte infection: from fungal pathogenicity to host immune responses. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1285887. [PMID: 38022599 PMCID: PMC10652793 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1285887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytosis is a common superficial infection caused by dermatophytes, a group of pathogenic keratinophilic fungi. Apart from invasion against skin barrier, host immune responses to dermatophytes could also lead to pathologic inflammation and tissue damage to some extent. Therefore, it is of great help to understand the pathogenesis of dermatophytes, including fungal virulence factors and anti-pathogen immune responses. This review aims to summarize the recent advances in host-fungal interactions, focusing on the mechanisms of anti-fungal immunity and the relationship between immune deficiency and chronic dermatophytosis, in order to facilitate novel diagnostic and therapeutic approaches to improve the outcomes of these patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruixin Deng
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China
- Research Center for Medical Mycology, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Skin and Immune Diseases, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnosis on Dermatoses, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaowen Wang
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China
- Research Center for Medical Mycology, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Skin and Immune Diseases, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnosis on Dermatoses, Beijing, China
| | - Ruoyu Li
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China
- Research Center for Medical Mycology, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Skin and Immune Diseases, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnosis on Dermatoses, Beijing, China
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Wacker T, Helmstetter N, Wilson D, Fisher MC, Studholme DJ, Farrer RA. Two-speed genome evolution drives pathogenicity in fungal pathogens of animals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2212633120. [PMID: 36595674 PMCID: PMC9926174 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2212633120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The origins and evolution of virulence in amphibian-infecting chytrids Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) are largely unknown. Here, we use deep nanopore sequencing of Bsal and comparative genomics against 21 high-quality genome assemblies that span the fungal Chytridiomycota. We discover that Bsal has the most repeat-rich genome of the Chytridiomycota, comprising 40.9% repetitive elements; this genome has expanded to more than 3× the length of its conspecific Bd, with autonomous and fully functional LTR/Gypsy elements contributing significantly to the expansion. The M36 metalloprotease virulence factors are highly expanded (n = 177) in Bsal, most of which (53%) are flanked by transposable elements, suggesting they have a repeat-associated expansion. We find enrichment upstream of M36 metalloprotease genes of three novel repeat families belonging to the repeat superfamily of LINEs that are implicated with gene copy number variations. Additionally, Bsal has a highly compartmentalized genome architecture, with virulence factors enriched in gene-sparse/repeat-rich compartments, while core conserved genes are enriched in gene-rich/repeat-poor compartments. Genes upregulated during infection are primarily found in the gene-sparse/repeat-rich compartment in both Bd and Bsal. Furthermore, genes with signatures of positive selection in Bd are enriched in repeat-rich regions, suggesting these regions are a cradle for the evolution of chytrid pathogenicity. These are the hallmarks of two-speed genome evolution, and this study provides evidence of two-speed genomes in an animal pathogen, shedding light on the evolution of fungal pathogens of vertebrates driving global declines and extinctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa Wacker
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology at the University of Exeter, ExeterEX4 4QD, United Kingdom
| | - Nicolas Helmstetter
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology at the University of Exeter, ExeterEX4 4QD, United Kingdom
| | - Duncan Wilson
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology at the University of Exeter, ExeterEX4 4QD, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew C. Fisher
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Imperial College London, LondonW12 0BZ, United Kingdom
| | - David J. Studholme
- Department of Biosciences, University of Exeter, ExeterEX4 4QD, United Kingdom
| | - Rhys A. Farrer
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology at the University of Exeter, ExeterEX4 4QD, United Kingdom
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Reynolds NK, Stajich JE, Benny GL, Barry K, Mondo S, LaButti K, Lipzen A, Daum C, Grigoriev IV, Ho HM, Crous PW, Spatafora JW, Smith ME. Mycoparasites, Gut Dwellers, and Saprotrophs: Phylogenomic Reconstructions and Comparative Analyses of Kickxellomycotina Fungi. Genome Biol Evol 2023; 15:evac185. [PMID: 36617272 PMCID: PMC9866270 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evac185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Improved sequencing technologies have profoundly altered global views of fungal diversity and evolution. High-throughput sequencing methods are critical for studying fungi due to the cryptic, symbiotic nature of many species, particularly those that are difficult to culture. However, the low coverage genome sequencing (LCGS) approach to phylogenomic inference has not been widely applied to fungi. Here we analyzed 171 Kickxellomycotina fungi using LCGS methods to obtain hundreds of marker genes for robust phylogenomic reconstruction. Additionally, we mined our LCGS data for a set of nine rDNA and protein coding genes to enable analyses across species for which no LCGS data were obtained. The main goals of this study were to: 1) evaluate the quality and utility of LCGS data for both phylogenetic reconstruction and functional annotation, 2) test relationships among clades of Kickxellomycotina, and 3) perform comparative functional analyses between clades to gain insight into putative trophic modes. In opposition to previous studies, our nine-gene analyses support two clades of arthropod gut dwelling species and suggest a possible single evolutionary event leading to this symbiotic lifestyle. Furthermore, we resolve the mycoparasitic Dimargaritales as the earliest diverging clade in the subphylum and find four major clades of Coemansia species. Finally, functional analyses illustrate clear variation in predicted carbohydrate active enzymes and secondary metabolites (SM) based on ecology, that is biotroph versus saprotroph. Saprotrophic Kickxellales broadly lack many known pectinase families compared with saprotrophic Mucoromycota and are depauperate for SM but have similar numbers of predicted chitinases as mycoparasitic.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jason E Stajich
- Department of Microbiology & Plant Pathology and Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, University of California–Riverside
| | | | - Kerrie Barry
- U.S. Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
| | - Stephen Mondo
- U.S. Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
| | - Kurt LaButti
- U.S. Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
| | - Anna Lipzen
- U.S. Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
| | - Chris Daum
- U.S. Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
| | - Igor V Grigoriev
- U.S. Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California Berkeley
| | - Hsiao-Man Ho
- Department of Science Education, University of Education, 134, Section 2, Heping E. Road, National Taipei, Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Pedro W Crous
- Department of Evolutionary Phytopathology, Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Uppsalalaan 8, 3584 CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Qiu J, Barrett K, Wilkens C, Meyer AS. Bioinformatics based discovery of new keratinases in protease family M36. N Biotechnol 2022; 68:19-27. [PMID: 35032710 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbt.2022.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Revised: 01/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Keratinases are proteases that can catalyze the degradation of insoluble keratinous biomass. Keratinases in protease family M36 (MEROPS database) are endo-acting proteases. In total, 687 proteases are classified in family M36. In the present study, new keratinolytic enzymes were identified in protease family M36 using the bioinformatics tool Conserved Unique Peptide Patterns (CUPP). Via CUPP, M36 family members were classified into 11 groups, with CUPP group 1 containing the three currently known and sequenced family M36 keratinases (derived from the fungi Fusarium oxysporum, Microsporum canis and Onygena corvina) as well as an additional 71 uncharacterized M36 proteases. In order to assess the relevance of CUPP group 1 categorization to keratinolytic function, four uncharacterized M36 proteases and the known keratinase from F. oxysporum (in CUPP group 1) were selected for recombinant expression and keratinolytic activity assessment. The four hitherto unknown M36 proteases were from Phaeosphaeria nodorum, Aspergillus clavatus, Pseudogymnoascus pannorum and Nectria haematococca, and represent four different fungal taxonomical classes. The genes encoding the selected M36 proteases were individually expressed in Pichia pastoris and all proteases displayed keratinase activity on keratin azure. Additionally, the activity on different keratinase substrates, optimal reaction conditions and thermal stability were determined for the two most active new keratinases. The results validate the applicability of CUPP for function-based discovery of non-characterized keratinases and present new robust keratinases for potential use in keratin upgrading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingwen Qiu
- Section for Protein Chemistry and Enzyme Technology, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, DTU Bioengineering, Building 221, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Kristian Barrett
- Section for Protein Chemistry and Enzyme Technology, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, DTU Bioengineering, Building 221, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Casper Wilkens
- Section for Protein Chemistry and Enzyme Technology, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, DTU Bioengineering, Building 221, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Anne S Meyer
- Section for Protein Chemistry and Enzyme Technology, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, DTU Bioengineering, Building 221, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
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Comprehensive Assessment of the Virulence Factors sub 3, sub 6 and mcpA in the Zoonotic Dermatophyte Trichophyton benhamiae Using FISH and qPCR. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 8:jof8010024. [PMID: 35049964 PMCID: PMC8778074 DOI: 10.3390/jof8010024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Skin infections by keratinophilic fungi are commonly referred to as dermatophytosis and represent a major health burden worldwide. Although patient numbers are on the rise, data on virulence factors, their function and kinetics are scarce. We employed an ex vivo infection model based on guinea pig skin explants (GPSE) for the zoonotic dermatophyte Trichophyton (T.) benhamiae to investigate kinetics of the virulence factors subtilisin (sub) 3, sub 6, metallocarboxypeptidase A (mcpA) and isocitrate lyase (isol) at gene level for ten days. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) were used to detect and quantify the transcripts, respectively. Kingdom-spanning, species-specific and virulence factor-specific probes were successfully applied to isolated fungal elements showing inhomogeneous fluorescence signals along hyphae. Staining results for inoculated GPSE remained inconsistent despite thorough optimization. qPCR revealed a significant increase of sub 3- and mcpA-transcripts toward the end of culture, sub 6 and isol remained at a low level throughout the entire culture period. Sub 3 is tightly connected to the de novo formation of conidia during culture. Since sub 6 is considered an in vivo disease marker. However, the presented findings urgently call for further research on the role of certain virulence factors during infection and disease.
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Burchacka E, Pięta P, Łupicka-Słowik A. Recent advances in fungal serine protease inhibitors. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 146:112523. [PMID: 34902742 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2021.112523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Four types of antifungal drugs are available that include inhibitors of ergosterol synthesis, of fungal RNA biosynthesis, and of cell wall biosynthesis as well as physiochemical regulators of fungal membrane sterols. Increasing resistance to antifungal drugs can severely limit treatment options of fungal nail infections, vaginal candidiasis, ringworm, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, and Candida infections of the mouth, throat, and esophagus, among other infections. Development of strategies focused on new fungicides can effectively help tackle troublesome fungal diseases. The virulence and optimal growth of fungi depend on various extracellular secreted factors, among which proteases, such as serine proteases, are of particular interest. A specific extracellular proteolytic system enables fungi to survive and penetrate the tissues. Given the role of fungal proteases in infection, any molecule capable of selectively and specifically inhibiting their activity can lead to the development of potential drugs. Owing to their specific mode of action, fungal protease inhibitors can avoid fungal resistance observed with currently available treatments. Although fungal secreted proteases have been extensively studied as potential virulence factors, our understanding of the substrate specificity of such proteases remains poor. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in the design and development of specific serine protease inhibitors and provide a brief history of the compounds that inhibit fungal serine protease activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Burchacka
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, 27 Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego St, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland.
| | - P Pięta
- Department of Bionic and Medical Experimental Biology, Poznań University of Medical Sciences, Parkowa 2 St, 60-775 Poznań, Poland
| | - A Łupicka-Słowik
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, 27 Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego St, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
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Espersen R, Huang Y, Falco FC, Hägglund P, Gernaey KV, Lange L, Svensson B. Exceptionally rich keratinolytic enzyme profile found in the rare actinomycetes Amycolatopsis keratiniphila D2 T. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 105:8129-8138. [PMID: 34605969 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-021-11579-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The non-spore forming Gram-positive actinomycetes Amycolatopsis keratiniphila subsp. keratiniphila D2T (DSM 44,409) has a high potential for keratin valorization as demonstrated by a novel biotechnological microbial conversion process consisting of a bacterial growth phase and a keratinolytic phase, respectively. Compared to the most gifted keratinolytic Bacillus species, a very large number of 621 putative proteases are encoded by the genome of Amycolatopsis keratiniphila subsp. keratiniphila D2T, as predicted by using Peptide Pattern Recognition (PPR) analysis. Proteome analysis by using LC-MS/MS on aliquots of the supernatant of A. keratiniphila subsp. keratiniphila D2T culture on slaughterhouse pig bristle meal, removed at 24, 48, 96 and 120 h of growth, identified 43 proteases. This was supplemented by proteome analysis of specific fractions after enrichment of the supernatant by anion exchange chromatography leading to identification of 50 proteases. Overall 57 different proteases were identified corresponding to 30% of the 186 proteins identified from the culture supernatant and distributed as 17 metalloproteases from 11 families, including an M36 protease, 38 serine proteases from 4 families, and 13 proteolytic enzymes from other families. Notably, M36 keratinolytic proteases are prominent in fungi, but seem not to have been discovered in bacteria previously. Two S01 family peptidases, named T- and C-like proteases, prominent in the culture supernatant, were purified and shown to possess a high azo-keratin/azo-casein hydrolytic activity ratio. The C-like protease revealed excellent thermostability, giving promise for successful applications in biorefinery processes. Notably, the bacterium seems not to secrete enzymes for cleavage of disulfides in the keratinous substrates. KEY POINTS: • A. keratiniphila subsp. keratiniphila D2T is predicted to encode 621 proteases. • This actinomycete efficiently converts bristle meal to a protein hydrolysate. • Proteome analysis identified 57 proteases in its secretome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roall Espersen
- Enzyme and Protein Chemistry, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 224, DK 2800 Kgs., Lyngby, Denmark
- Center for Vaccine Research, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5 Building 81, DK 2300, Copenhagen S, Denmark
| | - Yuhong Huang
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 227, DK 2800 Kgs., Lyngby, Denmark
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Ionic Liquids Clean Process, Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Complex Systems, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Francesco C Falco
- Process and Systems Engineering Center, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 228 A, DK 2800 Kgs., Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Per Hägglund
- Enzyme and Protein Chemistry, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 224, DK 2800 Kgs., Lyngby, Denmark
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3B, DK 2200, Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - Krist V Gernaey
- Process and Systems Engineering Center, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 228 A, DK 2800 Kgs., Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Lene Lange
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 227, DK 2800 Kgs., Lyngby, Denmark
- Bioeconomy, Research & Advisory, Karensgade 5, DK 2500, Valby, Denmark
| | - Birte Svensson
- Enzyme and Protein Chemistry, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 224, DK 2800 Kgs., Lyngby, Denmark.
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Gene expression profiling of protease and non-protease genes in Trichophyton mentagrophytes isolates from dermatophytosis patients by qRT-PCR analysis. Sci Rep 2021; 11:403. [PMID: 33432046 PMCID: PMC7801629 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-79839-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichophyton mentagrophytes secretes Metallocarboxypeptidase A and B of the M14 family as endoproteases and exoprotease. T. mentagrophytes produce Metalloprotease 3 and 4 which degrades the protein into the short peptides and amino acids. To understand the host fungal relationship and identification of such genes expressed during infection is utmost important. T. mentagrophytes encodes some proteins which are associated with the glyoxylate cycle. The glyoxylate cycle enzymes have been involving in virulence of dermatophytes and their up-regulation during dermatophytes growth on keratin. On comparing the expression level of virulence protease and non-protease genes, we observed, among exoprotease protease genes, Metallocarboxypeptidase B was strongly up regulated (134.6 fold high) followed by Metallocarboxypeptidase A (115.6 fold high) and Di-peptidyl-peptidases V (10.1 fold high), in dermatophytic patients as compared to ATCC strain. Furthermore, among endoprotease, Metalloprotease 4 was strongly up regulated (131.6 fold high) followed by Metalloprotease 3 (16.7 fold high), in clinical strains as compared to T. mentagrophytes ATCC strain. While among non-protease genes, Citrate Synthase was highly expressed (118 fold high), followed by Isocitrate Lyase (101.6 fold high) and Malate Synthase (52.9 fold high). All the studied virulence genes were considered the best suitable ones by geNorm, Best keeper, Norm Finder and Ref finder.
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Łagowski D, Gnat S, Nowakiewicz A, Osińska M. Assessment of the subtilisin gene profile in Trichophyton verrucosum isolated from human and animal dermatophytoses in two-stage multiplex PCR. J Appl Microbiol 2020; 131:300-306. [PMID: 33245823 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Keratin is a fibrous and recalcitrant structural protein and the third most abundant polymer in nature after cellulose and chitin. Subtilisin-like proteases (SUB) are a group of serine endoproteases, coded by seven genes (SUB1-7), which decompose keratin structures and have been isolated from dermatophytes. Herein, we identified the SUB genes in 30 clinical isolates of Trichophyton verrucosum obtained from human and animal dermatophytosis as well as asymptomatic animal carriers. METHODS AND RESULTS We designed and proposed a two-stage multiplex PCR technique to detect all seven genes encoding serine proteases in dermatophytes. The analysis revealed the presence SUB1 and SUB2 amplicons in all strains regardless of the host. In the group of isolates obtained from humans, all seven subtilisin genes were shown in 40% of the strains. In T. verrucosum from asymptomatic animals, none of the isolates showed the presence of all seven subtilisin genes, and only 30% had six genes. In turn, 10% of the isolates from symptomatic animals demonstrated all seven subtilisins amplicons. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, the severity of infection and ability of T. verrucosum to cause dermatophytosis in humans may not be related to specific genes but their accumulation and synergistic effects of their products. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Dermatophytes are pathogenic filamentous fungi with capacity to attack keratinized structures such as skin, hair and nails, causing cutaneous superficial infections. Indeed, a biological characteristic of dermatophytes is their ability to invade keratin-rich tissues by producing enzymes. Various degrees of inflammatory responses can be induced exactly by the enzymes. Subtilisin-like proteases are endoproteases, which decompose keratin structures. Our study identifies SUB genes in clinical isolates of T. verrucosum obtained from human and animal dermatophytosis as well as asymptomatic animal carriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Łagowski
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Preclinical Veterinary Sciences, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - S Gnat
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Preclinical Veterinary Sciences, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - A Nowakiewicz
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Preclinical Veterinary Sciences, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - M Osińska
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Preclinical Veterinary Sciences, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
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11
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Microbial enzymes catalyzing keratin degradation: Classification, structure, function. Biotechnol Adv 2020; 44:107607. [PMID: 32768519 PMCID: PMC7405893 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Keratin is an insoluble and protein-rich epidermal material found in e.g. feather, wool, hair. It is produced in substantial amounts as co-product from poultry processing plants and pig slaughterhouses. Keratin is packed by disulfide bonds and hydrogen bonds. Based on the secondary structure, keratin can be classified into α-keratin and β-keratin. Keratinases (EC 3.4.-.- peptide hydrolases) have major potential to degrade keratin for sustainable recycling of the protein and amino acids. Currently, the known keratinolytic enzymes belong to at least 14 different protease families: S1, S8, S9, S10, S16, M3, M4, M14, M16, M28, M32, M36, M38, M55 (MEROPS database). The various keratinolytic enzymes act via endo-attack (proteases in families S1, S8, S16, M4, M16, M36), exo-attack (proteases in families S9, S10, M14, M28, M38, M55) or by action only on oligopeptides (proteases in families M3, M32), respectively. Other enzymes, particularly disulfide reductases, also play a key role in keratin degradation as they catalyze the breakage of disulfide bonds for better keratinase catalysis. This review aims to contribute an overview of keratin biomass as an enzyme substrate and a systematic analysis of currently sequenced keratinolytic enzymes and their classification and reaction mechanisms. We also summarize and discuss keratinase assays, available keratinase structures and finally examine the available data on uses of keratinases in practical biorefinery protein upcycling applications.
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12
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Leonard M, Kühn A, Harting R, Maurus I, Nagel A, Starke J, Kusch H, Valerius O, Feussner K, Feussner I, Kaever A, Landesfeind M, Morgenstern B, Becher D, Hecker M, Braus-Stromeyer SA, Kronstad JW, Braus GH. Verticillium longisporum Elicits Media-Dependent Secretome Responses With Capacity to Distinguish Between Plant-Related Environments. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:1876. [PMID: 32849460 PMCID: PMC7423881 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.01876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Verticillia cause a vascular wilt disease affecting a broad range of economically valuable crops. The fungus enters its host plants through the roots and colonizes the vascular system. It requires extracellular proteins for a successful plant colonization. The exoproteomes of the allodiploid Verticillium longisporum upon cultivation in different media or xylem sap extracted from its host plant Brassica napus were compared. Secreted fungal proteins were identified by label free liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry screening. V. longisporum induced two main secretion patterns. One response pattern was elicited in various non-plant related environments. The second pattern includes the exoprotein responses to the plant-related media, pectin-rich simulated xylem medium and pure xylem sap, which exhibited similar but additional distinct features. These exoproteomes include a shared core set of 221 secreted and similarly enriched fungal proteins. The pectin-rich medium significantly induced the secretion of 143 proteins including a number of pectin degrading enzymes, whereas xylem sap triggered a smaller but unique fungal exoproteome pattern with 32 enriched proteins. The latter pattern included proteins with domains of known pathogenicity factors, metallopeptidases and carbohydrate-active enzymes. The most abundant proteins of these different groups are the necrosis and ethylene inducing-like proteins Nlp2 and Nlp3, the cerato-platanin proteins Cp1 and Cp2, the metallopeptidases Mep1 and Mep2 and the carbohydrate-active enzymes Gla1, Amy1 and Cbd1. Their pathogenicity contribution was analyzed in the haploid parental strain V. dahliae. Deletion of the majority of the corresponding genes caused no phenotypic changes during ex planta growth or invasion and colonization of tomato plants. However, we discovered that the MEP1, NLP2, and NLP3 deletion strains were compromised in plant infections. Overall, our exoproteome approach revealed that the fungus induces specific secretion responses in different environments. The fungus has a general response to non-plant related media whereas it is able to fine-tune its exoproteome in the presence of plant material. Importantly, the xylem sap-specific exoproteome pinpointed Nlp2 and Nlp3 as single effectors required for successful V. dahliae colonization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Leonard
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Genetics, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Anika Kühn
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Genetics, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Rebekka Harting
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Genetics, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Isabel Maurus
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Genetics, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Alexandra Nagel
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Genetics, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jessica Starke
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Genetics, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Harald Kusch
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Genetics, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Oliver Valerius
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Genetics, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Kirstin Feussner
- Department for Plant Biochemistry, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences, Albrecht-von-Haller-Institute for Plant Sciences, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Ivo Feussner
- Department for Plant Biochemistry, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences, Albrecht-von-Haller-Institute for Plant Sciences, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Alexander Kaever
- Department of Bioinformatics, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences, Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Manuel Landesfeind
- Department of Bioinformatics, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences, Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Burkhard Morgenstern
- Department of Bioinformatics, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences, Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Dörte Becher
- Department Microbial Proteomics, Institute for Microbiology, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Michael Hecker
- Department of Microbial Physiology, Institute for Microbiology, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Susanna A. Braus-Stromeyer
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Genetics, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - James W. Kronstad
- Michael Smith Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Gerhard H. Braus
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Genetics, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
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13
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Gonzalo M, Espersen R, Al‐Soud WA, Cristiano Falco F, Hägglund P, Sørensen SJ, Svensson B, Jacquiod S. Azo dying of α-keratin material improves microbial keratinase screening and standardization. Microb Biotechnol 2020; 13:984-996. [PMID: 32110845 PMCID: PMC7264887 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.13541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial conversion through enzymatic reactions has received a lot of attention as a cost-effective and environmentally friendly way to recover amino acids and short peptides from keratin materials. However, accurate assessment of microbial keratinase activity is not straightforward, and current available methods lack sensitivity and standardization. Here, we suggest an optimized Azokeratin assay, with substrate generated directly from azo-dyed raw keratin material. We introduced supernatant filtration in the protocol for optimal stopping of keratinase reactions instead of the widely used trichloroacetic acid (TCA), as it generated biases and impacted the sensitivity. We furthermore suggest a method for standardization of keratinase activity signals using proteinase K, a well-known keratinase, as a reference enabling reproducibility between studies. Lastly, we evaluated our developed method with several bacterial isolates through benchmarking against a commercial assay (Keratin Azure). Under different setups, the Azokeratin method was more sensitive than commonly used Keratin Azure-based assays (3-fold). We argue that this method could be applied with any type of keratin substrate, enabling more robust and sensitive results which can be used for further comparison with other studies, thus representing an important progress within the field of microbial keratin degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milena Gonzalo
- Section of MicrobiologyUniversity of CopenhagenDK‐2100CopenhagenDenmark
- Present address:
Interactions Arbres/Micro‐organismesINRA/Univ. de LorraineChampenouxFrance
| | - Roall Espersen
- Department of Biotechnology and BiomedicineTechnical University of DenmarkDK‐2800LyngbyDenmark
| | - Waleed A. Al‐Soud
- Section of MicrobiologyUniversity of CopenhagenDK‐2100CopenhagenDenmark
| | - Francesco Cristiano Falco
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical EngineeringTechnical University of DenmarkDK‐2800LyngbyDenmark
| | - Per Hägglund
- Department of Biotechnology and BiomedicineTechnical University of DenmarkDK‐2800LyngbyDenmark
- Present address:
Department of Biomedical SciencesPanum Institute 12.6University of CopenhagenCopenhagenDenmark
| | - Søren J. Sørensen
- Section of MicrobiologyUniversity of CopenhagenDK‐2100CopenhagenDenmark
| | - Birte Svensson
- Department of Biotechnology and BiomedicineTechnical University of DenmarkDK‐2800LyngbyDenmark
| | - Samuel Jacquiod
- Section of MicrobiologyUniversity of CopenhagenDK‐2100CopenhagenDenmark
- Present address:
AgroécologieAgroSup DijonINRAEUniv. BourgogneUniv. Bourgogne Franche‐ComtéF‐21000DijonFrance
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14
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Espersen R, Falco FC, Hägglund P, Gernaey KV, Lantz AE, Svensson B. Two novel S1 peptidases from Amycolatopsis keratinophila subsp. keratinophila D2 T degrading keratinous slaughterhouse by-products. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2020; 104:2513-2522. [PMID: 31989222 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-020-10380-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2019] [Revised: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Two proteases, named C- and T-like proteases, respectively, were purified from the culture supernatant of Amycolatopsis keratinophila subsp. keratinophila D2T grown on a keratinous slaughterhouse by-product of pig bristles and nails as sole nitrogen and carbon source. The two proteases belong to peptidase family S1 as identified by mass spectrometric peptide mapping, have low mutual sequence identity (25.8%) and differ in substrate specificity. T-like protease showed maximum activity at 40 °C and pH 8-9, and C-like protease at 60 °C and pH 8-10. Peptides released from the keratinous by-product were identified by mass spectrometry and indicated P1 specificity for arginine and lysine of T-like and alanine, valine and isoleucine of C-like protease as also supported by the activity of the two proteases towards synthetic peptide and amino acid substrates. The specific activities of the C- and T-like proteases and proteinase K on keratin azure and azokeratin were comparable. However, C- and T-like proteases showed 5-10-fold higher keratin/casein (K/C) activity ratios than that of another S1 and two keratin-degrading S8 peptidases used for comparison. The findings support that the range of peptidase families considered to contain keratinases should be expanded to include S1 peptidases. Furthermore, the results indicated the quite thermostable C-like protease to be a promising candidate for use in industrial degradation of keratinous slaughterhouse by-products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roall Espersen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 224, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
- Center for Vaccine Research, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5 building 81, 2300, Kbh. S, DK, Denmark
| | - Francesco C Falco
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 227, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Per Hägglund
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 224, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Krist V Gernaey
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 227, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Anna E Lantz
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 227, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Birte Svensson
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 224, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
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15
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Aaron PA, Gelli A. Harnessing the Activity of the Fungal Metalloprotease, Mpr1, To Promote Crossing of Nanocarriers through the Blood-Brain Barrier. ACS Infect Dis 2020; 6:138-149. [PMID: 31820926 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.9b00348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans (Cn) is the leading cause of fungal meningitis primarily in immunosuppressed patients. Cn invades the central nervous system by overcoming the highly restricted blood-brain barrier (BBB). We previously determined that a secreted fungal metalloprotease, Mpr1, that also confers crossing ability to yeast upon CnMPR1 expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is central to this process. This led us to question whether Mpr1 could be engineered to function as part of a nanocarrier delivery vehicle. Here, a eukaryotic expression system produced proteolytically active Mpr1 recombinant protein that was successfully conjugated to functionalized quantum dot (QD) nanoparticles and readily internalized by brain microvascular endothelial cells. An in vitro BBB model showed QD-Mpr1 crossed the BBB significantly better than mock QD, and QD-Mpr1 did not damage BBB integrity. Internalization of QD-Mpr1 occurred by membrane invaginations and endocytic pits typical of receptor-mediated endocytosis involving clathrin-coated entry points. This study substantiates the notion that fungal mechanisms of BBB entry may be harnessed for new drug delivery platform technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phylicia A. Aaron
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of California, 3503 Genome and Biomedical Sciences Facility, 451 Health Sciences Drive, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Angie Gelli
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of California, 3503 Genome and Biomedical Sciences Facility, 451 Health Sciences Drive, Davis, California 95616, United States
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16
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Kang E, Jin HS, La JW, Sung JY, Park SY, Kim WC, Lee DW. Identification of keratinases from Fervidobacterium islandicum AW-1 using dynamic gene expression profiling. Microb Biotechnol 2019; 13:442-457. [PMID: 31613061 PMCID: PMC7017815 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.13493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Keratin degradation is of great interest for converting agro‐industrial waste into bioactive peptides and is directly relevant for understanding the pathogenesis of superficial infections caused by dermatophytes. However, the mechanism of this process remains unclear. Here, we obtained the complete genome sequence of a feather‐degrading, extremely thermophilic bacterium, Fervidobacterium islandicum AW‐1 and performed bioinformatics‐based functional annotation. Reverse transcription PCR revealed that 57 putative protease‐encoding genes were differentially expressed in substrate‐dependent manners. Consequently, 16 candidate genes were highly expressed under starvation conditions, when keratin degradation begun. Subsequently, the dynamic expression profiles of these 16 selected genes in response to feathers, as determined via quantitative real‐time PCR, suggested that they included four metalloproteases and two peptidases including an ATP‐dependent serine protease, all of which might act as key players in feather decomposition. Furthermore, in vitro keratinolytic assays supported the notion that recombinant enzymes enhanced the decomposition of feathers in the presence of cell extracts. Therefore, our genome‐based systematic and dynamic expression profiling demonstrated that these identified metalloproteases together with two additional peptidases might be primarily associated with the decomposition of native feathers, suggesting that keratin degradation can be achieved via non‐canonical catalysis of several membrane‐associated metalloproteases in cooperation with cytosolic proteases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunju Kang
- School of Applied Biosciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 41566, South Korea
| | - Hyeon-Su Jin
- Department of Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, South Korea
| | - Jae Won La
- Department of Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, South Korea
| | - Jae-Yoon Sung
- Department of Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, South Korea
| | - Soo-Young Park
- Department of Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, South Korea
| | - Won-Chan Kim
- School of Applied Biosciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 41566, South Korea
| | - Dong-Woo Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, South Korea
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17
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Łagowski D, Gnat S, Nowakiewicz A, Osińska M, Trościańczyk A, Zięba P. In search of the source of dermatophytosis: Epidemiological analysis of Trichophyton verrucosum infection in llamas and the breeder (case report). Zoonoses Public Health 2019; 66:982-989. [PMID: 31538413 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 08/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
During the last few years, the number of cases of Trichophyton verrucosum isolation from humans suffering from mycoses has been constantly increasing, which is correlated with the presence of an increasing number of outdoor breeding farms. Farmers and their families as well as veterinarians and technicians involved in handling the animals are at a higher risk of infection. One of the most important aims of mycological diagnostics is epidemiological analysis. Typically, the history of the disease is not sufficient to indicate reliably and eliminate the outbreak of infection. PCR fingerprinting methods are a useful tool in this type of analysis, which is presented in this study. The main aim is to present diagnostic and epidemiological analyses of dermatophyte isolates from llamas and their breeder. In two llamas, round alopecia sites or ca. 2-cm excoriations covered with thickened scaling epidermis were noticed at the border of the head and neck with a distinct tendency towards hair loss. Tinea unguium was noticed in a nail of the breeder's right hand. Direct analysis of the material from the clinical lesions revealed the presence of arthrospores. The macro- and micromorphology of the isolates were homogeneous and characteristic for T. verrucosum. The identification analysis based on the ITS sequences confirmed the previous morphological diagnostic examination. The MP-PCR and MSP-PCR analysis indicated high invariability of the genomes of the strains isolated from the human and animals. The epidemiological research has indicated an identical source of dermatophyte infection in the breeder and the lamas. To sum up, the number of pets and farm animals is increasing and dermatologists should always be informed about possible dermatophyte transmission sources. The possibility of transmission of zoophilic dermatophytes from humans to animals is a suggestion for further analysis; therefore, this type of transmission should be considered in dermatological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Łagowski
- Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases, Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - Sebastian Gnat
- Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases, Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - Aneta Nowakiewicz
- Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases, Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - Marcelina Osińska
- Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases, Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Trościańczyk
- Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases, Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
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18
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Kaplan E, Gonca S, Kandemir H, Döğen A, Hilmioğlu-Polat S, Ilkit M, Tanaka R, Yaguchi T, Uhrlaβ S, Nenoff P. Genes Encoding Proteolytic Enzymes Fungalysin and Subtilisin in Dermatophytes of Human and Animal Origin: A Comparative Study. Mycopathologia 2019; 185:137-144. [PMID: 31376040 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-019-00367-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Revised: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/20/2019] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
Dermatophytes are among the most successful fungal pathogens in humans, but their virulence mechanisms have not yet been fully characterized. Dermatophytic fungi secrete proteases in vivo, which are responsible for fungal colonization and degradation of the keratinized tissue during infection. In the present study, we used PCR to investigate the presence of genes encoding fungalysins (MEP) and subtilisins (SUB) in three dermatophyte species whose incidence is increasing in Europe: the anthropophilic Trichophyton rubrum (n = 58), zoophilic Microsporum canis (n = 33), and Trichophyton benhamiae (n = 6). MEP2 and SUB4 genes were significantly correlated with T. rubrum; MEP3 and SUB1 were mostly frequently harbored by M. canis; and MEP1, 2, and 4 and SUB3-7 were most frequently harbored by T. benhamiae isolates (p < 0.05). Furthermore, MEP1-5 and SUB1-3 genes were significantly more prevalent among human clinical isolates of M. canis (n = 17) than among asymptomatic cat isolates of M. canis (n = 16; p < 0.05). Unidentified MEP and/or SUB genes in some isolates in the current study may suggest that other gene repertoires may be involved in the degradation of keratin. The presented analysis of the incidence of MEP and SUB virulence genes in three dermatophyte species of diverse origins provides an insight into the host-fungus interaction and dermatophyte pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Engin Kaplan
- Advanced Technology Education, Research, and Application Center, Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey.,Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Zonguldak Bülent Ecevit, Zonguldak, Turkey
| | - Serpil Gonca
- Advanced Technology Education, Research, and Application Center, Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey
| | - Hazal Kandemir
- Division of Mycology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Çukurova, Adana, Turkey.,Centre of Expertise in Mycology, Radboud University Medical Centre/Canisius Wilhelmina Hospital, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Aylin Döğen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Mersin, Mersin, Turkey.
| | | | - Macit Ilkit
- Division of Mycology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Çukurova, Adana, Turkey
| | - Reiko Tanaka
- Medical Mycology Research Center, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, 260-8673, Japan
| | - Takashi Yaguchi
- Medical Mycology Research Center, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, 260-8673, Japan
| | - Silke Uhrlaβ
- Laboratory for Medical Microbiology, Mölbis, Germany
| | - Pietro Nenoff
- Laboratory for Medical Microbiology, Mölbis, Germany
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19
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Mercer DK, Stewart CS. Keratin hydrolysis by dermatophytes. Med Mycol 2019; 57:13-22. [PMID: 29361043 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myx160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytes are the most common cause of superficial fungal infections (tinea infections) and are a specialized group of filamentous fungi capable of infecting and degrading keratinised tissues, including skin, hair, and nail. Essential to their pathogenicity and virulence is the production of a broad spectrum of proteolytic enzymes and other key proteins involved in keratin biodegradation and utilization of its breakdown products. The initial stage of biodegradation of native keratin is considered to be sulfitolysis, in which the extensive disulfide bridges present in keratin are hydrolyzed, although some secreted subtilisins can degrade dye-impregnated keratin azure without prior reduction (Sub3 and Sub4). Sulfitolysis facilitates the extracellular biodegradation of keratin by the dermatophytes' extensive array of endo- and exoproteases. The importance of dermatophyte proteases in infection is widely recognized, and these enzymes have also been identified as important virulence determinants and allergens. Finally, the short peptide and amino acid breakdown products are taken up by the dermatophytes, using as yet poorly characterised transporters, and utilized for metabolism. In this review, we describe the process of keratin biodegradation by dermatophytes, with an especial focus on recent developments in cutting edge molecular biology and '-omic' studies that are helping to dissect the complex process of keratin breakdown and utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derry K Mercer
- NovaBiotics Ltd, Cruickshank Building, Craibstone, Aberdeen, AB21 9TR, United Kingdom
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Gnat S, Łagowski D, Nowakiewicz A, Zięba P. The host range of dermatophytes, it is at all possible? Phenotypic evaluation of the keratinolytic activity of Trichophyton verrucosum clinical isolates. Mycoses 2019; 62:274-283. [PMID: 30537378 DOI: 10.1111/myc.12876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2018] [Revised: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Dermatophytes are fungi that have an ability to invade keratinised structures. Enzymes secreted by dermatophytes can underlie fungal survival on the host and development of infection. It is possible that the range of activity of keratinases from various dermatophytes is limited to specific species of animals and groups of people. The aim of this study was to carry out phenotypic analysis of the degree of keratinolytic activity of Trichophyton verrucosum strains using hairs of humans and various animal species as substrates. Our results indicated that the activity of keratinases is substrate-induced. The host range of T. verrucosum can be defined as wide. The highest activity of keratinases was recorded in media containing keratin from cow (Bos taurus) and sheep (Ovis aries) hairs in comparison with that from other tested species. The production of keratin-degrading enzymes is a function of time, with the peak of their activity occurring on day 15 of incubation. The role of keratin-degrading enzymes in the pathogenesis of dermatophytosis is becoming increasingly clearer. Given the conceptual understanding that keratin breakdown may require more than just one enzyme, the use of phenotypic methods is an optimal approach to in vitro study of the decomposition of species-specific keratin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Gnat
- Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases, Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - Dominik Łagowski
- Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases, Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - Aneta Nowakiewicz
- Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases, Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
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21
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Seyedmousavi S, Bosco SDMG, de Hoog S, Ebel F, Elad D, Gomes RR, Jacobsen ID, Jensen HE, Martel A, Mignon B, Pasmans F, Piecková E, Rodrigues AM, Singh K, Vicente VA, Wibbelt G, Wiederhold NP, Guillot J. Fungal infections in animals: a patchwork of different situations. Med Mycol 2018. [PMID: 29538732 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myx104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The importance of fungal infections in both human and animals has increased over the last decades. This article represents an overview of the different categories of fungal infections that can be encountered in animals originating from environmental sources without transmission to humans. In addition, the endemic infections with indirect transmission from the environment, the zoophilic fungal pathogens with near-direct transmission, the zoonotic fungi that can be directly transmitted from animals to humans, mycotoxicoses and antifungal resistance in animals will also be discussed. Opportunistic mycoses are responsible for a wide range of diseases from localized infections to fatal disseminated diseases, such as aspergillosis, mucormycosis, candidiasis, cryptococcosis and infections caused by melanized fungi. The amphibian fungal disease chytridiomycosis and the Bat White-nose syndrome are due to obligatory fungal pathogens. Zoonotic agents are naturally transmitted from vertebrate animals to humans and vice versa. The list of zoonotic fungal agents is limited but some species, like Microsporum canis and Sporothrix brasiliensis from cats, have a strong public health impact. Mycotoxins are defined as the chemicals of fungal origin being toxic for warm-blooded vertebrates. Intoxications by aflatoxins and ochratoxins represent a threat for both human and animal health. Resistance to antifungals can occur in different animal species that receive these drugs, although the true epidemiology of resistance in animals is unknown, and options to treat infections caused by resistant infections are limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyedmojtaba Seyedmousavi
- Molecular Microbiology Section, Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology and Immunology (LCMI), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Sandra de M G Bosco
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Biosciences-UNESP Univ Estadual Paulista Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sybren de Hoog
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht, and Center of Expertise in Mycology of Radboudumc/CWZ, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Frank Ebel
- Institut für Infektionsmedizin und Zoonosen, Munich, Germany
| | - Daniel Elad
- Department of Clinical Bacteriology and Mycology, Kimron Veterinary Institute, Veterinary Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Beit Dagan, Israel
| | - Renata R Gomes
- Microbiology, Parasitology and Pathology Graduate Programme, Curitiba Department of Basic Pathology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Ilse D Jacobsen
- Research Group Microbial Immunology, Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
| | | | - An Martel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Bernard Mignon
- Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, FARAH (Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Frank Pasmans
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Elena Piecková
- Faculty of Medicine, Slovak Medical University, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Anderson Messias Rodrigues
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Karuna Singh
- Department of Zoology, Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Vania A Vicente
- Research Group Microbial Immunology, Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Gudrun Wibbelt
- Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Berlin, Germany
| | - Nathan P Wiederhold
- Fungus Testing Laboratory, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Jacques Guillot
- Department of Parasitology, Mycology and Dermatology, EA Dynamyc UPEC, EnvA, Ecole nationale vétérinaire d'Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, France
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22
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Ökmen B, Kemmerich B, Hilbig D, Wemhöner R, Aschenbroich J, Perrar A, Huesgen PF, Schipper K, Doehlemann G. Dual function of a secreted fungalysin metalloprotease in Ustilago maydis. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2018; 220:249-261. [PMID: 29916208 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Fungalysins from several phytopathogenic fungi have been shown to be involved in cleavage of plant chitinases. While fungal chitinases are responsible for cell wall remodeling during growth and morphogenesis, plant chitinases are important components of immunity. This study describes a dual function of the Ustilago maydis fungalysin UmFly1 in modulation of both plant and fungal chitinases. Genetic, biochemical and microscopic experiments were performed to elucidate the in vitro and in planta functions of U. maydis UmFly1. U. maydis ∆umfly1 mutants show significantly reduced virulence, which coincides with reduced cleavage of the maize chitinase ZmChiA within its chitin-binding domain. Moreover, deletion of umfly1 affected the cell separation of haploid U. maydis sporidia. This phenotype is associated with posttranslational activation of the endogenous chitinase UmCts1. Genetic complementation of the ∆umfly1 mutant with a homologous gene from closely related, but nonpathogenic, yeast fully rescued the cell separation defect in vitro, but it could not recover the ∆umfly1 defect in virulence and cleavage of the maize chitinase. We report on the dual function of the secreted fungalysin UmFly1. We hypothesize that co-evolution of U. maydis with its host plant extended the endogenous function of UmFly1 towards the modulation of plant chitinase activity to promote infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bilal Ökmen
- Botanical Institute and Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), University of Cologne, BioCenter, Zuelpicher Str. 47a, 50674, Cologne, Germany
| | - Bastian Kemmerich
- Botanical Institute and Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), University of Cologne, BioCenter, Zuelpicher Str. 47a, 50674, Cologne, Germany
| | - Daniel Hilbig
- Botanical Institute and Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), University of Cologne, BioCenter, Zuelpicher Str. 47a, 50674, Cologne, Germany
| | - Raphael Wemhöner
- Botanical Institute and Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), University of Cologne, BioCenter, Zuelpicher Str. 47a, 50674, Cologne, Germany
| | - Jörn Aschenbroich
- Institute for Microbiology, Heinrich Heine University, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Andreas Perrar
- Central Institute for Engineering, Electronics and Analytics, ZEA-3, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Wilhelm-Johnen-Str., 52428, Jülich, Germany
| | - Pitter F Huesgen
- Central Institute for Engineering, Electronics and Analytics, ZEA-3, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Wilhelm-Johnen-Str., 52428, Jülich, Germany
| | - Kerstin Schipper
- Institute for Microbiology, Heinrich Heine University, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Gunther Doehlemann
- Botanical Institute and Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), University of Cologne, BioCenter, Zuelpicher Str. 47a, 50674, Cologne, Germany
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Na Pombejra S, Jamklang M, Uhrig JP, Vu K, Gelli A. The structure-function analysis of the Mpr1 metalloprotease determinants of activity during migration of fungal cells across the blood-brain barrier. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0203020. [PMID: 30161190 PMCID: PMC6117016 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0203020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcal meningoencephalitis, the most common form of cryptococcosis, is caused by the opportunistic fungal pathogen, Cryptococcus neoformans. Molecular strategies used by C. neoformans to invade the central nervous system (CNS) have been the focus of several studies. Recently, the role of a novel secreted metalloprotease (Mpr1) in the pathogenicity of C. neoformans was confirmed by studies demonstrating that Mpr1 mediated the migration of fungal cells into the CNS. Given this central function, the aim here was to identify the molecular determinants of Mpr1 activity and resolve their role in the migration of cryptococci across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The Mpr1 protein belongs to an understudied group of metalloproteases of the M36 class of fungalysins unique to fungi. They are generally synthesized as propeptides with fairly long prodomains and highly conserved regions within their catalytic core. Through structure-function analysis of Mpr1, our study identified the prodomain cleavage sites of Mpr1 and demonstrated that when mutated, the prodomain appears to remain attached to the catalytic C-terminus of Mpr1 rendering a nonfunctional Mpr1 protein and an inability for cryptococci to cross the BBB. We found that proteolytic activity of Mpr1 was dependent on the coordination of zinc with two histidine residues in the active site of Mpr1, since amino acid substitutions in the HExxH motif abolished Mpr1 proteolytic activity and prevented the migration of cryptococci across the BBB. A phylogenetic analysis of Mpr1 revealed a distinct pattern likely reflecting the neurotropic nature of C. neoformans and the specific function of Mpr1 in breaching the BBB. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of the molecular regulation of Mpr1 activity and may lead to the development of specific inhibitors that could be used to restrict fungal penetration of the CNS and thus prevent cryptococcal meningoencephalitis-related deaths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarisa Na Pombejra
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Mantana Jamklang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - John P. Uhrig
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Kiem Vu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Angie Gelli
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
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24
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Gnat S, Łagowski D, Nowakiewicz A, Trościańczyk A, Zięba P. Infection ofTrichophyton verrucosumin cattle breeders, Poland: A 40-year retrospective study on the genomic variability of strains. Mycoses 2018; 61:681-690. [DOI: 10.1111/myc.12791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Gnat
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology; Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases; University of Life Sciences; Lublin Poland
| | - Dominik Łagowski
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology; Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases; University of Life Sciences; Lublin Poland
| | - Aneta Nowakiewicz
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology; Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases; University of Life Sciences; Lublin Poland
| | - Aleksandra Trościańczyk
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology; Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases; University of Life Sciences; Lublin Poland
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25
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Gnat S, Łagowski D, Nowakiewicz A, Zięba P. Phenotypic characterization of enzymatic activity of clinical dermatophyte isolates from animals with and without skin lesions and humans. J Appl Microbiol 2018; 125:700-709. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.13921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. Gnat
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases; Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology; University of Life Sciences; Lublin Poland
| | - D. Łagowski
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases; Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology; University of Life Sciences; Lublin Poland
| | - A. Nowakiewicz
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases; Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology; University of Life Sciences; Lublin Poland
| | - P. Zięba
- State Veterinary Laboratory; Lublin Poland
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26
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Assessment of the subtilisin genes in Trichophyton rubrum and Microsporum canis from dermatophytosis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s00580-018-2745-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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27
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Selection and validation of reference genes for qRT-PCR analysis of gene expression in Microsporum canis growing under different adhesion-inducing conditions. Sci Rep 2018; 8:1197. [PMID: 29352152 PMCID: PMC5775245 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-19680-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2017] [Accepted: 01/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytes are the group of filamentous fungi infecting keratinized structures such as skin, hair, and nails. Knowledge about genes and molecular mechanisms responsible for pathogenicity, as well as other biological properties of Microsporum canis is still relatively poor. The qRT-PCR is a reliable technique for quantifying gene expression across various biological processes, and choosing a set of suitable reference genes to normalize the expression data is a crucial step of this technique. We investigated the suitability of nine candidate reference genes: β-act, β-tub, adp-rf, ef1-α, sdha, rpl2, mbp1, psm1, and rGTPa for gene expression analysis in the dermatophyte M. canis in response to different carbon sources, phosphate levels, and pH shifts - factors that are extremely important and necessary for growth of dermatophyte in the host tissue. The transcription stability of these genes was evaluated using NormFinder, geNorm, BestKeeper, and RefFinder software. Regarding expression stability, mbp1, β-act, and sdha were the most stable housekeeping genes which we recommend for future qRT-PCR studies on M. canis strains. To the best of our knowledge this is the first study on selection and validation of reference genes for qRT-PCR data normalization in M. canis growth in culture media which promote adhesion-inducing conditions.
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28
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Sanz-Martín JM, Pacheco-Arjona JR, Bello-Rico V, Vargas WA, Monod M, Díaz-Mínguez JM, Thon MR, Sukno SA. A highly conserved metalloprotease effector enhances virulence in the maize anthracnose fungus Colletotrichum graminicola. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2016; 17:1048-62. [PMID: 26619206 PMCID: PMC6638349 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Revised: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 11/23/2015] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Colletotrichum graminicola causes maize anthracnose, an agronomically important disease with a worldwide distribution. We have identified a fungalysin metalloprotease (Cgfl) with a role in virulence. Transcriptional profiling experiments and live cell imaging show that Cgfl is specifically expressed during the biotrophic stage of infection. To determine whether Cgfl has a role in virulence, we obtained null mutants lacking Cgfl and performed pathogenicity and live microscopy assays. The appressorium morphology of the null mutants is normal, but they exhibit delayed development during the infection process on maize leaves and roots, showing that Cgfl has a role in virulence. In vitro chitinase activity assays of leaves infected with wild-type and null mutant strains show that, in the absence of Cgfl, maize leaves exhibit increased chitinase activity. Phylogenetic analyses show that Cgfl is highly conserved in fungi. Similarity searches, phylogenetic analysis and transcriptional profiling show that C. graminicola encodes two LysM domain-containing homologues of Ecp6, suggesting that this fungus employs both Cgfl-mediated and LysM protein-mediated strategies to control chitin signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- José M Sanz-Martín
- Instituto Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185, Villamayor, Spain
| | - José Ramón Pacheco-Arjona
- Instituto Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185, Villamayor, Spain
| | - Víctor Bello-Rico
- Instituto Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185, Villamayor, Spain
| | - Walter A Vargas
- Instituto Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185, Villamayor, Spain
| | - Michel Monod
- Laboratoire de Mycologie, Service de Dermatologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, 1011, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - José M Díaz-Mínguez
- Instituto Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185, Villamayor, Spain
| | - Michael R Thon
- Instituto Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185, Villamayor, Spain
| | - Serenella A Sukno
- Instituto Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185, Villamayor, Spain
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29
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Bitencourt TA, Macedo C, Franco ME, Assis AF, Komoto TT, Stehling EG, Beleboni RO, Malavazi I, Marins M, Fachin AL. Transcription profile of Trichophyton rubrum conidia grown on keratin reveals the induction of an adhesin-like protein gene with a tandem repeat pattern. BMC Genomics 2016; 17:249. [PMID: 26993619 PMCID: PMC4797125 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-016-2567-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Trichophyton rubrum is a cosmopolitan filamentous fungus that can infect human keratinized tissue (skin, nails and, rarely, hair) and is the major agent of all chronic and recurrent dermatophytoses. The dermatophyte infection process is initiated through the release of arthroconidial adhesin, which binds to the host stratum corneum. The conidia then germinate, and fungal hyphae invade keratinized skin structures through the secretion of proteases. Although arthroconidia play a central role in pathogenesis, little is known about the dormancy and germination of T. rubrum conidia and the initiation of infection. The objective of this study was to evaluate the transcriptional gene expression profile of T. rubrum conidia during growth on keratin- or elastin-containing medium, mimicking superficial and deep dermatophytosis, respectively. Results A transcriptional profiling analysis was conducted using a custom oligonucleotide-based microarray by comparing T. rubrum conidia grown on elastin and keratin substrates. This comparison shows differences according to protein source used, but consisted of a very small set of genes, which could be attributed to the quiescent status of conidia. The modulated genes were related to the dormancy, survival and germination of conidia, including genes involved in the respiratory chain, signal transduction and lipid metabolism. However, an induction of a great number of proteases occurred when T. rubrum was grown in the presence of keratin such as the subtilisin family of proteases (Sub 1 and Sub 3) and leucine aminopeptidase (Lap 1 and Lap 2). Interestingly, keratin also promoted the up-regulation of a gene encoding an adhesin-like protein with a tandem repeat sequence. In silico analysis showed that the protein contains a domain related to adhesin that may play a role in host-pathogen interactions. The expression of this adhesin-like gene was also induced during the co-culture of T. rubrum with a human keratinocyte cell line, confirming its role in fungal-host interactions. Conclusion These results contribute to the discovery of new targets involved in the adhesion of conidia and the maintenance of conidial dormancy, which are essential for triggering the process of infection and the chronicity of dermatophytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamires Aparecida Bitencourt
- Unidade de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Ribeirão Preto, Av: Costábile Romano 2201, 14096-900, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Claudia Macedo
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Matheus Eloy Franco
- Unidade de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Ribeirão Preto, Av: Costábile Romano 2201, 14096-900, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.,Instituto Federal do Sul de Minas - Campus Machado, Machado, Brazil
| | - Amanda Freire Assis
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Tatiana Takahasi Komoto
- Unidade de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Ribeirão Preto, Av: Costábile Romano 2201, 14096-900, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Rene Oliveira Beleboni
- Unidade de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Ribeirão Preto, Av: Costábile Romano 2201, 14096-900, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Iran Malavazi
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde (CCBS), Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Mozart Marins
- Unidade de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Ribeirão Preto, Av: Costábile Romano 2201, 14096-900, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Ana Lúcia Fachin
- Unidade de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Ribeirão Preto, Av: Costábile Romano 2201, 14096-900, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.
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30
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Zhang J, Bayram Akcapinar G, Atanasova L, Rahimi MJ, Przylucka A, Yang D, Kubicek CP, Zhang R, Shen Q, Druzhinina IS. The neutral metallopeptidase NMP1 ofTrichoderma guizhouenseis required for mycotrophy and self-defence. Environ Microbiol 2015; 18:580-97. [DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.12966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2015] [Revised: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jian Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Lab for Organic Waste Utilization and National Engineering Research Center for Organic-based Fertilizers; Nanjing Agricultural University; Nanjing China
| | - Gunseli Bayram Akcapinar
- Microbiology Group; Research Area Biotechnology and Microbiology; Institute of Chemical Engineering; Vienna University of Technology; Vienna Austria
| | - Lea Atanasova
- Microbiology Group; Research Area Biotechnology and Microbiology; Institute of Chemical Engineering; Vienna University of Technology; Vienna Austria
| | - Mohammad Javad Rahimi
- Microbiology Group; Research Area Biotechnology and Microbiology; Institute of Chemical Engineering; Vienna University of Technology; Vienna Austria
| | | | - Dongqing Yang
- Jiangsu Key Lab for Organic Waste Utilization and National Engineering Research Center for Organic-based Fertilizers; Nanjing Agricultural University; Nanjing China
| | - Christian P. Kubicek
- Microbiology Group; Research Area Biotechnology and Microbiology; Institute of Chemical Engineering; Vienna University of Technology; Vienna Austria
| | - Ruifu Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Lab for Organic Waste Utilization and National Engineering Research Center for Organic-based Fertilizers; Nanjing Agricultural University; Nanjing China
| | - Qirong Shen
- Jiangsu Key Lab for Organic Waste Utilization and National Engineering Research Center for Organic-based Fertilizers; Nanjing Agricultural University; Nanjing China
| | - Irina S. Druzhinina
- Microbiology Group; Research Area Biotechnology and Microbiology; Institute of Chemical Engineering; Vienna University of Technology; Vienna Austria
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31
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Huang Y, Busk PK, Herbst FA, Lange L. Genome and secretome analyses provide insights into keratin decomposition by novel proteases from the non-pathogenic fungus Onygena corvina. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 99:9635-49. [PMID: 26177915 PMCID: PMC4628079 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-015-6805-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Revised: 06/24/2015] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Poultry processing plants and slaughterhouses produce huge quantities of feathers and hair/bristle waste annually. These keratinaceous wastes are highly resistant to degradation. Onygena corvina, a non-pathogenic fungus, grows specifically on feathers, hooves, horn, and hair in nature. Hence, the proteases secreted by O. corvina are interesting in view of their potential relevance for industrial decomposition of keratinaceous wastes. We sequenced and assembled the genome of O. corvina and used a method called peptide pattern recognition to identify 73 different proteases. Comparative genome analysis of proteases in keratin-degrading and non-keratin-degrading fungi indicated that 18 putative secreted proteases from four protease families (M36, M35, M43, and S8) may be responsible for keratin decomposition. Twelve of the 18 predicted protease genes could be amplified from O. corvina grown on keratinaceous materials and were transformed into Pichia pastoris. One of the recombinant proteases belonging to the S8 family showed high keratin-degrading activity. Furthermore, 29 different proteases were identified by mass spectrometry in the culture broth of O. corvina grown on feathers and bristle. The culture broth was fractionated by ion exchange chromatography to isolate active fractions with five novel proteases belonging to three protease families (S8, M28, and M3). Enzyme blends composed of three of these five proteases, one from each family, showed high degree of degradation of keratin in vitro. A blend of novel proteases, such as those we discovered, could possibly find a use for degrading keratinaceous wastes and provide proteins, peptides, and amino acids as valuable ingredients for animal feed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhong Huang
- Department of Chemistry and Bioscience, Aalborg University Copenhagen, 2450, Copenhagen, SV, Denmark
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Building 229, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Peter Kamp Busk
- Department of Chemistry and Bioscience, Aalborg University Copenhagen, 2450, Copenhagen, SV, Denmark
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Building 229, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Florian-Alexander Herbst
- Center for Microbial Communities, Department of Chemistry and Bioscience, Aalborg University, Fredrik Bajers Vej 7H, 9220, Aalborg East, Denmark
| | - Lene Lange
- Department of Chemistry and Bioscience, Aalborg University Copenhagen, 2450, Copenhagen, SV, Denmark.
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Building 229, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
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Gene Expression Response of Trichophyton rubrum during Coculture on Keratinocytes Exposed to Antifungal Agents. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2015; 2015:180535. [PMID: 26257814 PMCID: PMC4516844 DOI: 10.1155/2015/180535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2015] [Accepted: 06/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Trichophyton rubrum is the most common causative agent of dermatomycoses worldwide, causing infection in the stratum corneum, nails, and hair. Despite the high prevalence of these infections, little is known about the molecular mechanisms involved in the fungal-host interaction, particularly during antifungal treatment. The aim of this work was to evaluate the gene expression of T. rubrum cocultured with keratinocytes and treated with the flavonoid trans-chalcone and the glycoalkaloid α-solanine. Both substances showed a marked antifungal activity against T. rubrum strain CBS (MIC = 1.15 and 17.8 µg/mL, resp.). Cytotoxicity assay against HaCaT cells produced IC50 values of 44.18 to trans-chalcone and 61.60 µM to α-solanine. The interaction of keratinocytes with T. rubrum conidia upregulated the expression of genes involved in the glyoxylate cycle, ergosterol synthesis, and genes encoding proteases but downregulated the ABC transporter TruMDR2 gene. However, both antifungals downregulated the ERG1 and ERG11, metalloprotease 4, serine proteinase, and TruMDR2 genes. Furthermore, the trans-chalcone downregulated the genes involved in the glyoxylate pathway, isocitrate lyase, and citrate synthase. Considering the urgent need for more efficient and safer antifungals, these results contribute to a better understanding of fungal-host interactions and to the discovery of new antifungal targets.
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Zhang X, Wang Y, Chi W, Shi Y, Chen S, Lin D, Jin Y. Metalloprotease genes of Trichophyton mentagrophytes are important for pathogenicity. Med Mycol 2014; 52:36-45. [PMID: 23859078 DOI: 10.3109/13693786.2013.811552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Metalloproteases (Mep) of the M36 family are important virulence factors for the host invasion by the dermatophyte Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Dermatophytes secrete keratinase to degrade human and animal keratin and invade the skin. In previous studies, primers designed from the MEP gene sequences of Aspergillus fumigatus and A. oryzae were used to amplify the MEP genes from T. mentagrophytes, and the five MEP genes (MEP1-MEP5) were expressed. Differences in the expression of these five MEP genes in different dermatophytes were observed in an in vitro protein induction study, indicating their different functions and proteolytic abilities. However, specific pathogenic functions and mechanisms of each of the metalloproteases, as well as differences in their proteolytic activities, remain uncertain. In the current study, Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation (ATMT) was used to successfully transform five MEP genes, resulting in five MEP mutant strains. MEP3 showed strongest proteolytic activity, hair biodegradation ability, and animal pathogenicity among the mutant strains. The MEP4 and MEP5 mutants were the least pathogenic through the above tests. Therefore, we hypothesize that the MEP4 and MEP5 genes are most likely to significantly affect the pathogenicity of T. mentagrophytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinke Zhang
- Clinical Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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Invasion of the central nervous system by Cryptococcus neoformans requires a secreted fungal metalloprotease. mBio 2014; 5:e01101-14. [PMID: 24895304 PMCID: PMC4049100 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01101-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Cryptococcus spp. cause life-threatening fungal infection of the central nervous system (CNS), predominantly in patients with a compromised immune system. Why Cryptococcus neoformans has this remarkable tropism for the CNS is not clear. Recent research on cerebral pathogenesis of C. neoformans revealed a predominantly transcellular migration of cryptococci across the brain endothelium; however, the identities of key fungal virulence factors that function specifically to invade the CNS remain unresolved. Here we found that a novel, secreted metalloprotease (Mpr1) that we identified in the extracellular proteome of C. neoformans (CnMpr1) is required for establishing fungal disease in the CNS. Mpr1 belongs to a poorly characterized M36 class of fungalysins that are expressed in only some fungal species. A strain of C. neoformans lacking the gene encoding Mpr1 (mpr1Δ) failed to breach the endothelium in an in vitro model of the human blood-brain barrier (BBB). A mammalian host infected with the mpr1Δ null strain demonstrated significant improvement in survival due to a reduced brain fungal burden and lacked the brain pathology commonly associated with cryptococcal disease. The in vivo studies further indicate that Mpr1 is not required for fungal dissemination and Mpr1 likely targets the brain endothelium specifically. Remarkably, the sole expression of CnMPR1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae resulted in a robust migration of yeast cells across the brain endothelium, demonstrating Mpr1's specific activity in breaching the BBB and suggesting that Mpr1 may function independently of the hyaluronic acid-CD44 pathway. This distinct role for Mpr1 may develop into innovative treatment options and facilitate a brain-specific drug delivery platform. IMPORTANCE Cryptococcus neoformans is a medically relevant fungal pathogen causing significant morbidity and mortality, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. An intriguing feature is its strong neurotropism, and consequently the hallmark of cryptococcal disease is a brain infection, cryptococcal meningoencephalitis. For C. neoformans to penetrate the central nervous system (CNS), it first breaches the blood-brain barrier via a transcellular pathway; however, the identities of fungal factors required for this transmigration remain largely unknown. In an effort to identify extracellular fungal proteins that could mediate interactions with the brain endothelium, we undertook a proteomic analysis of the extracellular proteome and identified a secreted metalloprotease (Mpr1) belonging to the M36 class of fungalysins. Here we found that Mpr1 promotes migration of C. neoformans across the brain endothelium and into the CNS by facilitating attachment of cryptococci to the endothelium surface, thus underscoring the critical role of M36 proteases in fungal pathogenesis.
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Li J, Zhang KQ. Independent expansion of zincin metalloproteinases in Onygenales fungi may be associated with their pathogenicity. PLoS One 2014; 9:e90225. [PMID: 24587291 PMCID: PMC3938660 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2013] [Accepted: 01/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
To get a comprehensive view of fungal M35 family (deuterolysin) and M36 family (fungalysin) genes, we conducted genome-wide investigations and phylogenetic analyses of genes in these two families from 50 sequenced Ascomycota fungi with different life styles. Large variations in the number of M35 family and M36 family genes were found among different fungal genomes, indicating that these two gene families have been highly dynamic through fungal evolution. Moreover, we found obvious expansions of Meps in two families of Onygenales: Onygenaceae and Arthodermataceae, whereas species in family Ajellomycetace did not show expansion of these genes. The strikingly different gene duplication and loss patterns in Onygenales may be associated with the different pathogenicity of these species. Interestingly, likelihood ratio tests (LRT) of both M35 family and M36 family genes suggested that several branches leading to the duplicated genes in dermatophytic and Coccidioides fungi had signatures of positive selection, indicating that the duplicated Mep genes have likely diverged functionally to play important roles during the evolution of pathogenicity of dermatophytic and Coccidioides fungi. The potentially positively selected residues discovered by our analysis may have contributed to the development of new physiological functions of the duplicated Mep genes in dermatophytic fungi and Coccidioides species. Our study adds to the current knowledge of the evolution of Meps in fungi and also establishes a theoretical foundation for future experimental investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Li
- Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-resources, and Key Laboratory for Microbial Resources of the Ministry of Education, Yunnan University, Kunming, P.R. China
| | - Ke-Qin Zhang
- Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-resources, and Key Laboratory for Microbial Resources of the Ministry of Education, Yunnan University, Kunming, P.R. China
- * E-mail:
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Balestrini R, Nerva L, Sillo F, Girlanda M, Perotto S. Plant and fungal gene expression in mycorrhizal protocorms of the orchid Serapias vomeracea colonized by Tulasnella calospora. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2014; 9:e977707. [PMID: 25482758 PMCID: PMC4623096 DOI: 10.4161/15592324.2014.977707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Little is known on the molecular bases of plant-fungal interactions in orchid mycorrhiza. We developed a model system to investigate gene expression in mycorrhizal protocorms of Serapias vomeracea colonised by Tulasnella calospora. Our recent results with a small panel of genes as indicators of plant response to mycorrhizal colonization indicate that genes related with plant defense were not significantly up-regulated in mycorrhizal tissues. Here, we used laser microdissection to investigate whether expression of some orchid genes was restricted to specific cell types. Results showed that SvNod1, a S. vomeracea nodulin-like protein containing a plastocyanin-like domain, is expressed only in protocorm cells containing intracellular fungal hyphae. In addition, we investigated a family of fungal zinc metallopeptidases (M36). This gene family has expanded in the T. calospora genome and RNA-Seq experiments indicate that some members of the M36 metallopeptidases family are differentially regulated in orchid mycorrhizal protocorms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaella Balestrini
- Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection (IPSP); UOS Torino; CNR Viale Mattioli 25, Torino, Italy
| | - Luca Nerva
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology; University of Torino;Viale Mattioli 25, Torino, Italy
| | - Fabiano Sillo
- Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection (IPSP); UOS Torino; CNR Viale Mattioli 25, Torino, Italy
- Department of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences; University of Torino; Grugliasco, Torino, Italy
| | - Mariangela Girlanda
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology; University of Torino;Viale Mattioli 25, Torino, Italy
| | - Silvia Perotto
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology; University of Torino;Viale Mattioli 25, Torino, Italy
- Correspondence to: Silvia Perotto;
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Deacon J. “The Moulds of Man”. Fungal Biol 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/9781118685068.ch16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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da Costa FVA, Farias MR, Bier D, de Andrade CP, de Castro LA, da Silva SC, Ferreiro L. Genetic variability in Microsporum canis isolated from cats, dogs and humans in Brazil. Mycoses 2013; 56:582-8. [PMID: 23551796 DOI: 10.1111/myc.12078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2012] [Revised: 01/13/2013] [Accepted: 03/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Dermatophytosis caused by Microsporum canis is a heterogeneous disease with variable clinical manifestations. M. canis is a zoophilic dermatophyte and the most frequent fungi isolated from dogs, cats and children in Brazil. The aim of this study was to investigate the genetic variability of M. canis isolates from different animal species using two microsatellite markers, namely, McGT(13) and McGT(17), and to correlate the results with the clinical and epidemiological patient data in Brazil. The study included a global set of 102 M. canis strains, including 37 symptomatic cats, 35 asymptomatic cats, 19 human patients with tinea, 9 asymptomatic dogs and 2 symptomatic dogs. A total of 14 genotypes were identified, and 6 large populations were distinguished. There was no correlation between these multilocus genotypes and the clinical and epidemiological data, including the source, symptomatology, clinical picture, breed, age, sex, living conditions and geographic location. These results demonstrate that the use of microsatellite polymorphisms is a reliable method for the differentiation of M. canis strains. However, we were unable to demonstrate a shared clinical and epidemiological pattern among the same genotype samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda V A da Costa
- Department of Animal Medicine, Veterinary Faculty, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.
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Costa DCM, Vermelho AB, Almeida CA, Dias EPDS, Cedrola SML, Arrigoni-Blank MDF, Blank AF, Alviano CS, Alviano DS. Inhibitory effect of linalool-rich essential oil from Lippia alba on the peptidase and keratinase activities of dermatophytes. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2013; 29:12-7. [DOI: 10.3109/14756366.2012.743537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Alane Beatriz Vermelho
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
Rio de JaneiroBrazil
| | - Catia Amancio Almeida
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
Rio de JaneiroBrazil
| | | | | | | | - Arie Fitzgerald Blank
- Departamento de Engenharia Agronômica, Universidade Federal de Sergipe
SergipeBrazil
| | - Celuta Sales Alviano
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
Rio de JaneiroBrazil
| | - Daniela Sales Alviano
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
Rio de JaneiroBrazil
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40
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Băguţ ET, Baldo A, Mathy A, Cambier L, Antoine N, Cozma V, Mignon B. Subtilisin Sub3 is involved in adherence of Microsporum canis to human and animal epidermis. Vet Microbiol 2012; 160:413-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2012] [Revised: 06/06/2012] [Accepted: 06/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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41
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Baldo A, Chevigné A, Dumez ME, Mathy A, Power P, Tabart J, Cambier L, Galleni M, Mignon B. Inhibition of the keratinolytic subtilisin protease Sub3 from Microsporum canis by its propeptide (proSub3) and evaluation of the capacity of proSub3 to inhibit fungal adherence to feline epidermis. Vet Microbiol 2012; 159:479-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.04.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2012] [Revised: 04/29/2012] [Accepted: 04/30/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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42
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Vargas WA, Martín JMS, Rech GE, Rivera LP, Benito EP, Díaz-Mínguez JM, Thon MR, Sukno SA. Plant defense mechanisms are activated during biotrophic and necrotrophic development of Colletotricum graminicola in maize. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2012; 158:1342-58. [PMID: 22247271 PMCID: PMC3291271 DOI: 10.1104/pp.111.190397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2011] [Accepted: 01/11/2012] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Hemibiotrophic plant pathogens first establish a biotrophic interaction with the host plant and later switch to a destructive necrotrophic lifestyle. Studies of biotrophic pathogens have shown that they actively suppress plant defenses after an initial microbe-associated molecular pattern-triggered activation. In contrast, studies of the hemibiotrophs suggest that they do not suppress plant defenses during the biotrophic phase, indicating that while there are similarities between the biotrophic phase of hemibiotrophs and biotrophic pathogens, the two lifestyles are not analogous. We performed transcriptomic, histological, and biochemical studies of the early events during the infection of maize (Zea mays) with Colletotrichum graminicola, a model pathosystem for the study of hemibiotrophy. Time-course experiments revealed that mRNAs of several defense-related genes, reactive oxygen species, and antimicrobial compounds all begin to accumulate early in the infection process and continue to accumulate during the biotrophic stage. We also discovered the production of maize-derived vesicular bodies containing hydrogen peroxide targeting the fungal hyphae. We describe the fungal respiratory burst during host infection, paralleled by superoxide ion production in specific fungal cells during the transition from biotrophy to a necrotrophic lifestyle. We also identified several novel putative fungal effectors and studied their expression during anthracnose development in maize. Our results demonstrate a strong induction of defense mechanisms occurring in maize cells during C. graminicola infection, even during the biotrophic development of the pathogen. We hypothesize that the switch to necrotrophic growth enables the fungus to evade the effects of the plant immune system and allows for full fungal pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter A. Vargas
- Centro Hispanoluso de Investigaciones Agrarias, Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185 Villamayor, Spain
| | - José M. Sanz Martín
- Centro Hispanoluso de Investigaciones Agrarias, Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185 Villamayor, Spain
| | - Gabriel E. Rech
- Centro Hispanoluso de Investigaciones Agrarias, Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185 Villamayor, Spain
| | - Lina P. Rivera
- Centro Hispanoluso de Investigaciones Agrarias, Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185 Villamayor, Spain
| | - Ernesto P. Benito
- Centro Hispanoluso de Investigaciones Agrarias, Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185 Villamayor, Spain
| | - José M. Díaz-Mínguez
- Centro Hispanoluso de Investigaciones Agrarias, Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185 Villamayor, Spain
| | - Michael R. Thon
- Centro Hispanoluso de Investigaciones Agrarias, Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185 Villamayor, Spain
| | - Serenella A. Sukno
- Centro Hispanoluso de Investigaciones Agrarias, Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185 Villamayor, Spain
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Peres NTDA, Maranhão FCA, Rossi A, Martinez-Rossi NM. Dermatophytes: host-pathogen interaction and antifungal resistance. An Bras Dermatol 2011; 85:657-67. [PMID: 21152790 DOI: 10.1590/s0365-05962010000500009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cutaneous mycoses are among the most common infections in humans and have become an important public health issue because they cause invasive infections in immunocompromised patients. During the infectious process, dermatophyte-host interactions trigger specific metabolic adaptations that allow the pathogen to adhere to and penetrate the host tissue, scavenge nutrients, and overcome the host defense mechanisms. This metabolic shift and the interplay between metabolism, morphogenesis and stress response are important factors that have been extensively studied in several pathogens. Host cells also respond to the pathogen stimuli by activating intracellular signaling pathways that trigger the immune response against the infectious agent. The comprehension of the molecular aspects of these responses may help to establish new therapeutical strategies. In this review, different aspects of the biology of dermatophytes are addressed, with emphasis on the dermatophyte-host interaction and the mechanisms of antifungal resistance.
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Naumann TA, Wicklow DT, Price NPJ. Identification of a chitinase-modifying protein from Fusarium verticillioides: truncation of a host resistance protein by a fungalysin metalloprotease. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:35358-35366. [PMID: 21878653 PMCID: PMC3195611 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.279646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2011] [Revised: 08/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Chitinase-modifying proteins (cmps) are proteases secreted by fungal pathogens that truncate the plant class IV chitinases ChitA and ChitB during maize ear rot. cmp activity has been characterized for Bipolaris zeicola and Stenocarpella maydis, but the identities of the proteases are not known. Here, we report that cmps are secreted by multiple species from the genus Fusarium, that cmp from Fusarium verticillioides (Fv-cmp) is a fungalysin metalloprotease, and that it cleaves within a sequence that is conserved in class IV chitinases. Protein extracts from Fusarium cultures were found to truncate ChitA and ChitB in vitro. Based on this activity, Fv-cmp was purified from F. verticillioides. N-terminal sequencing of truncated ChitA and MALDI-TOF-MS analysis of reaction products showed that Fv-cmp is an endoprotease that cleaves a peptide bond on the C-terminal side of the lectin domain. The N-terminal sequence of purified Fv-cmp was determined and compared with a set of predicted proteins, resulting in its identification as a zinc metalloprotease of the fungalysin family. Recombinant Fv-cmp also truncated ChitA, confirming its identity, but had reduced activity, suggesting that the recombinant protease did not mature efficiently from its propeptide-containing precursor. This is the first report of a fungalysin that targets a nonstructural host protein and the first to implicate this class of virulence-related proteases in plant disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd A Naumann
- Bacterial Foodborne Pathogens and Mycology Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, Illinois 61604.
| | - Donald T Wicklow
- Bacterial Foodborne Pathogens and Mycology Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, Illinois 61604
| | - Neil P J Price
- Renewable Product Technology Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, Illinois 61604
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Comparative analysis of putative pathogenesis-related gene expression in two Rhizoctonia solani pathosystems. Curr Genet 2011; 57:391-408. [DOI: 10.1007/s00294-011-0353-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2011] [Revised: 08/05/2011] [Accepted: 08/15/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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46
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Baldo A, Monod M, Mathy A, Cambier L, Bagut ET, Defaweux V, Symoens F, Antoine N, Mignon B. Mechanisms of skin adherence and invasion by dermatophytes. Mycoses 2011; 55:218-23. [PMID: 21831104 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2011.02081.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Dermatophytes are keratinophilic fungi that can be pathogenic for humans and animals by infecting the stratum corneum, nails, claws or hair. The first infection step consists of adherence of arthroconidia to the stratum corneum. The mechanisms and the kinetics of adherence have been investigated using different in vitro and ex vivo experimental models, most notably showing the role of a secreted serine protease from Microsporum canis in fungal adherence to feline corneocytes. After germination of the arthroconidia, dermatophytes invade keratinised structures that have to be digested into short peptides and amino acids to be assimilated. Although many proteases, including keratinolytic ones, have been characterised, the understanding of dermatophyte invasion mechanisms remains speculative. To date, research on mechanisms of dermatophyte infection focused mainly on both secreted endoproteases and exoproteases, but their precise role in both fungal adherence and skin invasion should be further explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Baldo
- Department of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
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Pinyachat A, Rojnuckarin P, Muanpasitporn C, Singhamatr P, Nuchprayoon S. Albocollagenase, a novel recombinant P-III snake venom metalloproteinase from green pit viper (Cryptelytrops albolabris), digests collagen and inhibits platelet aggregation. Toxicon 2011; 57:772-80. [PMID: 21333669 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2010] [Revised: 01/20/2011] [Accepted: 02/09/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Molecular cloning and functional characterization of P-III snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) will give us deeper insights in the pathogenesis of viper bites. This may lead to novel therapy for venom-induced local tissue damages, the complication refractory to current antivenom. The aim of this study was to elucidate the in vitro activities of a new SVMP from the green pit viper (GPV) using recombinant DNA technology. We report, here, a new cDNA clone from GPV (Cryptelytrops albolabris) venom glands encoding 614 amino acid residues P-III SVMP, termed albocollagenase. The conceptually translated protein comprised a signal peptide and prodomain, followed by a metalloproteinase domain containing a zinc-binding motifs, HEXGHXXGXXH-CIM and 9 cysteine residues. The disintegrin-like and cysteine-rich domains possessed 24 cysteines and a DCD (Asp-Cys-Asp) motif. The albocollagenase deduced amino acid sequence alignments showed approximately 70% identity with other P-III SVMPs. Notably, the prodomain was highly conserved, while the metalloproteinase, disintegrin-like and cysteine-rich domains contained several differences. Albocollagenase without the signal peptide and prodomain was expressed in Pichia pastoris with an N-terminal six-histidine tag. After affinity purification from the supernatant of methanol-induced media, SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis in both reducing and non-reducing conditions showed a protein band of approximately 62 kDa. The recombinant albocollagenase could digest human type IV collagen from human placenta basement membrane within 1 min. After 10-min incubation, it also inhibited collagen-induced platelet aggregation with 50% inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) of 70 nM. This is the first report of the active recombinant SVMP enzymes expressed in P. pastoris. The results suggest the significant roles of P-III SVMP in local and systemic pathology of envenomated patients. Inhibitors of this SVMP will be investigated in further studies to find a better treatment for viper bites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anuwat Pinyachat
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
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Mathy A, Baldo A, Schoofs L, Cambier L, Defaweux V, Tabart J, Maréchal F, Symoens F, Mignon B. Fungalysin and dipeptidyl-peptidase gene transcription in Microsporum canis strains isolated from symptomatic and asymptomatic cats. Vet Microbiol 2010; 146:179-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2010.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2009] [Revised: 04/15/2010] [Accepted: 04/19/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Ciebiada-Adamiec A, Małafiej E, Ciebiada I. Inhibitory effect of nicotinamide on enzymatic activity of selected fungal strains causing skin infection. Mycoses 2010; 53:204-7. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2009.01696.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Preuett BL, Schuenemann E, Brown JT, Kovac ME, Krishnan SK, Abdel-Rahman SM. Comparative analysis of secreted enzymes between the anthropophilic-zoophilic sister species Trichophyton tonsurans and Trichophyton equinum. Fungal Biol 2010; 114:429-37. [PMID: 20943153 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2010.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2009] [Revised: 02/26/2010] [Accepted: 03/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Trichophyton tonsurans (TT) and Trichophyton equinum (TE) are two closely related dermatophytes with very different host preferences. This study was designed to examine the genetic and transcript level variations of secreted enzymes between TT and TE. Thirty-one genes representing 10 gene families were selected for comparison and complete genomic and cDNA sequences were elucidated. Sequence analyses of the selected genes identified 104 polymorphisms between the two dermatophytes, 37 of which are expected to encode changes in their polypeptide sequence. Quantitative RT-PCR was used to examine the differences in levels of transcript between TT and TE grown over 14d in aqueous keratin medium. Differences in transcript expression between TT and TE were gene specific and ranged from 1.1-fold to 33-fold. Intra-specific variability across all genes ranged from 41% to 250%. Despite their overall genetic similarity, TT and TE exhibit a moderate degree of variability in the genomic make-up of their secreted enzymes and the extent to which they are transcribed when grown in an aqueous keratin medium. Such differences may contribute to how these genetically similar organisms have adapted to infect divergent host organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry L Preuett
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Medical Toxicology, The Children's Mercy Hospitals and Clinics, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA
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