Characterization of the PduS cobalamin reductase of Salmonella enterica and its role in the Pdu microcompartment

Electrochemical cofactor recycling of bacterial microcompartments

Bacterial microcompartments (BMCs) are prokaryotic organelles that consist of a protein shell which sequesters metabolic reactions in its interior. While most of the substrates and products are relatively small and can permeate the shell, many of the encapsulated enzymes require cofactors that must be regenerated inside. We have analyzed the occurrence of an enzyme previously assigned as a cobalamin (vitamin B12) reductase and, curiously, found it in many unrelated BMC types that do not employ B12 cofactors. We propose NAD+ regeneration as a new function of this enzyme and name it MNdh, for Metabolosome NADH dehydrogenase. Its partner shell protein BMC-TSE assists in passing the generated electrons to the outside. We support this hypothesis with bioinformatic analysis, functional assays, EPR spectroscopy, protein voltammetry and structural modeling verified with X-ray footprinting. This discovery represents a new paradigm for the BMC field, identifying a new, widely occurring route for cofactor recycling and a new function for the shell as separating redox environments.

Coordination Chemistry Controls Coenzyme B12 Synthesis by Human Adenosine Triphosphate:Cob(I)alamin Adenosyltransferase

Cobalamin (or vitamin B12)-dependent enzymes and trafficking chaperones exploit redox-linked coordination chemistry to control the cofactor reactivity during catalysis and translocation. As the cobalt oxidation state decreases from 3+ to 1+, the preferred cobalamin geometry changes from six- to four-coordinate (4-c). In this study, we reveal the sizable thermodynamic gain that accrues for human adenosine triphosphate (ATP):cob(I)alamin adenosyltransferase (or MMAB) by enforcing an unfavorable 4-c cob(II)alamin geometry. MMAB-bound cob(II)alamin is reduced to the supernucleophilic cob(I)alamin intermediate during the synthesis of 5'-deoxyadenosylcobalamin. Herein, we report the first experimentally determined reduction potential for 4-c cob(II)alamin (-325 ± 9 mV), which is 180 mV more positive than for the five-coordinate (5-c) water-liganded species. The redox potential of MMAB-bound cob(II)alamin is within the range of adrenodoxin, which we demonstrate functions as an electron donor. We also show that stabilization of 5-c cob(II)alamin by a subset of MMAB patient variants compromises the reduction by adrenodoxin, explaining the underlying pathogenic mechanism.

Bacterial microcompartments for isethionate desulfonation in the taurine-degrading human-gut bacterium Bilophila wadsworthia

Background

Bilophila wadsworthia, a strictly anaerobic, sulfite-reducing bacterium and common member of the human gut microbiota, has been associated with diseases such as appendicitis and colitis. It is specialized on organosulfonate respiration for energy conservation, i.e., utilization of dietary and host-derived organosulfonates, such as taurine (2-aminoethansulfonate), as sulfite donors for sulfite respiration, producing hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), an important intestinal metabolite that may have beneficial as well as detrimental effects on the colonic environment. Its taurine desulfonation pathway involves the glycyl radical enzyme (GRE) isethionate sulfite-lyase (IslAB), which cleaves isethionate (2-hydroxyethanesulfonate) into acetaldehyde and sulfite.

Results

We demonstrate that taurine metabolism in B. wadsworthia 3.1.6 involves bacterial microcompartments (BMCs). First, we confirmed taurine-inducible production of BMCs by proteomic, transcriptomic and ultra-thin sectioning and electron-microscopical analyses. Then, we isolated BMCs from taurine-grown cells by density-gradient ultracentrifugation and analyzed their composition by proteomics as well as by enzyme assays, which suggested that the GRE IslAB and acetaldehyde dehydrogenase are located inside of the BMCs. Finally, we are discussing the recycling of cofactors in the IslAB-BMCs and a potential shuttling of electrons across the BMC shell by a potential iron-sulfur (FeS) cluster-containing shell protein identified by sequence analysis.

Conclusions

We characterized a novel subclass of BMCs and broadened the spectrum of reactions known to take place enclosed in BMCs, which is of biotechnological interest. We also provided more details on the energy metabolism of the opportunistic pathobiont B. wadsworthia and on microbial H₂S production in the human gut.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12866-021-02386-w.

Prokaryotic Organelles: Bacterial Microcompartments in E. coli and Salmonella

Bacterial microcompartments (MCPs) are proteinaceous organelles consisting of a metabolic pathway encapsulated within a selectively permeable protein shell. Hundreds of species of bacteria produce MCPs of at least nine different types, and MCP metabolism is associated with enteric pathogenesis, cancer, and heart disease. This review focuses chiefly on the four types of catabolic MCPs (metabolosomes) found in Escherichia coli and Salmonella: the propanediol utilization (pdu), ethanolamine utilization (eut), choline utilization (cut), and glycyl radical propanediol (grp) MCPs. Although the great majority of work done on catabolic MCPs has been carried out with Salmonella and E. coli, research outside the group is mentioned where necessary for a comprehensive understanding. Salient characteristics found across MCPs are discussed, including enzymatic reactions and shell composition, with particular attention paid to key differences between classes of MCPs. We also highlight relevant research on the dynamic processes of MCP assembly, protein targeting, and the mechanisms that underlie selective permeability. Lastly, we discuss emerging biotechnology applications based on MCP principles and point out challenges, unanswered questions, and future directions.

Decoding the stoichiometric composition and organisation of bacterial metabolosomes

Some enteric bacteria including Salmonella have evolved the propanediol-utilising microcompartment (Pdu MCP), a specialised proteinaceous organelle that is essential for 1,2-propanediol degradation and enteric pathogenesis. Pdu MCPs are a family of bacterial microcompartments that are self-assembled from hundreds of proteins within the bacterial cytosol. Here, we seek a comprehensive understanding of the stoichiometric composition and organisation of Pdu MCPs. We obtain accurate stoichiometry of shell proteins and internal enzymes of the natural Pdu MCP by QconCAT-driven quantitative mass spectrometry. Genetic deletion of the major shell protein and absolute quantification reveal the stoichiometric and structural remodelling of metabolically functional Pdu MCPs. Decoding the precise protein stoichiometry allows us to develop an organisational model of the Pdu metabolosome. The structural insights into the Pdu MCP are critical for both delineating the general principles underlying bacterial organelle formation, structural robustness and function, and repurposing natural microcompartments using synthetic biology for biotechnological applications.

Enteric pathogens such as Salmonella depend on propanediol-utilising microcompartments (Pdu MCP), which self-assemble from cytosolic proteins. Using mass spectrometry-based absolute quantification, the authors here define the protein stoichiometry and propose an organizational model of a Salmonella Pdu MCP.

Bio-engineering of bacterial microcompartments: a mini review

Bacterial microcompartments (BMCs) are protein-bound prokaryotic organelles, discovered in cyanobacteria more than 60 years ago. Functionally similar to eukaryotic cellular organelles, BMCs compartment metabolic activities in the cytoplasm, foremost to increase local enzyme concentration and prevent toxic intermediates from damaging the cytosolic content. Advanced knowledge of the functional and structural properties of multiple types of BMCs, particularly over the last 10 years, have highlighted design principles of microcompartments. This has prompted new research into their potential to function as programmable synthetic nano-bioreactors and novel bio-materials with biotechnological and medical applications. Moreover, due to the involvement of microcompartments in bacterial pathogenesis and human health, BMCs have begun to gain attention as potential novel drug targets. This mini-review gives an overview of important synthetic biology developments in the bioengineering of BMCs and a perspective on future directions in the field.

Cargo encapsulation in bacterial microcompartments: Methods and analysis

Metabolic engineers seek to produce high-value products from inexpensive starting materials in a sustainable and cost-effective manner by using microbes as cellular factories. However, pathway development and optimization can be arduous tasks, complicated by pathway bottlenecks and toxicity. Pathway organization has emerged as a potential solution to these issues, and the use of protein- or DNA-based scaffolds has successfully increased the production of several industrially relevant compounds. These efforts demonstrate the usefulness of pathway colocalization and spatial organization for metabolic engineering applications. In particular, scaffolding within an enclosed, subcellular compartment shows great promise for pathway optimization, offering benefits such as increased local enzyme and substrate concentrations, sequestration of toxic or volatile intermediates, and alleviation of cofactor and resource competition with the host. Here, we describe the 1,2-propanediol utilization (Pdu) bacterial microcompartment (MCP) as an enclosed scaffold for pathway sequestration and organization. We first describe methods for controlling Pdu MCP formation, expressing and encapsulating heterologous cargo, and tuning cargo loading levels. We further describe assays for analyzing Pdu MCPs and assessing encapsulation levels. These methods will enable the repurposing of MCPs as tunable nanobioreactors for heterologous pathway encapsulation.

Glycyl Radical Enzyme-Associated Microcompartments: Redox-Replete Bacterial Organelles

An increasing number of microbes are being identified that organize catabolic pathways within self-assembling proteinaceous structures known as bacterial microcompartments (BMCs). Most BMCs are characterized by their singular substrate specificity and commonly employ B12-dependent radical mechanisms. In contrast, a less-well-known BMC type utilizes the B12-independent radical chemistry of glycyl radical enzymes (GREs). Unlike B12-dependent enzymes, GREs require an activating enzyme (AE) as well as an external source of electrons to generate an adenosyl radical and form their catalytic glycyl radical. Organisms encoding these glycyl radical enzyme-associated microcompartments (GRMs) confront the challenge of coordinating the activation and maintenance of their GREs with the assembly of a multienzyme core that is encapsulated in a protein shell. The GRMs appear to enlist redox proteins to either generate reductants internally or facilitate the transfer of electrons from the cytosol across the shell. Despite this relative complexity, GRMs are one of the most widespread types of BMC, with distinct subtypes to catabolize different substrates. Moreover, they are encoded by many prominent gut-associated and pathogenic bacteria. In this review, we will focus on the diversity, function, and physiological importance of GRMs, with particular attention given to their associated and enigmatic redox proteins.

Review of NAD(P)H-dependent oxidoreductases: Properties, engineering and application

NAD(P)H-dependent oxidoreductases catalyze the reduction or oxidation of a substrate coupled to the oxidation or reduction, respectively, of a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide cofactor NAD(P)H or NAD(P)⁺. NAD(P)H-dependent oxidoreductases catalyze a large variety of reactions and play a pivotal role in many central metabolic pathways. Due to the high activity, regiospecificity and stereospecificity with which they catalyze redox reactions, they have been used as key components in a wide range of applications, including substrate utilization, the synthesis of chemicals, biodegradation and detoxification. There is great interest in tailoring NAD(P)H-dependent oxidoreductases to make them more suitable for particular applications. Here, we review the main properties and classes of NAD(P)H-dependent oxidoreductases, the types of reactions they catalyze, some of the main protein engineering techniques used to modify their properties and some interesting examples of their modification and application.

Structural and Functional Characterization of a Short-Chain Flavodoxin Associated with a Noncanonical 1,2-Propanediol Utilization Bacterial Microcompartment

Bacterial microcompartments (BMCs) are proteinaceous organelles that encapsulate enzymes involved in CO₂ fixation (carboxysomes) or carbon catabolism (metabolosomes). Metabolosomes share a common core of enzymes and a distinct signature enzyme for substrate degradation that defines the function of the BMC (e.g., propanediol or ethanolamine utilization BMCs, or glycyl-radical enzyme microcompartments). Loci encoding metabolosomes also typically contain genes for proteins that support organelle function, such as regulation, transport of substrate, and cofactor (e.g., vitamin B₁₂) synthesis and recycling. Flavoproteins are frequently among these ancillary gene products, suggesting that these redox active proteins play an undetermined function in many metabolosomes. Here, we report the first characterization of a BMC-associated flavodoxin (Fld1C), a small flavoprotein, derived from the noncanonical 1,2-propanediol utilization BMC locus (PDU1C) of Lactobacillus reuteri. The 2.0 Å X-ray structure of Fld1C displays the α/β flavodoxin fold, which noncovalently binds a single flavin mononucleotide molecule. Fld1C is a short-chain flavodoxin with redox potentials of -240 ± 3 mV oxidized/semiquinone and -344 ± 1 mV semiquinone/hydroquinone versus the standard hydrogen electrode at pH 7.5. It can participate in an electron transfer reaction with a photoreductant to form a stable semiquinone species. Collectively, our structural and functional results suggest that PDU1C BMCs encapsulate Fld1C to store and transfer electrons for the reactivation and/or recycling of the B₁₂ cofactor utilized by the signature enzyme.

The Crystal Structure of the C-Terminal Domain of the Salmonella enterica PduO Protein: An Old Fold with a New Heme-Binding Mode

The two-domain protein PduO, involved in 1,2-propanediol utilization in the pathogenic Gram-negative bacterium Salmonella enterica is an ATP:Cob(I)alamin adenosyltransferase, but this is a function of the N-terminal domain alone. The role of its C-terminal domain (PduOC) is, however, unknown. In this study, comparative growth assays with a set of Salmonella mutant strains showed that this domain is necessary for effective in vivo catabolism of 1,2-propanediol. It was also shown that isolated, recombinantly-expressed PduOC binds heme in vivo. The structure of PduOC co-crystallized with heme was solved (1.9 Å resolution) showing an octameric assembly with four heme moieities. The four heme groups are highly solvent-exposed and the heme iron is hexa-coordinated with bis-His ligation by histidines from different monomers. Static light scattering confirmed the octameric assembly in solution, but a mutation of the heme-coordinating histidine caused dissociation into dimers. Isothermal titration calorimetry using the PduOC apoprotein showed strong heme binding (K d = 1.6 × 10(-7) M). Biochemical experiments showed that the absence of the C-terminal domain in PduO did not affect adenosyltransferase activity in vitro. The evidence suggests that PduOC:heme plays an important role in the set of cobalamin transformations required for effective catabolism of 1,2-propanediol. Salmonella PduO is one of the rare proteins which binds the redox-active metabolites heme and cobalamin, and the heme-binding mode of the C-terminal domain differs from that in other members of this protein family.

Diol Dehydratase-Reactivase Is Essential for Recycling of Coenzyme B12 in Diol Dehydratase

Holoenzymes of adenosylcobalamin-dependent diol and glycerol dehydratases undergo mechanism-based inactivation by glycerol and O2 inactivation in the absence of substrate, which accompanies irreversible cleavage of the coenzyme Co-C bond. The inactivated holodiol dehydratase and the inactive enzyme·cyanocobalamin complex were (re)activated by incubation with NADH, ATP, and Mg(2+) (or Mn(2+)) in crude extracts of Klebsiella oxytoca, suggesting the presence of a reactivating system in the extract. The reducing system with NADH could be replaced by FMNH2. When inactivated holoenzyme or the enzyme·cyanocobalamin complex, a model of inactivated holoenzyme, was incubated with purified recombinant diol dehydratase-reactivase (DD-R) and an ATP:cob(I)alamin adenosyltransferase in the presence of FMNH2, ATP, and Mg(2+), diol dehydratase activity was restored. Among the three adenosyltransferases (PduO, EutT, and CobA) of this bacterium, PduO and CobA were much more efficient for the reactivation than EutT, although PduO showed the lowest adenosyltransfease activity toward free cob(I)alamin. These results suggest that (1) diol dehydratase activity is maintained through coenzyme recycling by a reactivating system for diol dehydratase composed of DD-R, PduO adenosyltransferase, and a reducing system, (2) the releasing factor DD-R is essential for the recycling of adenosycobalamin, a tightly bound, prosthetic group-type coenzyme, and (3) PduO is a specific adenosylating enzyme for the DD reactivation, whereas CobA and EutT exert their effects through free synthesized coenzyme. Although FMNH2 was mainly used as a reductant in this study, a natural reducing system might consist of PduS cobalamin reductase and NADH.

Bacterial microcompartments: widespread prokaryotic organelles for isolation and optimization of metabolic pathways

Prokaryotes use subcellular compartments for a variety of purposes. An intriguing example is a family of complex subcellular organelles known as bacterial microcompartments (MCPs). MCPs are widely distributed among bacteria and impact processes ranging from global carbon fixation to enteric pathogenesis. Overall, MCPs consist of metabolic enzymes encased within a protein shell, and their function is to optimize biochemical pathways by confining toxic or volatile metabolic intermediates. MCPs are fundamentally different from other organelles in having a complex protein shell rather than a lipid-based membrane as an outer barrier. This unusual feature raises basic questions about organelle assembly, protein targeting and metabolite transport. In this review, we discuss the three best-studied MCPs highlighting atomic-level models for shell assembly, targeting sequences that direct enzyme encapsulation, multivalent proteins that organize the lumen enzymes, the principles of metabolite movement across the shell, internal cofactor recycling, a potential system of allosteric regulation of metabolite transport and the mechanism and rationale behind the functional diversification of the proteins that form the shell. We also touch on some potential biotechnology applications of an unusual compartment designed by nature to optimize metabolic processes within a cellular context.

Bioinformatic characterization of glycyl radical enzyme-associated bacterial microcompartments

Bacterial microcompartments (BMCs) are proteinaceous organelles encapsulating enzymes that catalyze sequential reactions of metabolic pathways. BMCs are phylogenetically widespread; however, only a few BMCs have been experimentally characterized. Among them are the carboxysomes and the propanediol- and ethanolamine-utilizing microcompartments, which play diverse metabolic and ecological roles. The substrate of a BMC is defined by its signature enzyme. In catabolic BMCs, this enzyme typically generates an aldehyde. Recently, it was shown that the most prevalent signature enzymes encoded by BMC loci are glycyl radical enzymes, yet little is known about the function of these BMCs. Here we characterize the glycyl radical enzyme-associated microcompartment (GRM) loci using a combination of bioinformatic analyses and active-site and structural modeling to show that the GRMs comprise five subtypes. We predict distinct functions for the GRMs, including the degradation of choline, propanediol, and fuculose phosphate. This is the first family of BMCs for which identification of the signature enzyme is insufficient for predicting function. The distinct GRM functions are also reflected in differences in shell composition and apparently different assembly pathways. The GRMs are the counterparts of the vitamin B12-dependent propanediol- and ethanolamine-utilizing BMCs, which are frequently associated with virulence. This study provides a comprehensive foundation for experimental investigations of the diverse roles of GRMs. Understanding this plasticity of function within a single BMC family, including characterization of differences in permeability and assembly, can inform approaches to BMC bioengineering and the design of therapeutics.

Diverse bacterial microcompartment organelles

Bacterial microcompartments (MCPs) are sophisticated protein-based organelles used to optimize metabolic pathways. They consist of metabolic enzymes encapsulated within a protein shell, which creates an ideal environment for catalysis and facilitates the channeling of toxic/volatile intermediates to downstream enzymes. The metabolic processes that require MCPs are diverse and widely distributed and play important roles in global carbon fixation and bacterial pathogenesis. The protein shells of MCPs are thought to selectively control the movement of enzyme cofactors, substrates, and products (including toxic or volatile intermediates) between the MCP interior and the cytoplasm of the cell using both passive electrostatic/steric and dynamic gated mechanisms. Evidence suggests that specialized shell proteins conduct electrons between the cytoplasm and the lumen of the MCP and/or help rebuild damaged iron-sulfur centers in the encapsulated enzymes. The MCP shell is elaborated through a family of small proteins whose structural core is known as a bacterial microcompartment (BMC) domain. BMC domain proteins oligomerize into flat, hexagonally shaped tiles, which assemble into extended protein sheets that form the facets of the shell. Shape complementarity along the edges allows different types of BMC domain proteins to form mixed sheets, while sequence variation provides functional diversification. Recent studies have also revealed targeting sequences that mediate protein encapsulation within MCPs, scaffolding proteins that organize lumen enzymes and the use of private cofactor pools (NAD/H and coenzyme A [HS-CoA]) to facilitate cofactor homeostasis. Although much remains to be learned, our growing understanding of MCPs is providing a basis for bioengineering of protein-based containers for the production of chemicals/pharmaceuticals and for use as molecular delivery vehicles.

Exploring bacterial organelle interactomes: a model of the protein-protein interaction network in the Pdu microcompartment

Bacterial microcompartments (MCPs) are protein-bound organelles that carry out diverse metabolic pathways in a wide range of bacteria. These supramolecular assemblies consist of a thin outer protein shell, reminiscent of a viral capsid, which encapsulates sequentially acting enzymes. The most complex MCP elucidated so far is the propanediol utilizing (Pdu) microcompartment. It contains the reactions for degrading 1,2-propanediol. While several experimental studies on the Pdu system have provided hints about its organization, a clear picture of how all the individual components interact has not emerged yet. Here we use co-evolution-based methods, involving pairwise comparisons of protein phylogenetic trees, to predict the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network governing the assembly of the Pdu MCP. We propose a model of the Pdu interactome, from which selected PPIs are further inspected via computational docking simulations. We find that shell protein PduA is able to serve as a “universal hub” for targeting an array of enzymes presenting special N-terminal extensions, namely PduC, D, E, L and P. The varied N-terminal peptides are predicted to bind in the same cleft on the presumptive luminal face of the PduA hexamer. We also propose that PduV, a protein of unknown function with remote homology to the Ras-like GTPase superfamily, is likely to localize outside the MCP, interacting with the protruding β-barrel of the hexameric PduU shell protein. Preliminary experiments involving a bacterial two-hybrid assay are presented that corroborate the existence of a PduU-PduV interaction. This first systematic computational study aimed at characterizing the interactome of a bacterial microcompartment provides fresh insight into the organization of the Pdu MCP.

Many bacteria produce giant proteinaceous structures within their cells, which they use to carry out special metabolic reactions in their interior. Much has been learned recently about the individual components—shell proteins and encapsulated enzymes—that assemble together, thousands of subunits in all, to make these bacterial microcompartments or MCPs. However, in order to carry out their biological functions, these systems must be highly organized through specific protein-protein interactions, and such a higher level understanding of organization in MCP systems is lacking. In this study, we use genomic data and phylogenetic analysis to predict the network of interactions between the approximately 20 different kinds of proteins and enzymes present in the Pdu MCP. Then, we use computational docking to examine a subset of those that are predicted to involve enzymes bound to the interior surface of the shell proteins, and show that the results are consistent with recent experimental data. We further provide new experimental evidence for one of the predicted protein-protein interactions. This study expands our understanding of a complex system of proteins serving as a metabolic organelle in bacterial cells, and provides a foundation for further experimental investigations.

A taxonomy of bacterial microcompartment loci constructed by a novel scoring method

Bacterial microcompartments (BMCs) are proteinaceous organelles involved in both autotrophic and heterotrophic metabolism. All BMCs share homologous shell proteins but differ in their complement of enzymes; these are typically encoded adjacent to shell protein genes in genetic loci, or operons. To enable the identification and prediction of functional (sub)types of BMCs, we developed LoClass, an algorithm that finds putative BMC loci and inventories, weights, and compares their constituent pfam domains to construct a locus similarity network and predict locus (sub)types. In addition to using LoClass to analyze sequences in the Non-redundant Protein Database, we compared predicted BMC loci found in seven candidate bacterial phyla (six from single-cell genomic studies) to the LoClass taxonomy. Together, these analyses resulted in the identification of 23 different types of BMCs encoded in 30 distinct locus (sub)types found in 23 bacterial phyla. These include the two carboxysome types and a divergent set of metabolosomes, BMCs that share a common catalytic core and process distinct substrates via specific signature enzymes. Furthermore, many Candidate BMCs were found that lack one or more core metabolosome components, including one that is predicted to represent an entirely new paradigm for BMC-associated metabolism, joining the carboxysome and metabolosome. By placing these results in a phylogenetic context, we provide a framework for understanding the horizontal transfer of these loci, a starting point for studies aimed at understanding the evolution of BMCs. This comprehensive taxonomy of BMC loci, based on their constituent protein domains, foregrounds the functional diversity of BMCs and provides a reference for interpreting the role of BMC gene clusters encoded in isolate, single cell, and metagenomic data. Many loci encode ancillary functions such as transporters or genes for cofactor assembly; this expanded vocabulary of BMC-related functions should be useful for design of genetic modules for introducing BMCs in bioengineering applications.

Some enzymatic transformations have undesirable side reactions, produce toxic or volatile intermediates, or are inefficient; these shortcomings can be alleviated through their sequestration with their substrates in a confined space, as in the membrane-bound organelles of eukaryotes. Recently, it was discovered that bacteria also form organelles–bacterial microcompartments (BMCs)–composed of a protein shell that surrounds functionally related enzymes. BMCs long evaded detection because they typically form only in the presence of the substrate they metabolize, and they can only be visualized by electron microscopy. A few BMCs have been experimentally characterized; they have diverse functions in CO₂ fixation, pathogenesis, and niche colonization. While the encapsulated enzymes differ among functionally distinct BMCs, the shell architecture is conserved. This enables their detection computationally, as genes for shell proteins are typically nearby genes for the encapsulated enzymes. We developed a novel algorithm to comprehensively identify and categorize BMCs in sequenced bacterial genomes. We show that BMCs are often encoded adjacent to genes that play supporting roles to the organelle's function. Our results provide the first glimpse of the extent of BMC metabolic diversity and will inform design of genetic modules encoding BMCs for introduction of new metabolic functions in a plug-and-play approach.

Identification of a unique Fe-S cluster binding site in a glycyl-radical type microcompartment shell protein

Recently, progress has been made toward understanding the functional diversity of bacterial microcompartment (MCP) systems, which serve as protein-based metabolic organelles in diverse microbes. New types of MCPs have been identified, including the glycyl-radical propanediol (Grp) MCP. Within these elaborate protein complexes, BMC-domain shell proteins [bacterial microcompartment (in reference to the shell protein domain)] assemble to form a polyhedral barrier that encapsulates the enzymatic contents of the MCP. Interestingly, the Grp MCP contains a number of shell proteins with unusual sequence features. GrpU is one such shell protein whose amino acid sequence is particularly divergent from other members of the BMC-domain superfamily of proteins that effectively defines all MCPs. Expression, purification, and subsequent characterization of the protein showed, unexpectedly, that it binds an iron-sulfur cluster. We determined X-ray crystal structures of two GrpU orthologs, providing the first structural insight into the homohexameric BMC-domain shell proteins of the Grp system. The X-ray structures of GrpU, both obtained in the apo form, combined with spectroscopic analyses and computational modeling, show that the metal cluster resides in the central pore of the BMC shell protein at a position of broken 6-fold symmetry. The result is a structurally polymorphic iron-sulfur cluster binding site that appears to be unique among metalloproteins studied to date.

Diverse bacterial microcompartment organelles

Bacterial microcompartments (MCPs) are sophisticated protein-based organelles used to optimize metabolic pathways. They consist of metabolic enzymes encapsulated within a protein shell, which creates an ideal environment for catalysis and facilitates the channeling of toxic/volatile intermediates to downstream enzymes. The metabolic processes that require MCPs are diverse and widely distributed and play important roles in global carbon fixation and bacterial pathogenesis. The protein shells of MCPs are thought to selectively control the movement of enzyme cofactors, substrates, and products (including toxic or volatile intermediates) between the MCP interior and the cytoplasm of the cell using both passive electrostatic/steric and dynamic gated mechanisms. Evidence suggests that specialized shell proteins conduct electrons between the cytoplasm and the lumen of the MCP and/or help rebuild damaged iron-sulfur centers in the encapsulated enzymes. The MCP shell is elaborated through a family of small proteins whose structural core is known as a bacterial microcompartment (BMC) domain. BMC domain proteins oligomerize into flat, hexagonally shaped tiles, which assemble into extended protein sheets that form the facets of the shell. Shape complementarity along the edges allows different types of BMC domain proteins to form mixed sheets, while sequence variation provides functional diversification. Recent studies have also revealed targeting sequences that mediate protein encapsulation within MCPs, scaffolding proteins that organize lumen enzymes and the use of private cofactor pools (NAD/H and coenzyme A [HS-CoA]) to facilitate cofactor homeostasis. Although much remains to be learned, our growing understanding of MCPs is providing a basis for bioengineering of protein-based containers for the production of chemicals/pharmaceuticals and for use as molecular delivery vehicles.

FAD binding, cobinamide binding and active site communication in the corrin reductase (CobR)

Adenosylcobalamin, the coenzyme form of vitamin B12, is one Nature's most complex coenzyme whose de novo biogenesis proceeds along either an anaerobic or aerobic metabolic pathway. The aerobic synthesis involves reduction of the centrally chelated cobalt metal ion of the corrin ring from Co(II) to Co(I) before adenosylation can take place. A corrin reductase (CobR) enzyme has been identified as the likely agent to catalyse this reduction of the metal ion. Herein, we reveal how Brucella melitensis CobR binds its coenzyme FAD (flavin dinucleotide) and we also show that the enzyme can bind a corrin substrate consistent with its role in reduction of the cobalt of the corrin ring. Stopped-flow kinetics and EPR reveal a mechanistic asymmetry in CobR dimer that provides a potential link between the two electron reduction by NADH to the single electron reduction of Co(II) to Co(I).

Structure and expression of propanediol utilization microcompartments in Acetonema longum

Numerous bacteria assemble proteinaceous microcompartments to isolate certain biochemical reactions within the cytoplasm. The assembly, structure, contents, and functions of these microcompartments are active areas of research. Here we show that the Gram-negative sporulating bacterium Acetonema longum synthesizes propanediol utilization (PDU) microcompartments when starved or grown on 1,2-propanediol (1,2-PD) or rhamnose. Electron cryotomography of intact cells revealed that PDU microcompartments are highly irregular in shape and size, similar to purified PDU microcompartments from Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium LT2 that were imaged previously. Homology searches identified a 20-gene operon in A. longum that contains most of the structural, enzymatic, and regulatory genes thought to be involved in PDU microcompartment assembly and function. Transcriptional data on PduU and PduC, which are major structural and enzymatic proteins, respectively, as well as imaging, indicate that PDU microcompartment synthesis is induced within 24 h of growth on 1,2-PD and after 48 h of growth on rhamnose.

Evidence that a metabolic microcompartment contains and recycles private cofactor pools

Microcompartments are loose protein cages that encapsulate enzymes for particular bacterial metabolic pathways. These structures are thought to retain and perhaps concentrate pools of small, uncharged intermediates that would otherwise diffuse from the cell. In Salmonella enterica, a microcompartment encloses enzymes for ethanolamine catabolism. The cage has been thought to retain the volatile intermediate acetaldehyde but allow diffusion of the much larger cofactors NAD and coenzyme A (CoA). Genetic tests support an alternative idea that the microcompartment contains and recycles private pools of the large cofactors NAD and CoA. Two central enzymes convert ethanolamine to acetaldehyde (EutBC) and then to acetyl-CoA (EutE). Two seemingly peripheral redundant enzymes encoded by the eut operon proved to be essential for ethanolamine utilization, when subjected to sufficiently stringent tests. These are EutD (acetyl-CoA to acetyl phosphate) and EutG (acetaldehyde to ethanol). Obligatory recycling of cofactors couples the three reactions and drives acetaldehyde consumption. Loss and toxic effects of acetaldehyde are minimized by accelerating its consumption. In a eutD mutant, acetyl-CoA cannot escape the compartment but is released by mutations that disrupt the structure. The model predicts that EutBC (ethanolamine-ammonia lyase) lies outside the compartment, using external coenzyme B12 and injecting its product, acetaldehyde, into the lumen, where it is degraded by the EutE, EutD, and EutG enzymes using private pools of CoA and NAD. The compartment appears to allow free diffusion of the intermediates ethanol and acetyl-PO4 but (to our great surprise) restricts diffusion of acetaldehyde.

Involvement of a bacterial microcompartment in the metabolism of fucose and rhamnose by Clostridium phytofermentans

Background

Clostridium phytofermentans, an anaerobic soil bacterium, can directly convert plant biomass into biofuels. The genome of C. phytofermentans contains three loci with genes encoding shell proteins of bacterial microcompartments (BMC), organelles composed entirely of proteins.

Methodology and Principal Findings

One of the BMC loci has homology to a BMC-encoding locus implicated in the conversion of fucose to propanol and propionate in a human gut commensal, Roseburia inulinivorans. We hypothesized that it had a similar role in C. phytofermentans. When C. phytofermentans was grown on fucose, the major products identified were ethanol, propanol and propionate. Transmission electron microscopy of fucose- and rhamnose-grown cultures revealed polyhedral structures, presumably BMCs. Microarray analysis indicated that during growth on fucose, operons coding for the BMC locus, fucose dissimilatory enzymes, and an ATP-binding cassette transporter became the dominant transcripts. These data are consistent with fucose fermentation producing a 1,2-propanediol intermediate that is further metabolized in the microcompartment encoded in the BMC locus. Growth on another deoxyhexose sugar, rhamnose, resulted in the expression of the same BMC locus and similar fermentation products. However, a different set of dissimilatory enzymes and transport system genes were induced. Quite surprisingly, growth on fucose or rhamnose also led to the expression of a diverse array of complex plant polysaccharide-degrading enzymes.

Conclusions/Significance

Based on physiological, genomic, and microarray analyses, we propose a model for the fermentation of fucose and rhamnose in C. phytofermentans that includes enzymes encoded in the same BMC locus. Comparative genomic analysis suggests that this BMC may be present in other clostridial species.

Engineering nanoscale protein compartments for synthetic organelles

Advances in metabolic engineering have given rise to the biological production of novel fuels and chemicals, but yields are often low without significant optimization. One generalizable solution is to create a specialized organelle for the sequestration of engineered metabolic pathways. Bacterial microcompartments are an excellent scaffold for such an organelle. These compartments consist of a porous protein shell that encapsulates enzymes. To repurpose these structures, researchers have begun to determine how the protein shell is assembled, how pores may be used to control small molecule transport across the protein shell, and how to target heterologous enzymes to the compartment interior. With these advances, it will soon be possible to use engineered forms of these protein shells to create designer organelles.

The PduQ enzyme is an alcohol dehydrogenase used to recycle NAD+ internally within the Pdu microcompartment of Salmonella enterica

Salmonella enterica uses a bacterial microcompartment (MCP) for coenzyme B(12)-dependent 1,2-propanediol (1,2-PD) utilization (Pdu). The Pdu MCP consists of a protein shell that encapsulates enzymes and cofactors required for metabolizing 1,2-PD as a carbon and energy source. Here we show that the PduQ protein of S. enterica is an iron-dependent alcohol dehydrogenase used for 1,2-PD catabolism. PduQ is also demonstrated to be a new component of the Pdu MCP. In addition, a series of in vivo and in vitro studies show that a primary function of PduQ is to recycle NADH to NAD(+) internally within the Pdu MCP in order to supply propionaldehyde dehydrogenase (PduP) with its required cofactor (NAD(+)). Genetic tests determined that a pduQ deletion mutant grew slower than wild-type Salmonella on 1,2-PD and that this phenotype was not complemented by a non-MCP associated Adh2 from Zymomonas that catalyzes the same reaction. This suggests that PduQ has a MCP-specific function. We also found that a pduQ deletion mutant had no growth defect in a genetic background having a second mutation that prevents MCP formation which further supports a MCP-specific role for PduQ. Moreover, studies with purified Pdu MCPs demonstrated that the PduQ enzyme can convert NADH to NAD(+) to supply the PduP reaction in vitro. Cumulatively, these studies show that the PduQ enzyme is used to recycle NADH to NAD(+) internally within the Pdu MCP. To our knowledge, this is the first report of internal recycling as a mechanism for cofactor homeostasis within a bacterial MCP.

Natural strategies for the spatial optimization of metabolism in synthetic biology

Metabolism is a highly interconnected web of chemical reactions that power life. Though the stoichiometry of metabolism is well understood, the multidimensional aspects of metabolic regulation in time and space remain difficult to define, model and engineer. Complex metabolic conversions can be performed by multiple species working cooperatively and exchanging metabolites via structured networks of organisms and resources. Within cells, metabolism is spatially regulated via sequestration in subcellular compartments and through the assembly of multienzyme complexes. Metabolic engineering and synthetic biology have had success in engineering metabolism in the first and second dimensions, designing linear metabolic pathways and channeling metabolic flux. More recently, engineering of the third dimension has improved output of engineered pathways through isolation and organization of multicell and multienzyme complexes. This review highlights natural and synthetic examples of three-dimensional metabolism both inter- and intracellularly, offering tools and perspectives for biological design.

The PduM protein is a structural component of the microcompartments involved in coenzyme B(12)-dependent 1,2-propanediol degradation by Salmonella enterica

Diverse bacteria use proteinaceous microcompartments (MCPs) to optimize metabolic pathways that have toxic or volatile intermediates. MCPs consist of metabolic enzymes encased within a protein shell that provides a defined environment. In Salmonella enterica, a MCP is involved in B(12)-dependent 1,2-propanediol utilization (Pdu MCP). In this report, we show that the protein PduM is required for the assembly and function of the Pdu MCP. The results of tandem mass spectrometry and Western blot analyses show that PduM is a component of the Pdu MCP. Electron microscopy shows that a pduM deletion mutant forms MCPs with abnormal morphology. Growth tests and metabolite measurements establish that a pduM deletion mutant is unable to form functional MCPs. PduM is unrelated in sequence to proteins of known function and hence may represent a new class of MCP structural proteins. We also report a modified protocol for the purification of Pdu MCP from Salmonella which allows isolation of milligram amounts of MCPs in about 4 h. We believe that this protocol can be extended or modified for the purification of MCPs from diverse bacteria.

The N-terminal region of the medium subunit (PduD) packages adenosylcobalamin-dependent diol dehydratase (PduCDE) into the Pdu microcompartment

Salmonella enterica produces a proteinaceous microcompartment for B(12)-dependent 1,2-propanediol utilization (Pdu MCP). The Pdu MCP consists of catabolic enzymes encased within a protein shell, and its function is to sequester propionaldehyde, a toxic intermediate of 1,2-propanediol degradation. We report here that a short N-terminal region of the medium subunit (PduD) is required for packaging the coenzyme B(12)-dependent diol dehydratase (PduCDE) into the lumen of the Pdu MCP. Analysis of soluble cell extracts and purified MCPs by Western blotting showed that the PduD subunit mediated packaging of itself and other subunits of diol dehydratase (PduC and PduE) into the Pdu MCP. Deletion of 35 amino acids from the N terminus of PduD significantly impaired the packaging of PduCDE with minimal effects on its enzyme activity. Western blotting showed that fusing the 18 N-terminal amino acids of PduD to green fluorescent protein or glutathione S-transferase resulted in the association of these fusion proteins with the MCP. Immunoprecipitation tests indicated that the fusion proteins were encapsulated inside the MCP shell.

Genetic analysis of the protein shell of the microcompartments involved in coenzyme B12-dependent 1,2-propanediol degradation by Salmonella

Hundreds of bacterial species use microcompartments (MCPs) to optimize metabolic pathways that have toxic or volatile intermediates. MCPs consist of a protein shell encapsulating specific metabolic enzymes. In Salmonella, an MCP is used for 1,2-propanediol utilization (Pdu MCP). The shell of this MCP is composed of eight different types of polypeptides, but their specific functions are uncertain. Here, we individually deleted the eight genes encoding the shell proteins of the Pdu MCP. The effects of each mutation on 1,2-PD degradation and MCP structure were determined by electron microscopy and growth studies. Deletion of the pduBB', pduJ, or pduN gene severely impaired MCP formation, and the observed defects were consistent with roles as facet, edge, or vertex protein, respectively. Metabolite measurements showed that pduA, pduBB', pduJ, or pduN deletion mutants accumulated propionaldehyde to toxic levels during 1,2-PD catabolism, indicating that the integrity of the shell was disrupted. Deletion of the pduK, pduT, or pduU gene did not substantially affect MCP structure or propionaldehyde accumulation, suggesting they are nonessential to MCP formation. However, the pduU or pduT deletion mutants grew more slowly than the wild type on 1,2-PD at saturating B(12), indicating that they are needed for maximal activity of the 1,2-PD degradative enzymes encased within the MCP shell. Considering recent crystallography studies, this suggests that PduT and PduU may mediate the transport of enzyme substrates/cofactors across the MCP shell. Interestingly, a pduK deletion caused MCP aggregation, suggesting a role in the spatial organization of MCP within the cytoplasm or perhaps in segregation at cell division.

Nucleoid-associated protein HU controls three regulons that coordinate virulence, response to stress and general physiology in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium

The role of the HU nucleoid-associated proteins in gene regulation was examined in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. The dimeric HU protein consists of different combinations of its α and β subunits. Transcriptomic analysis was performed with cultures growing at 37 °C at 1, 4 and 6 h after inoculation with mutants that lack combinations of HU α and HU β. Distinct but overlapping patterns of gene expression were detected at each time point for each of the three mutants, revealing not one but three regulons of genes controlled by the HU proteins. Mutations in the hup genes altered the expression of regulatory and structural genes in both the SPI1 and SPI2 pathogenicity islands. The hupA hupB double mutant was defective in invasion of epithelial cell lines and in its ability to survive in macrophages. The double mutant also had defective swarming activity and a competitive fitness disadvantage compared with the wild-type. In contrast, inactivation of just the hupB gene resulted in increased fitness and correlated with the upregulation of members of the RpoS regulon in exponential-phase cultures. Our data show that HU coordinates the expression of genes involved in central metabolism and virulence and contributes to the success of S. enterica as a pathogen.

Structural insight into the mechanisms of transport across the Salmonella enterica Pdu microcompartment shell

Bacterial microcompartments are a functionally diverse group of proteinaceous organelles that confine specific reaction pathways in the cell within a thin protein-based shell. The propanediol utilizing (Pdu) microcompartment contains the reactions for metabolizing 1,2-propanediol in certain enteric bacteria, including Salmonella. The Pdu shell is assembled from a few thousand protein subunits of several different types. Here we report the crystal structures of two key shell proteins, PduA and PduT. The crystal structures offer insights into the mechanisms of Pdu microcompartment assembly and molecular transport across the shell. PduA forms a symmetric homohexamer whose central pore appears tailored for facilitating transport of the 1,2-propanediol substrate. PduT is a novel, tandem domain shell protein that assembles as a pseudohexameric homotrimer. Its structure reveals an unexpected site for binding an [Fe-S] cluster at the center of the PduT pore. The location of a metal redox cofactor in the pore of a shell protein suggests a novel mechanism for either transferring redox equivalents across the shell or for regenerating luminal [Fe-S] clusters.

Characterisation of PduS, the pdu metabolosome corrin reductase, and evidence of substructural organisation within the bacterial microcompartment

PduS is a corrin reductase and is required for the reactivation of the cobalamin-dependent diol dehydratase. It is one component encoded within the large propanediol utilisation (pdu) operon, which is responsible for the catabolism of 1,2-propanediol within a self-assembled proteinaceous bacterial microcompartment. The enzyme is responsible for the reactivation of the cobalamin coenzyme required by the diol dehydratase. The gene for the cobalamin reductase from Citrobacter freundii (pduS) has been cloned to allow the protein to be overproduced recombinantly in E. coli with an N-terminal His-tag. Purified recombinant PduS is shown to be a flavoprotein with a non-covalently bound FMN that also contains two coupled [4Fe-4S] centres. It is an NADH-dependent flavin reductase that is able to mediate the one-electron reductions of cob(III)alamin to cob(II)alamin and cob(II)alamin to cob(I)alamin. The [4Fe-4S] centres are labile to oxygen and their presence affects the midpoint redox potential of flavin. Evidence is presented that PduS is able to bind cobalamin, which is inconsistent with the view that PduS is merely a flavin reductase. PduS is also shown to interact with one of the shell proteins of the metabolosome, PduT, which is also thought to contain an [Fe-S] cluster. PduS is shown to act as a corrin reductase and its interaction with a shell protein could allow for electron passage out of the bacterial microcompartment.