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Svetlicic E, Jaén-Luchoro D, Klobucar RS, Jers C, Kazazic S, Franjevic D, Klobucar G, Shelton BG, Mijakovic I. Genomic characterization and assessment of pathogenic potential of Legionella spp. isolates from environmental monitoring. Front Microbiol 2023; 13:1091964. [PMID: 36713227 PMCID: PMC9879626 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1091964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Several species in the genus Legionella are known to cause an acute pneumonia when the aerosols containing the bacteria from man-made water systems are inhaled. The disease is usually caused by Legionella pneumophila, but other species have been implicated in the infection. The disease is frequently manifested as an outbreak, which means several people are affected when exposed to the common source of Legionella contamination. Therefor environmental surveillance which includes isolation and identification of Legionella is performed routinely. However, usually no molecular or genome-based methods are employed in further characterization of the isolates during routine environmental monitoring. During several years of such monitoring, isolates from different geographical locations were collected and 39 of them were sequenced by hybrid de novo approach utilizing short and long sequencing reads. In addition, the isolates were typed by standard culture and MALDI-TOF method. The sequencing reads were assembled and annotated to produce high-quality genomes. By employing discriminatory genome typing, four potential new species in the Legionella genus were identified, which are yet to be biochemically and morphologically characterized. Moreover, functional annotations concerning virulence and antimicrobial resistance were performed on the sequenced genomes. The study contributes to the knowledge on little-known non-pneumophila species present in man-made water systems and establishes support for future genetic relatedness studies as well as understanding of their pathogenic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ema Svetlicic
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Daniel Jaén-Luchoro
- Department of Infectious Diseases (Sahlgrenska Academy) at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | - Carsten Jers
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Snjezana Kazazic
- Laboratory for Mass Spectrometry and Functional Proteomics, Ruder Boskovic Institute, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Damjan Franjevic
- Division of Zoology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Goran Klobucar
- Division of Zoology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | | | - Ivan Mijakovic
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark,Systems and Synthetic Biology Division, Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden,*Correspondence: Ivan Mijakovic,
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Zhan XY, Yang JL, Sun H, Zhou X, Qian YC, Huang K, Leng Y, Huang B, He Y. Presence of Viable, Clinically Relevant Legionella Bacteria in Environmental Water and Soil Sources of China. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0114021. [PMID: 35438512 PMCID: PMC9241679 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01140-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The distribution of pathogenic Legionella in the environmental soil and water of China has not been documented yet. In this study, Legionella was detected in 129 of 575 water (22.43%) and 41 of 442 soil samples (9.28%) by culture. Twelve Legionella species were identified, of which 11 were disease-associated. Of the Legionella-positive samples, 109 of 129 (84.50%) water and 29 of 41 (70.73%) soil were positive for L. pneumophila, which accounted for about 75% of Legionella isolates in both water and soil, suggesting L. pneumophila was the most frequent species. Soil showed a higher diversity of Legionella spp. as compared with water (0.6279 versus 0.4493). In contrast, serogroup (sg) 1 was more prevalent among L. pneumophila isolates from water than from soil (26.66% versus 12.21%). Moreover, many disease-associated sequence types (STs) of L. pneumophila were found in China. Intragenic recombination was acting on L. pneumophila from both water and soil. Phylogeny, population structure, and molecular evolution analyses revealed a probable existence of L. pneumophila isolates with a special genetic background that is more adaptable to soil or water sources and a small proportion of genetic difference between water and soil isolates. The detection of viable, clinically relevant Legionella demonstrates soil as another source for harboring and dissemination of pathogenic Legionella bacteria in China. Future research should assess the implication in public health with the presence of Legionella in the soil and illustrate the genetic and pathogenicity difference of Legionella between water and soil, particularly the most prevalent L. pneumophila. IMPORTANCE Pathogenic Legionella spp. is the causative agent of Legionnaires' disease (LD), and L. pneumophila is the most common one. Most studies have focused on L. pneumophila from water and clinical samples. However, the soil is another important reservoir for this bacterium, and the distribution of Legionella spp. in water and soil sources has not been compared and documented in China yet. Discovering the distribution of Legionella spp. and L. pneumophila in the two environments may help a deep understanding of the pathogenesis and molecular evolution of the bacterium. Our research systematically uncovered the distributions of Legionella spp. in different regions and sources (e.g., water and soil) of China. Moreover, phylogeny, population structure, and molecular evolution study revealed the possible existence of L. pneumophila with a special genetic background that is more adaptable to soil or water sources, and genetic difference may exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Yong Zhan
- The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jin-Lei Yang
- The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Honghua Sun
- The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Xuefu Zhou
- The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yi-Chao Qian
- The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Ke Huang
- The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yang Leng
- The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Bihui Huang
- The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yulong He
- The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
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Flint KL, Lloyd MR, van den Berg P, Kanjee Z. Legionella pulmonary abscess and pleural space infection in an immunocompetent patient. BMJ Case Rep 2021; 14:14/5/e243026. [PMID: 34031096 DOI: 10.1136/bcr-2021-243026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
A 34-year-old woman is admitted to the hospital with dyspnoea, dry cough and left-sided flank pain. Her Legionella urinary test was positive and CT imaging demonstrated multifocal pneumonia with pulmonary abscesses. Although she had initial clinical improvement on appropriate antibiotic therapy, her hospital course was complicated by worsening flank pain, hypoxemia and leucocytosis, prompting clinical re-evaluation and assessment for development of complications involving the pleural space. CT imaging revealed interval development of a loculated complicated parapneumonic effusion. Successful treatment required chest tube drainage assisted by fibrinolytic therapy. This case highlights the importance of considering Legionella in patients with pulmonary abscess, demonstrates an approach to a patient with a non-resolving pneumonia and illustrates the management of parapneumonic effusions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen L Flint
- Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA .,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Maxwell R Lloyd
- Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Polly van den Berg
- Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Zahir Kanjee
- Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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Gomes TS, Gjiknuri J, Magnet A, Vaccaro L, Ollero D, Izquierdo F, Fenoy S, Hurtado C, Del Águila C. The Influence of Acanthamoeba- Legionella Interaction in the Virulence of Two Different Legionella Species. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:2962. [PMID: 30568639 PMCID: PMC6290054 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 11/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The genus Legionella comprises more than 60 species, and about half are associated with infection. Legionella pneumophila is the most commonly associated with these infections and by far the most studied, but L. non-pneumophila species, such as L. feeleii, L. anisa, etc., may also present clinical importance. Free-living amoebae are their preferred environmental host, where these bacteria not only survive but also succeed in multiplying, and this relationship can lead to an increase in bacterial virulence. The goal of this study was to evaluate the alterations of Legionella pathogenicity due to its interaction with Acanthamoeba. For this, the expression of protein effectors SdhA, LegK2, and SidK were evaluated in L. pneumophila and L. feeleii, before and after infecting Acanthamoeba. Additionally, the host response was evaluated by measuring the production of IL-6, IL-8, and IFN-γ in infected macrophages. Regarding the virulence factors, an increase in SdhA expression was observed after these bacteria infected Acanthamoeba, with a higher increase in the macrophage cultures infected with L. feeleii. Also, an increase in the expression of LegK2 was observed after infecting Acanthamoeba, but it was more intense in the cultures infected with L. pneumophila. With regard to SidK, it was increased in L. feeleii after infecting Acanthamoeba, however the same effect was not observed for L. pneumophila. In cytokine production, the effect on IL-6 and IL-8 was similar for both cytokines, increasing their concentration, but higher production was observed in the cultures infected with L. feeleii, even though it demonstrated slightly lower production with the inoculum obtained from Acanthamoeba. Concerning IFN-γ, induction was observed in both species but higher in the infection by L. pneumophila. Nevertheless, it is not known if this induction is enough to promote an efficient immune response against either L. pneumophila or L. feeleii. Altogether, these alterations seem to increase L. feeleii virulence after infecting Acanthamoeba. However, this increase does not seem to turn L. feeleii as virulent as L. pneumophila. More studies are necessary to understand the aspects influenced in these bacteria by their interaction with Acanthamoeba and, thus, identify targets to be used in future therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiago Santos Gomes
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, CEU Universities, Madrid, Spain.,CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Julia Gjiknuri
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, CEU Universities, Madrid, Spain
| | - Angela Magnet
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, CEU Universities, Madrid, Spain
| | - Lucianna Vaccaro
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, CEU Universities, Madrid, Spain
| | - Dolores Ollero
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, CEU Universities, Madrid, Spain
| | - Fernando Izquierdo
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, CEU Universities, Madrid, Spain
| | - Soledad Fenoy
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, CEU Universities, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carolina Hurtado
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, CEU Universities, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen Del Águila
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, CEU Universities, Madrid, Spain
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Vaccaro L, Izquierdo F, Magnet A, Hurtado C, Salinas MA, Gomes TS, Angulo S, Salso S, Pelaez J, Tejeda MI, Alhambra A, Gómez C, Enríquez A, Estirado E, Fenoy S, del Aguila C. First Case of Legionnaire's Disease Caused by Legionella anisa in Spain and the Limitations on the Diagnosis of Legionella non-pneumophila Infections. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0159726. [PMID: 27442238 PMCID: PMC4956277 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0159726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Accepted: 05/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Legionnaires' disease is a severe form of pneumonia, with worldwide relevance, caused by Legionella spp. Approximately 90% of all cases of legionellosis are caused by Legionella pneumophila, but other species can also be responsible for this infection. These bacteria are transmitted by inhalation of aerosols or aspiration of contaminated water. In Spain, environmental studies have demonstrated the presence of Legionella non-pneumophila species in drinking water treatment plants and water distribution networks. Aware that this evidence indicates a risk factor and the lack of routine assays designed to detect simultaneously diverse Legionella species, we analyzed 210 urine samples from patients presenting clinical manifestations of pneumonia using a semi-nested PCR for partial amplification of the 16S rDNA gene of Legionella and a diagnostic method used in hospitals for Legionella antigen detection. In this study, we detected a total of 15 cases of legionellosis (7.1%) and the first case of Legionnaires' disease caused by L. anisa in Spain. While the conventional method used in hospitals could only detect four cases (1.9%) produced by L. pneumophila serogroup 1, using PCR, the following species were identified: Legionella spp. (10/15), L. pneumophila (4/15) and L. anisa (1/15). These results suggest the need to change hospital diagnostic strategies regarding the identification of Legionella species associated with this disease. Therefore, the detection of Legionella DNA by PCR in urine samples seems to be a suitable alternative method for a sensitive, accurate and rapid diagnosis of Legionella pneumonia, caused by L. pneumophila and also for L. non-pneumophila species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucianna Vaccaro
- Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas y de la Salud, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Fernando Izquierdo
- Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas y de la Salud, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Angela Magnet
- Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas y de la Salud, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carolina Hurtado
- Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas y de la Salud, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mireya A. Salinas
- Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas y de la Salud, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Thiago Santos Gomes
- Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas y de la Salud, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain
- CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Santiago Angulo
- Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas y de la Salud, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Santiago Salso
- Hospital Universitario HM Monteprincipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jesús Pelaez
- Hospital Universitario HM Monteprincipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Carmen Gómez
- Hospital Universitario HM Sanchinarro, Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Enríquez
- Hospital Universitario Carlos III, Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Eva Estirado
- Hospital Universitario Carlos III, Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Soledad Fenoy
- Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas y de la Salud, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen del Aguila
- Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas y de la Salud, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain
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Utility of PCR, Culture, and Antigen Detection Methods for Diagnosis of Legionellosis. J Clin Microbiol 2015; 53:3474-7. [PMID: 26292304 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.01808-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The goal of this retrospective study was to evaluate the performance of different diagnostic tests for Legionnaires' disease in a clinical setting where Legionella pneumophila PCR had been introduced. Electronic medical records at the Cleveland Clinic were searched for Legionella urinary antigen (UAG), culture, and PCR tests ordered from March 2010 through December 2013. For cases where two or more test methods were performed and at least one was positive, the medical record was reviewed for relevant clinical and epidemiologic factors. Excluding repeat testing on a given patient, 19,912 tests were ordered (12,569 UAG, 3,747 cultures, and 3,596 PCR) with 378 positive results. The positivity rate for each method was 0.4% for culture, 0.8% for PCR, and 2.7% for UAG. For 37 patients, at least two test methods were performed with at least one positive result: 10 (27%) cases were positive by all three methods, 16 (43%) were positive by two methods, and 11 (30%) were positive by one method only. For the 32 patients with medical records available, clinical presentation was consistent with proven or probable Legionella infection in 84% of the cases. For those cases, the sensitivities of culture, PCR, and UAG were 50%, 92%, and 96%, respectively. The specificities were 100% for culture and 99.9% for PCR and UAG.
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Magnet A, Peralta RHS, Gomes TS, Izquierdo F, Fernandez-Vadillo C, Galvan AL, Pozuelo MJ, Pelaz C, Fenoy S, Del Águila C. Vectorial role of Acanthamoeba in Legionella propagation in water for human use. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 505:889-895. [PMID: 25461091 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.10.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2014] [Revised: 10/15/2014] [Accepted: 10/19/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Legionella spp. is the causative agent of Legionnaires' disease and is transmitted through aerosols emanating from man-made water systems. Legionella resistance to water treatments has been related to its association with environmental amoebae such as Acanthamoeba. Due to the high presence of this protozoon in Spain and the high rate of notification of Legionnaires' disease of this country, the aims of this work were to study the coexistence of these bacteria and protozoa in water as well as their interaction. The usefulness of Acanthamoeba co-culture for the isolation of environmental Legionella was also studied. For this purpose, 70 water samples were collected in 2011 from three Drinking Water Treatment Plants, three Wastewater Treatment Plants and five Natural Pools in Spain. Acanthamoeba was found by PCR in 87.1% (61/70) samples and, by culture in 85.7% (60/70) samples. Legionella was detected by PCR in 58.6% (41/70) of water samples, in 5.7% (4/70) by agar culture and 75.7% (53/70) by Acanthamoeba co-culture. From the 54 Acanthamoeba water isolates, Legionella was detected in 43 of them independently of Acanthamoeba's genotype (T3, T4 and T11). Legionella feeleii, Legionella birminghamiensis, Legionella gresilensis/berliardensis, Legionella fairfieldensis, Legionella drozanski and Legionella falloni were identified. In conclusion, our results showed that environmental Acanthamoeba is infected by Legionella to a high percentage, and due to its ubiquity, high resistance and its pathogenic potential per se, new methods for its elimination should be studied. Also, the high effectivity of Acanthamoeba co-culture for Legionella detection has been shown.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Magnet
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Urbanización Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain; Facultad de Medicina, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Urbanización Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain
| | - R H S Peralta
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Urbanización Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain; Departamento de Patologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - T S Gomes
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Urbanización Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain; CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil, Brasília, Brazil
| | - F Izquierdo
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Urbanización Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain; Facultad de Medicina, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Urbanización Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain
| | - C Fernandez-Vadillo
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Urbanización Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain
| | - A L Galvan
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Urbanización Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain; Escuela de Microbiología, Grupo de Parasitología, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
| | - M J Pozuelo
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Urbanización Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain
| | - C Pelaz
- Laboratorio de Legionella, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - S Fenoy
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Urbanización Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain; Facultad de Medicina, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Urbanización Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain
| | - C Del Águila
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Urbanización Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain; Facultad de Medicina, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Urbanización Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain.
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Ray S, Patel SK, Kumar V, Damahe J, Srivastava S. Differential expression of serum/plasma proteins in various infectious diseases: specific or nonspecific signatures. Proteomics Clin Appl 2013; 8:53-72. [PMID: 24293340 PMCID: PMC7168033 DOI: 10.1002/prca.201300074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2013] [Revised: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 11/06/2013] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Apart from direct detection of the infecting organisms or biomarker of the pathogen itself, surrogate host markers are also useful for sensitive and early diagnosis of pathogenic infections. Early detection of pathogenic infections, discrimination among closely related diseases with overlapping clinical manifestations, and monitoring of disease progression can be achieved by analyzing blood biomarkers. Therefore, over the last decade large numbers of proteomics studies have been conducted to identify differentially expressed human serum/plasma proteins in different infectious diseases with the intent of discovering novel potential diagnostic/prognostic biomarkers. However, in-depth review of the literature indicates that many reported biomarkers are altered in the same way in multiple infectious diseases, regardless of the type of infection. This might be a consequence of generic acute phase reactions, while the uniquely modulated candidates in different pathogenic infections could be indicators of some specific responses. In this review article, we will provide a comprehensive analysis of differentially expressed serum/plasma proteins in various infectious diseases and categorize the protein markers associated with generic or specific responses. The challenges associated with the discovery, validation, and translational phases of serum/plasma biomarker establishment are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandipan Ray
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Wadhwani Research Centre for Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, India
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