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Costa T, Stidworthy MF, Ehmann R, Denk D, Ashpole I, Drake G, Maciuca I, Zoeller G, Meyer H, Chantrey J. Cowpox in zoo and wild animals in the United Kingdom. J Comp Pathol 2023; 204:39-46. [PMID: 37352825 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2023.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/25/2023]
Abstract
Cowpox virus is considered to be a re-emerging zoonotic pathogen and a public health threat due to increasing numbers of cases in humans and animals in Europe over the past decade, including within the United Kingdom (UK). We present epidemiological data and diagnostic features of 27 recent, naturally occurring cowpox cases in zoo and wild animals across the UK, including the first reports of cowpox in two snow leopards (Panthera uncia), a Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), three Chilean pudus (Pudu puda), a Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus) and a Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra), and the first reports of Orthopoxvirus infection in a lar gibbon (Hylobates lar), a Southern tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla) and an aardvark (Orycteropus afer). This study provides a detailed overview of cowpox infections in a wide range of non-domestic animal species, presents a range of methods for diagnosis and demonstrates the value of retrospective analysis of pathology surveillance in revealing epidemiological links.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taiana Costa
- School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Chester High Road, Neston, Liverpool CH64 7TE, UK
| | - Mark F Stidworthy
- International Zoo Veterinary Group, Station House, Parkwood Street, Keighley BD21 4NQ, UK
| | - Rosina Ehmann
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstraße 11, 80937 Munich, Germany
| | - Daniela Denk
- International Zoo Veterinary Group, Station House, Parkwood Street, Keighley BD21 4NQ, UK
| | - Ian Ashpole
- Chester Zoo, Upton-by-Chester, Chester CH2 1EU, UK
| | - Gabby Drake
- Chester Zoo, Upton-by-Chester, Chester CH2 1EU, UK
| | - Iuliana Maciuca
- School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Chester High Road, Neston, Liverpool CH64 7TE, UK
| | - Gudrun Zoeller
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstraße 11, 80937 Munich, Germany
| | - Hermann Meyer
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstraße 11, 80937 Munich, Germany
| | - Julian Chantrey
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Science (IVES), University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston CH64 7TE, UK.
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Cowpox Viruses: A Zoo Full of Viral Diversity and Lurking Threats. Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13020325. [PMID: 36830694 PMCID: PMC9953750 DOI: 10.3390/biom13020325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Cowpox viruses (CPXVs) exhibit the broadest known host range among the Poxviridae family and have caused lethal outbreaks in various zoo animals and pets across 12 Eurasian countries, as well as an increasing number of human cases. Herein, we review the history of how the cowpox name has evolved since the 1700s up to modern times. Despite early documentation of the different properties of CPXV isolates, only modern genetic analyses and phylogenies have revealed the existence of multiple Orthopoxvirus species that are currently constrained under the CPXV designation. We further chronicle modern outbreaks in zoos, domesticated animals, and humans, and describe animal models of experimental CPXV infections and how these can help shaping CPXV species distinctions. We also describe the pathogenesis of modern CPXV infections in animals and humans, the geographic range of CPXVs, and discuss CPXV-host interactions at the molecular level and their effects on pathogenicity and host range. Finally, we discuss the potential threat of these viruses and the future of CPXV research to provide a comprehensive review of CPXVs.
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MacNeill AL. Comparative Pathology of Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11080892. [PMID: 36015017 PMCID: PMC9412692 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11080892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This review provides a brief history of the impacts that a human-specific Orthopoxvirus (OPXV), Variola virus, had on mankind, recalls how critical vaccination was for the eradication of this disease, and discusses the consequences of discontinuing vaccination against OPXV. One of these consequences is the emergence of zoonotic OPXV diseases, including Monkeypox virus (MPXV). The focus of this manuscript is to compare pathology associated with zoonotic OPXV infection in veterinary species and in humans. Efficient recognition of poxvirus lesions and other, more subtle signs of disease in multiple species is critical to prevent further spread of poxvirus infections. Additionally included are a synopsis of the pathology observed in animal models of MPXV infection, the recent spread of MPXV among humans, and a discussion of the potential for this virus to persist in Europe and the Americas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy L MacNeill
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
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4
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Ferrier A, Frenois-Veyrat G, Schvoerer E, Henard S, Jarjaval F, Drouet I, Timera H, Boutin L, Mosca E, Peyrefitte C, Ferraris O. Fatal Cowpox Virus Infection in Human Fetus, France, 2017. Emerg Infect Dis 2021; 27:2570-2577. [PMID: 34352194 PMCID: PMC8462324 DOI: 10.3201/eid2710.204818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) has an animal reservoir and is typically transmitted to humans by contact with infected animals. In 2017, CPXV infection of a pregnant woman in France led to the death of her fetus. Fetal death after maternal orthopoxvirus (smallpox) vaccination has been reported; however, this patient had not been vaccinated. Investigation of the patient’s domestic animals failed to demonstrate prevalence of CPXV infection among them. The patient’s diagnosis was confirmed by identifying CPXV DNA in all fetal and maternal biopsy samples and infectious CPXV in biopsy but not plasma samples. This case of fetal death highlights the risk for complications of orthopoxvirus infection during pregnancy. Among orthopoxviruses, fetal infection has been reported for variola virus and vaccinia virus; our findings suggest that CPXV poses the same threats for infection complications as vaccinia virus.
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Morgan CN, Matheny AM, Nakazawa YJ, Kling C, Gallardo-Romero N, Seigler L, Barbosa Costa G, Hutson C, Maghlakelidze G, Olson V, Doty JB. Laboratory Infection of Novel Akhmeta Virus in CAST/EiJ Mice. Viruses 2020; 12:v12121416. [PMID: 33317132 PMCID: PMC7763702 DOI: 10.3390/v12121416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Akhmeta virus is a zoonotic Orthopoxvirus first identified in 2013 in the country of Georgia. Subsequent ecological investigations in Georgia have found evidence that this virus is widespread in its geographic distribution within the country and in its host-range, with rodents likely involved in its circulation in the wild. Yet, little is known about the pathogenicity of this virus in rodents. We conducted the first laboratory infection of Akhmeta virus in CAST/EiJ Mus musculus to further characterize this novel virus. We found a dose-dependent effect on mortality and weight loss (p < 0.05). Anti-orthopoxvirus antibodies were detected in the second- and third-highest dose groups (5 × 104 pfu and 3 × 102 pfu) at euthanasia by day 10, and day 14 post-infection, respectively. Anti-orthopoxvirus antibodies were not detected in the highest dose group (3 × 106 pfu), which were euthanized at day 7 post-infection and had high viral load in tissues, suggesting they succumbed to disease prior to mounting an effective immune response. In order of highest burden, viable virus was detected in the nostril, lung, tail, liver and spleen. All individuals tested in the highest dose groups were DNAemic. Akhmeta virus was highly pathogenic in CAST/EiJ Mus musculus, causing 100% mortality when ≥3 × 102 pfu was administered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clint N. Morgan
- Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (A.M.M.); (Y.J.N.); (C.K.); (N.G.-R.); (L.S.); (C.H.); (V.O.); (J.B.D.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-404-639-0844
| | - Audrey M. Matheny
- Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (A.M.M.); (Y.J.N.); (C.K.); (N.G.-R.); (L.S.); (C.H.); (V.O.); (J.B.D.)
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, CDC Fellowship Program, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
| | - Yoshinori J. Nakazawa
- Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (A.M.M.); (Y.J.N.); (C.K.); (N.G.-R.); (L.S.); (C.H.); (V.O.); (J.B.D.)
| | - Chantal Kling
- Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (A.M.M.); (Y.J.N.); (C.K.); (N.G.-R.); (L.S.); (C.H.); (V.O.); (J.B.D.)
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, CDC Fellowship Program, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
| | - Nadia Gallardo-Romero
- Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (A.M.M.); (Y.J.N.); (C.K.); (N.G.-R.); (L.S.); (C.H.); (V.O.); (J.B.D.)
| | - Laurie Seigler
- Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (A.M.M.); (Y.J.N.); (C.K.); (N.G.-R.); (L.S.); (C.H.); (V.O.); (J.B.D.)
- Kāpili Services, LLC, An Alaka’ina Foundation Company, Honolulu, HI 96814, USA
| | - Galileu Barbosa Costa
- Núcleo de Epidemiologia e Bioestatística, Centro de Pesquisas Gonçalo Moniz, Fiocruz, Bahia 40296-710, Brazil;
| | - Christina Hutson
- Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (A.M.M.); (Y.J.N.); (C.K.); (N.G.-R.); (L.S.); (C.H.); (V.O.); (J.B.D.)
| | - Giorgi Maghlakelidze
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, South Caucuses Office, Tbilisi 0177, Georgia;
| | - Victoria Olson
- Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (A.M.M.); (Y.J.N.); (C.K.); (N.G.-R.); (L.S.); (C.H.); (V.O.); (J.B.D.)
| | - Jeffrey B. Doty
- Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (A.M.M.); (Y.J.N.); (C.K.); (N.G.-R.); (L.S.); (C.H.); (V.O.); (J.B.D.)
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Fischer S, Franke A, Imholt C, Gethmann J, Spierling NG, Jacob J, Beer M, Hoffmann D, Ulrich RG. Patchy Occurrence of Cowpox Virus in Voles from Germany. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2020; 20:471-475. [PMID: 32013767 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2019.2530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV), genus Orthopoxvirus, family Poxviridae, is a zoonotic pathogen in Eurasian wild rodents. High seroprevalences have been reported previously for vole and murine species in Europe. In contrast, viral DNA was only rarely detected, and very few reservoir-derived CPXV isolates exist. In this study, CPXV DNA and CPXV-reactive antibodies were monitored in wild small mammals for 5 years in four German federal states. Screening of liver tissues of 3966 animals by CPXV real-time PCR (qPCR) revealed five voles of two species positive for CPXV DNA. Two positive bank voles (Myodes glareolus) and two positive common voles (Microtus arvalis) originated from two plots in Baden-Wuerttemberg. One positive bank vole originated from Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. None of the small mammals from Thuringia and North Rhine-Westphalia was positive in the qPCR. CPXV antigen-based indirect immunofluorescence assays of 654 highly diluted chest cavity fluid samples detected two bank voles and two common voles from the same sites in Baden-Wuerttemberg to be highly seroreactive. Five animals were CPXV DNA positive, and four other animals were orthopoxvirus seropositive. Our study indicates both a very low prevalence and a patchy occurrence of CPXV in common and bank voles and absence in other rodent and shrew species in Germany. The multiple detection of infected voles at one site in Baden-Wuerttemberg and continued detection in a region of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania classify these regions as potential endemic foci.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Fischer
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Annika Franke
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Christian Imholt
- Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Forests, Julius Kühn-Institute, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Vertebrate Research, Münster, Germany
| | - Jörn Gethmann
- Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Nastasja G Spierling
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Jens Jacob
- Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Forests, Julius Kühn-Institute, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Vertebrate Research, Münster, Germany
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Donata Hoffmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
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Priyamvada L, Alabi P, Leon A, Kumar A, Sambhara S, Olson VA, Sello JK, Satheshkumar PS. Discovery of Retro-1 Analogs Exhibiting Enhanced Anti-vaccinia Virus Activity. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:603. [PMID: 32390964 PMCID: PMC7190985 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Orthopoxviruses (OPXVs) are an increasing threat to human health due to the growing population of OPXV-naive individuals after the discontinuation of routine smallpox vaccination. Antiviral drugs that are effective as postexposure treatments against variola virus (the causative agent of smallpox) or other OPXVs are critical in the event of an OPXV outbreak or exposure. The only US Food and Drug Administration-approved drug to treat smallpox, Tecovirimat (ST-246), exerts its antiviral effect by inhibiting extracellular virus (EV) formation, thereby preventing cell-cell and long-distance spread. We and others have previously demonstrated that host Golgi-associated retrograde proteins play an important role in monkeypox virus (MPXV) and vaccinia virus (VACV) EV formation. Inhibition of the retrograde pathway by small molecules such as Retro-2 has been shown to decrease VACV infection in vitro and to a lesser extent in vivo. To identify more potent inhibitors of the retrograde pathway, we screened a large panel of compounds containing a benzodiazepine scaffold like that of Retro-1, against VACV infection. We found that a subset of these compounds displayed better anti-VACV activity, causing a reduction in EV particle formation and viral spread compared to Retro-1. PA104 emerged as the most potent analog, inhibiting 90% viral spread at 1.3 μM with a high selectivity index. In addition, PA104 strongly inhibited two distinct ST-246-resistant viruses, demonstrating its potential benefit for use in combination therapy with ST-246. These data and further characterizations of the specific protein targets and in vivo efficacy of PA104 may have important implications for the design of effective antivirals against OPXV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lalita Priyamvada
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Philip Alabi
- Department of Chemistry, Brown University, Providence, RI, United States
| | - Andres Leon
- Department of Chemistry, Brown University, Providence, RI, United States
| | - Amrita Kumar
- Immunology and Pathogenesis Branch, Influenza Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Suryaprakash Sambhara
- Immunology and Pathogenesis Branch, Influenza Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Victoria A Olson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Jason K Sello
- Department of Chemistry, Brown University, Providence, RI, United States
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Prkno A, Hoffmann D, Kaiser M, Goerigk D, Pfeffer M, Winter K, Vahlenkamp TW, Beer M, Starke A. Field Trial Vaccination against Cowpox in Two Alpaca Herds. Viruses 2020; 12:v12020234. [PMID: 32093320 PMCID: PMC7077317 DOI: 10.3390/v12020234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In Europe, cowpox virus (CPXV) infection in South American camelids occurs as a so-called spill-over infection. Although infected animals generally have a mild form of the disease and survive, cases of fatal generalised CPXV infection have also been described. Prevention by prophylactic vaccination is the only way to protect animals from disease. In the present study, modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) vaccine, which has been successfully used in many animal species, was used in a prime-boost vaccination regimen in two alpaca herds with a history of CPXV infection. The focus of the study was the prevention of further clinical cases, and to determine the safety and immunogenicity of the MVA vaccine in alpacas. The MVA vaccine was well tolerated and safe in the 94 animals vaccinated. An indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) using MVA as an antigen showed that the seroprevalence of antibody after booster vaccination was 81.3% in herd I and 91.7% in herd II. Detectable antibody titres declined to 15.6% in herd I and 45.8% in herd II over a 12-month period after booster vaccination. Animals could be divided into four groups based on individual antibody titres determined over one year: Group 1 consisted of 19.3% of animals that were seropositive until the end of the trial period; Group 2 consisted of 58.0% of animals that were seropositive after booster vaccination, but seronegative one year later; Group 3 consisted of 14.7% of animals that were not seropositive at any time point; and Group 4 consisted of 7.9% of animals that were seropositive after initial immunisation, seronegative six months later, but seropositive or intermediate in IFA one year after immunisation, likely because of natural exposure. In new-born crias born to MVA-vaccinated mares, specific maternal antibodies were detected in 50.0% of animals up to 14 weeks of age. Our results confirm that MVA vaccination is a feasible tool for the prevention of CPXV disease in alpacas. Long-term studies are needed to verify future vaccination regimen in CPXV affected herds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Almut Prkno
- Clinic for Ruminants and Swine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 11, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (M.K.); (A.S.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-341-9738331
| | - Donata Hoffmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (D.H.); (M.B.)
| | - Matthias Kaiser
- Clinic for Ruminants and Swine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 11, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (M.K.); (A.S.)
| | - Daniela Goerigk
- Veterinary practice Dr. Daniela Goerigk, Naundorfer Str. 9, 04668 Schkortitz, Germany;
| | - Martin Pfeffer
- Institute of Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, Centre for Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 1, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
| | - Karsten Winter
- Institute of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Leipzig, Liebigstraße 13, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
| | - Thomas W. Vahlenkamp
- Institute of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 29, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (D.H.); (M.B.)
| | - Alexander Starke
- Clinic for Ruminants and Swine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 11, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (M.K.); (A.S.)
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Weber S, Jeske K, Ulrich RG, Imholt C, Jacob J, Beer M, Hoffmann D. In Vivo Characterization of a Bank Vole-Derived Cowpox Virus Isolate in Natural Hosts and the Rat Model. Viruses 2020; 12:v12020237. [PMID: 32093366 PMCID: PMC7077282 DOI: 10.3390/v12020237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus in the Poxviridae family and is endemic in western Eurasia. Based on seroprevalence studies in different voles from continental Europe and UK, voles are suspected to be the major reservoir host. Recently, a CPXV was isolated from a bank vole (Myodes glareolus) in Germany that showed a high genetic similarity to another isolate originating from a Cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus). Here we characterize this first bank vole-derived CPXV isolate in comparison to the related tamarin-derived isolate. Both isolates grouped genetically within the provisionally called CPXV-like 3 clade. Previous phylogenetic analysis indicated that CPXV is polyphyletic and CPXV-like 3 clade represents probably a different species if categorized by the rules used for other orthopoxviruses. Experimental infection studies with bank voles, common voles (Microtusarvalis) and Wistar rats showed very clear differences. The bank vole isolate was avirulent in both common voles and Wistar rats with seroconversion seen only in the rats. In contrast, inoculated bank voles exhibited viral shedding and seroconversion for both tested CPXV isolates. In addition, bank voles infected with the tamarin-derived isolate experienced a marked weight loss. Our findings allow for the conclusion that CPXV isolates might differ in their replication capacity in different vole species and rats depending on their original host. Moreover, the results indicate host-specific differences concerning CPXV-specific virulence. Further experiments are needed to identify individual virulence and host factors involved in the susceptibility and outcome of CPXV-infections in the different reservoir hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia Weber
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (S.W.); (K.J.)
| | - Kathrin Jeske
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (S.W.); (K.J.)
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany;
| | - Rainer G. Ulrich
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany;
| | - Christian Imholt
- Vertebrate Research, Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Forests, Julius Kühn-Institute, Toppheideweg 88, 48161 Münster, Germany; (C.I.); (J.J.)
| | - Jens Jacob
- Vertebrate Research, Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Forests, Julius Kühn-Institute, Toppheideweg 88, 48161 Münster, Germany; (C.I.); (J.J.)
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (S.W.); (K.J.)
- Correspondence: (M.B.); (D.H.); Tel.: +49-38351-7-1200 (M.B.); +49-38351-7-1627 (D.H.)
| | - Donata Hoffmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (S.W.); (K.J.)
- Correspondence: (M.B.); (D.H.); Tel.: +49-38351-7-1200 (M.B.); +49-38351-7-1627 (D.H.)
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10
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What a Difference a Gene Makes: Identification of Virulence Factors of Cowpox Virus. J Virol 2020; 94:JVI.01625-19. [PMID: 31645446 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01625-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) is a zoonotic orthopoxvirus (OPV) that causes spillover infections from its animal hosts to humans. In 2009, several human CPXV cases occurred through transmission from pet rats. An isolate from a diseased rat, RatPox09, exhibited significantly increased virulence in Wistar rats and caused high mortality compared to that caused by the mildly virulent laboratory strain Brighton Red (BR). The RatPox09 genome encodes four genes which are absent in the BR genome. We hypothesized that their gene products could be major factors influencing the high virulence of RatPox09. To address this hypothesis, we employed several BR-RatPox09 chimeric viruses. Using Red-mediated mutagenesis, we generated BR-based knock-in mutants with single or multiple insertions of the respective RatPox09 genes. High-throughput sequencing was used to verify the genomic integrity of all recombinant viruses, and transcriptomic analyses confirmed that the expression profiles of the genes that were adjacent to the modified ones were unaltered. While the in vitro growth kinetics were comparable to those of BR and RatPox09, we discovered that a knock-in BR mutant containing the four RatPox09-specific genes was as virulent as the RatPox09 isolate, causing death in over 75% of infected Wistar rats. Unexpectedly, the insertion of gCPXV0030 (g7tGP) alone into the BR genome resulted in significantly higher clinical scores and lower survival rates matching the rate for rats infected with RatPox09. The insertion of gCPXV0284, encoding the BTB (broad-complex, tramtrack, and bric-à-brac) domain protein D7L, also increased the virulence of BR, while the other two open reading frames failed to rescue virulence independently. In summary, our results confirmed our hypothesis that a relatively small set of four genes can contribute significantly to CPXV virulence in the natural rat animal model.IMPORTANCE With the cessation of vaccination against smallpox and its assumed cross-protectivity against other OPV infections, waning immunity could open up new niches for related poxviruses. Therefore, the identification of virulence mechanisms in CPXV is of general interest. Here, we aimed to identify virulence markers in an experimental rodent CPXV infection model using bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)-based virus recombineering. We focused our work on the recent zoonotic CPXV isolate RatPox09, which is highly pathogenic in Wistar rats, unlike the avirulent BR reference strain. In several animal studies, we were able to identify a novel set of CPXV virulence genes. Two of the identified virulence genes, encoding a putative BTB/POZ protein (CPXVD7L) and a B22R-family protein (CPXV7tGP), respectively, have not yet been described to be involved in CPXV virulence. Our results also show that single genes can significantly affect virulence, thus facilitating adaptation to other hosts.
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Isolation and Characterization of Akhmeta Virus from Wild-Caught Rodents ( Apodemus spp.) in Georgia. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.00966-19. [PMID: 31554682 PMCID: PMC6880181 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00966-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Akhmeta virus is a unique Orthopoxvirus that was described in 2013 from the country of Georgia. This paper presents the first isolation of this virus from small mammal (Rodentia; Apodemus spp.) samples and the molecular characterization of those isolates. The identification of the virus in small mammals is an essential component to understanding the natural history of this virus and its transmission to human populations and could guide public health interventions in Georgia. Akhmeta virus genomes harbor evidence suggestive of recombination with a variety of other orthopoxviruses; this has implications for the evolution of orthopoxviruses, their ability to infect mammalian hosts, and their ability to adapt to novel host species. In 2013, a novel orthopoxvirus was detected in skin lesions of two cattle herders from the Kakheti region of Georgia (country); this virus was named Akhmeta virus. Subsequent investigation of these cases revealed that small mammals in the area had serological evidence of orthopoxvirus infections, suggesting their involvement in the maintenance of these viruses in nature. In October 2015, we began a longitudinal study assessing the natural history of orthopoxviruses in Georgia. As part of this effort, we trapped small mammals near Akhmeta (n = 176) and Gudauri (n = 110). Here, we describe the isolation and molecular characterization of Akhmeta virus from lesion material and pooled heart and lung samples collected from five wood mice (Apodemus uralensis and Apodemus flavicollis) in these two locations. The genomes of Akhmeta virus obtained from rodents group into 2 clades: one clade represented by viruses isolated from A. uralensis samples, and one clade represented by viruses isolated from A. flavicollis samples. These genomes also display several presumptive recombination events for which gene truncation and identity have been examined. IMPORTANCE Akhmeta virus is a unique Orthopoxvirus that was described in 2013 from the country of Georgia. This paper presents the first isolation of this virus from small mammal (Rodentia; Apodemus spp.) samples and the molecular characterization of those isolates. The identification of the virus in small mammals is an essential component to understanding the natural history of this virus and its transmission to human populations and could guide public health interventions in Georgia. Akhmeta virus genomes harbor evidence suggestive of recombination with a variety of other orthopoxviruses; this has implications for the evolution of orthopoxviruses, their ability to infect mammalian hosts, and their ability to adapt to novel host species.
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Jeske K, Weber S, Pfaff F, Imholt C, Jacob J, Beer M, Ulrich RG, Hoffmann D. Molecular Detection and Characterization of the First Cowpox Virus Isolate Derived from a Bank Vole. Viruses 2019; 11:v11111075. [PMID: 31752129 PMCID: PMC6893522 DOI: 10.3390/v11111075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) is a zoonotic orthopoxvirus (OPV) that infects a wide range of mammals. CPXV-specific DNA and antibodies were detected in different vole species, such as common voles (Microtus arvalis) and bank voles (Myodes glareolus). Therefore, voles are the putative main reservoir host of CPXV. However, CPXV was up to now only isolated from common voles. Here we report the detection and isolation of a bank vole-derived CPXV strain (GerMygEK 938/17) resulting from a large-scale screening of bank voles collected in Thuringia, Germany, during 2017 and 2018. Phylogenetic analysis using the complete viral genome sequence indicated a high similarity of the novel strain to CPXV clade 3 and to OPV “Abatino” but also to Ectromeliavirus (ECTV) strains. Phenotypic characterization of CPXV GerMygEK 938/17 using inoculation of embryonated chicken eggs displayed hemorrhagic pock lesions on the chorioallantoic membrane that are typical for CPXV but not for ECTV. CPXV GerMygEK 938/17 replicated in vole-derived kidney cell lines but at lower level than on Vero76 cell line. In conclusion, the first bank vole-derived CPXV isolate provides new insights into the genetic variability of CPXV in the putative reservoir host and is a valuable tool for further studies about CPXV-host interaction and molecular evolution of OPV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Jeske
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Saskia Weber
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Florian Pfaff
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Christian Imholt
- Vertebrate Research, Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Forests, Julius Kühn-Institute, Toppheideweg 88, 48161 Münster, Germany
| | - Jens Jacob
- Vertebrate Research, Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Forests, Julius Kühn-Institute, Toppheideweg 88, 48161 Münster, Germany
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Donata Hoffmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
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Binder F, Lenk M, Weber S, Stoek F, Dill V, Reiche S, Riebe R, Wernike K, Hoffmann D, Ziegler U, Adler H, Essbauer S, Ulrich RG. Common vole (Microtus arvalis) and bank vole (Myodes glareolus) derived permanent cell lines differ in their susceptibility and replication kinetics of animal and zoonotic viruses. J Virol Methods 2019; 274:113729. [PMID: 31513859 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2019.113729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Revised: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 09/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Pathogenesis and reservoir host adaptation of animal and zoonotic viruses are poorly understood due to missing adequate cell culture and animal models. The bank vole (Myodes glareolus) and common vole (Microtus arvalis) serve as hosts for a variety of zoonotic pathogens. For a better understanding of virus association to a putative animal host, we generated two novel cell lines from bank voles of different evolutionary lineages and two common vole cell lines and assayed their susceptibility, replication and cytopathogenic effect (CPE) formation for rodent-borne, suspected to be rodent-associated or viruses with no obvious rodent association. Already established bank vole cell line BVK168, used as control, was susceptible to almost all viruses tested and efficiently produced infectious virus for almost all of them. The Puumala orthohantavirus strain Vranica/Hällnäs showed efficient replication in a new bank vole kidney cell line, but not in the other four bank and common vole cell lines. Tula orthohantavirus replicated in the kidney cell line of common voles, but was hampered in its replication in the other cell lines. Several zoonotic viruses, such as Cowpox virus, Vaccinia virus, Rift Valley fever virus, and Encephalomyocarditis virus 1 replicated in all cell lines with CPE formation. West Nile virus, Usutu virus, Sindbis virus and Tick-borne encephalitis virus replicated only in a part of the cell lines, perhaps indicating cell line specific factors involved in replication. Rodent specific viruses differed in their replication potential: Murine gammaherpesvirus-68 replicated in the four tested vole cell lines, whereas murine norovirus failed to infect almost all cell lines. Schmallenberg virus and Foot-and-mouth disease virus replicated in some of the cell lines, although these viruses have never been associated to rodents. In conclusion, these newly developed cell lines may represent useful tools to study virus-cell interactions and to identify and characterize host cell factors involved in replication of rodent associated viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Binder
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Matthias Lenk
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Department of Experimental Animal Facilities and Biorisk Management, Bio-Bank, Collection of Cell Lines in Veterinary Virology (CCLV), Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Saskia Weber
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Franziska Stoek
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Veronika Dill
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Sven Reiche
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Department of Experimental Animal Facilities and Biorisk Management, Bio-Bank, Collection of Cell Lines in Veterinary Virology (CCLV), Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Roland Riebe
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Department of Experimental Animal Facilities and Biorisk Management, Bio-Bank, Collection of Cell Lines in Veterinary Virology (CCLV), Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Kerstin Wernike
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Donata Hoffmann
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Ute Ziegler
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany; German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Hamburg-Lübeck-Borstel-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Heiko Adler
- Comprehensive Pneumology Center, Research Unit Lung Repair and Regeneration, Helmholtz Zentrum München - German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Marchioninistrasse 25, 81377 Munich, Germany; University Hospital Grosshadern, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Sandra Essbauer
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Department Virology and Rickettsiology, Neuherbergstr. 11, 80937 Munich, Germany
| | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany; German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Hamburg-Lübeck-Borstel-Insel Riems, Germany.
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Gigante CM, Gao J, Tang S, McCollum AM, Wilkins K, Reynolds MG, Davidson W, McLaughlin J, Olson VA, Li Y. Genome of Alaskapox Virus, A Novel Orthopoxvirus Isolated from Alaska. Viruses 2019; 11:E708. [PMID: 31375015 PMCID: PMC6723315 DOI: 10.3390/v11080708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Since the eradication of smallpox, there have been increases in poxvirus infections and the emergence of several novel poxviruses that can infect humans and domestic animals. In 2015, a novel poxvirus was isolated from a resident of Alaska. Diagnostic testing and limited sequence analysis suggested this isolate was a member of the Orthopoxvirus (OPXV) genus but was highly diverged from currently known species, including Akhmeta virus. Here, we present the complete 210,797 bp genome sequence of the Alaska poxvirus isolate, containing 206 predicted open reading frames. Phylogenetic analysis of the conserved central region of the genome suggested the Alaska isolate shares a common ancestor with Old World OPXVs and is diverged from New World OPXVs. We propose this isolate as a member of a new OPXV species, Alaskapox virus (AKPV). The AKPV genome contained host range and virulence genes typical of OPXVs but lacked homologs of C4L and B7R, and the hemagglutinin gene contained a unique 120 amino acid insertion. Seven predicted AKPV proteins were most similar to proteins in non-OPXV Murmansk or NY_014 poxviruses. Genomic analysis revealed evidence suggestive of recombination with Ectromelia virus in two putative regions that contain seven predicted coding sequences, including the A-type inclusion protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal M Gigante
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Jinxin Gao
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Shiyuyun Tang
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Andrea M McCollum
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Kimberly Wilkins
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Mary G Reynolds
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Whitni Davidson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Joseph McLaughlin
- Alaska Division of Public Health, Section of Epidemiology, Anchorage, AK 99503, USA
| | - Victoria A Olson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Yu Li
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.
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Andreani J, Arnault JP, Bou Khalil JY, Abrahão J, Tomei E, Vial E, Le Bideau M, Raoult D, La Scola B. Atypical Cowpox Virus Infection in Smallpox-Vaccinated Patient, France. Emerg Infect Dis 2019; 25:212-219. [PMID: 30666929 PMCID: PMC6346447 DOI: 10.3201/eid2502.171433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
We report a case of atypical cowpox virus infection in France in 2016. The patient sought care for thoracic lesions after injury from the sharp end of a metallic guardrail previously stored in the ground. We isolated a cowpox virus from the lesions and sequenced its whole genome. The patient reported that he had been previously vaccinated against smallpox. We describe an alternative route of cowpox virus infection and raise questions about the immunological status of smallpox-vaccinated patients for circulating orthopoxviruses.
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Abstract
The distribution of orthopoxviruses (OPXVs) across the North American continent is suggested to be widespread in a wide range of mammalian hosts on the basis of serosurveillance studies. To address the question of whether carnivores in northwestern Mexico are exposed to naturally circulating OPXVs, wild carnivores were collected by live trapping within four different habitat types during fall of 2013 and spring of 2014 within the Janos Biosphere Reserve in northwestern Chihuahua, Mexico. A total of 51 blood samples was collected for testing. Anti-OPXV immunoglobulin G enzymelinked immunosorbent assay, western blot, and rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT) assays were conducted. About 47% (24/51) of the carnivores tested were seropositive for anti-OPXV binding antibodies and had presence of immunodominant bands indicative of OPXV infection. All samples tested were negative for rabies virus neutralizing antibodies by RFFIT, suggesting that the OPXV antibodies were due to circulating OPXV, and not from exposure to oral rabies vaccine (vacciniavectored rabies glycoprotein vaccine) bait distributed along the US-Mexico border. Our results indicated that there may be one or more endemic OPXV circulating within six species of carnivores in northwestern Mexico.
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Antwerpen MH, Georgi E, Nikolic A, Zoeller G, Wohlsein P, Baumgärtner W, Peyrefitte C, Charrel R, Meyer H. Use of Next Generation Sequencing to study two cowpox virus outbreaks. PeerJ 2019; 7:e6561. [PMID: 30847261 PMCID: PMC6398431 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.6561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 02/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Between 2008 and 2011 about 40 cases of human cowpox were reported from Germany and France. Infections had been acquired via close contact to infected, young pet rats. An identical and unique sequence of the hemagglutinin gene was found in various cowpox virus (CPXV) isolates pointing to a common source of infection. In a second CPXV outbreak in cats in a small animal clinic in Germany in 2015, four out of five hospitalized cats showed identical hemagglutinin sequences and thus, a hospital-acquired transmission had been assumed. Next-Generation Sequencing was performed in order to re-investigate the outbreaks, as epidemiological data could not confirm all cases. Methods Homogenates of lesion material from rats, cats and humans were cultivated in cell culture. The genomes of four virus isolates, nine CPXVs from our strain collections and from DNA of three paraffin-embedded lesion materials were determined by Next Generation Sequencing (NGS). For phylogenetic analyses a MAFFT-alignment was generated. A distance matrix based on concatenated SNPs was calculated and plotted as dendrogram using Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic mean (UPGMA) for visualization. Results Aligning of about 200.000 nucleotides of 8 virus isolates associated with the pet rat outbreak revealed complete identity of six genomes, the remainder two genomes differed in as little as 3 SNPs. When comparing this dataset with four already published CPXV genomes also associated with the pet rat outbreak, again a maximum difference of 3 SNPs was found. The outbreak which lasted from 2008 till 2011 was indeed caused by a single strain which has maintained an extremely high level of clonality over 4 years. Aligning genomic sequences from four cases of feline cowpox revealed 3 identical sequences and one sequence which differed in 65 nucleotides. Although identical hemagglutinin sequences had been obtained from four hospitalized cats, genomic sequencing proved that a hospital-acquired transmission had occurred in only three cats. Conclusion Analyzing the rather short sequence of the hemagglutinin gene is not sufficient to conduct molecular trace back analyses. Instead, whole genome sequencing is the method of choice which can even be applied to paraffin-embedded specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Enrico Georgi
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Munich, Germany
| | | | | | - Peter Wohlsein
- Small Animal Clinic, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hanover, Germany
| | | | | | - Remi Charrel
- Unité des Virus Emergents, Aix Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Hermann Meyer
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Munich, Germany
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Gruber CEM, Giombini E, Selleri M, Tausch SH, Andrusch A, Tyshaieva A, Cardeti G, Lorenzetti R, De Marco L, Carletti F, Nitsche A, Capobianchi MR, Ippolito G, Autorino GL, Castilletti C. Whole Genome Characterization of Orthopoxvirus (OPV) Abatino, a Zoonotic Virus Representing a Putative Novel Clade of Old World Orthopoxviruses. Viruses 2018; 10:v10100546. [PMID: 30301229 PMCID: PMC6212904 DOI: 10.3390/v10100546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Revised: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Orthopoxviruses (OPVs) are diffused over the complete Eurasian continent, but previously described strains are mostly from northern Europe, and few infections have been reported from Italy. Here we present the extended genomic characterization of OPV Abatino, a novel OPV isolated in Italy from an infected Tonkean macaque, with zoonotic potential. Phylogenetic analysis based on 102 conserved OPV genes (core gene set) showed that OPV Abatino is most closely related to the Ectromelia virus species (ECTV), although placed on a separate branch of the phylogenetic tree, bringing substantial support to the hypothesis that this strain may be part of a novel OPV clade. Extending the analysis to the entire set of genes (coding sequences, CDS) further substantiated this hypothesis. In fact the genome of OPV Abatino included more CDS than ECTV; most of the extra genes (mainly located in the terminal genome regions), showed the highest similarity with cowpox virus (CPXV); however vaccinia virus (VACV) and monkeypox virus (MPXV) were the closest OPV for certain CDS. These findings suggest that OPV Abatino could be the result of complex evolutionary events, diverging from any other previously described OPV, and may indicate that previously reported cases in Italy could represent the tip of the iceberg yet to be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cesare E M Gruber
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, via Portuense 292, 00149 Rome, Italy.
| | - Emanuela Giombini
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, via Portuense 292, 00149 Rome, Italy.
| | - Marina Selleri
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, via Portuense 292, 00149 Rome, Italy.
| | - Simon H Tausch
- Robert Koch Institute, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1, Seestraße 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Andreas Andrusch
- Robert Koch Institute, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1, Seestraße 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Alona Tyshaieva
- Robert Koch Institute, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1, Seestraße 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Giusy Cardeti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana M. Aleandri, via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy.
| | - Raniero Lorenzetti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana M. Aleandri, via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy.
| | - Lorenzo De Marco
- Parco Faunistico Piano dell'Abatino, via Capo Farfa 50, 02030 Poggio San Lorenzo, Italy.
| | - Fabrizio Carletti
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, via Portuense 292, 00149 Rome, Italy.
| | - Andreas Nitsche
- Robert Koch Institute, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1, Seestraße 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Maria R Capobianchi
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, via Portuense 292, 00149 Rome, Italy.
| | - Giuseppe Ippolito
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, via Portuense 292, 00149 Rome, Italy.
| | - Gian Luca Autorino
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana M. Aleandri, via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy.
| | - Concetta Castilletti
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, via Portuense 292, 00149 Rome, Italy.
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Abstract
This review explores the presence and functions of polyglutamine (polyQ) in viral proteins. In mammals, mutations in polyQ segments (and CAG repeats at the nucleotide level) have been linked to neural disorders and ataxias. PolyQ regions in normal human proteins have documented functional roles, in transcription factors and, more recently, in regulating autophagy. Despite the high frequency of polyQ repeats in eukaryotic genomes, little attention has been given to the presence or possible role of polyQ sequences in virus genomes. A survey described here revealed that polyQ repeats occur rarely in RNA viruses, suggesting that they have detrimental effects on virus replication at the nucleotide or protein level. However, there have been sporadic reports of polyQ segments in potyviruses and in reptilian nidoviruses (among the largest RNA viruses known). Conserved polyQ segments are found in the regulatory control proteins of many DNA viruses. Variable length polyQ tracts are found in proteins that contribute to transmissibility (cowpox A-type inclusion protein (ATI)) and control of latency (herpes viruses). New longer-read sequencing methods, using original biological samples, should reveal more details on the presence and functional role of polyQ in viruses, as well as the nucleotide regions that encode them. Given the known toxic effects of polyQ repeats, the role of these segments in neurovirulent and tumorigenic viruses should be further explored.
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Puro V, Fusco FM, Castilletti C, Carletti F, Colavita F, Agrati C, Di Caro A, Capobianchi MR, Ippolito G. Occupational transmission of an Orthopoxvirus infection during an outbreak in a colony of Macaca tonkeana in Lazio Region, Italy, 2015. Zoonoses Public Health 2018; 65:578-583. [PMID: 29512303 PMCID: PMC7165952 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Orthopoxviruses spill over from animal reservoirs to accidental hosts, sometimes causing human infections. We describe the surveillance and infection control measures undertaken during an outbreak due to an Orthopoxvirus occurred in January 2015 in a colony of Macaca tonkeana in the province of Rieti, Latio, Italy, which caused a human asymptomatic infection. According to the epidemiological investigation, the human transmission occurred after an unprotected exposure. The contacts among wild, captive and domestic animals and humans, together with decreased immunity against Orthopoxviruses in the community, may put animal handlers at risk of infection, especially after the cessation of smallpox vaccination. To reduce these threats, standard precautions including respiratory hygiene and transmission‐based precautions should be carefully applied also in veterinary medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Puro
- Epidemiology and Pre-clinical Research Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "L. Spallanzani", Rome, Italy
| | - F M Fusco
- Epidemiology and Pre-clinical Research Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "L. Spallanzani", Rome, Italy
| | - C Castilletti
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "L. Spallanzani", Rome, Italy
| | - F Carletti
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "L. Spallanzani", Rome, Italy
| | - F Colavita
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "L. Spallanzani", Rome, Italy
| | - C Agrati
- Cellular Immunology Laboratory, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "L. Spallanzani", Rome, Italy
| | - A Di Caro
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "L. Spallanzani", Rome, Italy
| | - M R Capobianchi
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "L. Spallanzani", Rome, Italy
| | - G Ippolito
- Scietific Direction, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "L. Spallanzani", Rome, Italy
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21
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Springer YP, Hsu CH, Werle ZR, Olson LE, Cooper MP, Castrodale LJ, Fowler N, McCollum AM, Goldsmith CS, Emerson GL, Wilkins K, Doty JB, Burgado J, Gao J, Patel N, Mauldin MR, Reynolds MG, Satheshkumar PS, Davidson W, Li Y, McLaughlin JB. Novel Orthopoxvirus Infection in an Alaska Resident. Clin Infect Dis 2018; 64:1737-1741. [PMID: 28329402 PMCID: PMC5447873 DOI: 10.1093/cid/cix219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Background. Human infection by orthopoxviruses is being reported with increasing frequency, attributed in part to the cessation of smallpox vaccination and concomitant waning of population-level immunity. In July 2015, a female resident of interior Alaska presented to an urgent care clinic with a dermal lesion consistent with poxvirus infection. Laboratory testing of a virus isolated from the lesion confirmed infection by an Orthopoxvirus. Methods. The virus isolate was characterized by using electron microscopy and nucleic acid sequencing. An epidemiologic investigation that included patient interviews, contact tracing, and serum testing, as well as environmental and small-mammal sampling, was conducted to identify the infection source and possible additional cases. Results. Neither signs of active infection nor evidence of recent prior infection were observed in any of the 4 patient contacts identified. The patient's infection source was not definitively identified. Potential routes of exposure included imported fomites from Azerbaijan via the patient's cohabiting partner or wild small mammals in or around the patient's residence. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that the virus represents a distinct and previously undescribed genetic lineage of Orthopoxvirus, which is most closely related to the Old World orthopoxviruses. Conclusions. Investigation findings point to infection of the patient after exposure in or near Fairbanks. This conclusion raises questions about the geographic origins (Old World vs North American) of the genus Orthopoxvirus. Clinicians should remain vigilant for signs of poxvirus infection and alert public health officials when cases are suspected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri P Springer
- Alaska Division of Public Health, Section of Epidemiology, Anchorage.,Epidemic Intelligence Service, Division of Scientific Education and Professional Development
| | - Christopher H Hsu
- Epidemic Intelligence Service, Division of Scientific Education and Professional Development.,Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, and
| | | | | | - Michael P Cooper
- Alaska Division of Public Health, Section of Epidemiology, Anchorage
| | | | - Nisha Fowler
- Alaska Division of Public Health, Section of Laboratories, Fairbanks
| | | | - Cynthia S Goldsmith
- Infectious Diseases Pathology Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Matthew R Mauldin
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, and.,Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Tennessee
| | | | | | | | - Yu Li
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, and
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22
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Zehender G, Lai A, Veo C, Bergna A, Ciccozzi M, Galli M. Bayesian reconstruction of the evolutionary history and cross-species transition of variola virus and orthopoxviruses. J Med Virol 2018; 90:1134-1141. [PMID: 29446492 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.25055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 02/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Variola virus (VARV), the causative agent of smallpox, is an exclusively human virus belonging to the genus Orthopoxvirus, which includes many other viral species covering a wide range of mammal hosts, such as vaccinia, cowpox, camelpox, taterapox, ectromelia, and monkeypox virus. The tempo and mode of evolution of Orthopoxviruses were reconstructed using a Bayesian phylodynamic framework by analysing 80 hemagglutinin sequences retrieved from public databases. Bayesian phylogeography was used to estimate their putative ancestral hosts. In order to estimate the substitution rate, the tree including all of the available Orthopoxviruses was calibrated using historical references dating the South American variola minor clade (alastrim) to between the XVI and XIX century. The mean substitution rate determined by the analysis was 6.5 × 10-6 substitutions/site/year. Based on this evolutionary estimate, the time of the most recent common ancestor of the genus Orthopoxvirus was placed at about 10 000 years before the present. Cowpox virus was the species closest to the root of the phylogenetic tree. The root of VARV circulating in the XX century was estimated to be about 700 years ago, corresponding to about 1300 AD. The divergence between West African and South American VARV went back about 500 years ago (falling approximately in the XVI century). A rodent species is the most probable ancestral host from which the ancestors of all the known Orthopoxviruses were transmitted to the other mammal host species, and each of these species represented a dead-end for each new poxvirus species, without any further inter-specific spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianguglielmo Zehender
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco", University of Milan, Milan, Italy.,Coordinated Research Center "EpiSoMI", University of Milan, Milano, Italy
| | - Alessia Lai
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco", University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Carla Veo
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco", University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Annalisa Bergna
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco", University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Massimo Ciccozzi
- Unit of Clinical Pathology and Microbiology, University Campus Bio-Medico of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Massimo Galli
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco", University of Milan, Milan, Italy
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23
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Torelli F, Zander S, Ellerbrok H, Kochs G, Ulrich RG, Klotz C, Seeber F. Recombinant IFN-γ from the bank vole Myodes glareolus: a novel tool for research on rodent reservoirs of zoonotic pathogens. Sci Rep 2018; 8:2797. [PMID: 29434310 PMCID: PMC5809609 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-21143-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Accepted: 01/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Rodent species like Myodes glareolus and Microtus spp. are natural reservoirs for many zoonotic pathogens causing human diseases and are gaining increasing interest in the field of eco-immunology as candidate animal models. Despite their importance the lack of immunological reagents has hampered research in these animal species. Here we report the recombinant production and functional characterization of IFN-γ, a central mediator of host’s innate and adaptive immune responses, from the bank vole M. glareolus. Soluble dimeric recMgIFN-γ was purified in high yield from Escherichia coli. Its activity on M. glareolus and Microtus arvalis kidney cell lines was assessed by immunofluorescent detection of nuclear translocation and phosphorylation of the transcription factor STAT1. RecMgIFN-γ also induced expression of an IFN-γ-regulated innate immunity gene. Inhibition of vesicular stomatitis virus replication in vole cells upon recMgIFN-γ treatment provided further evidence of its biological activity. Finally, we established a recMgIFN-γ-responsive bank vole reporter cell line that allows the sensitive titration of the cytokine activity via a bioluminescence reporter assay. Taken together, we report valuable tools for future investigations on the immune response against zoonotic pathogens in their natural animal hosts, which might foster the development of novel animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Torelli
- Department of Mycotic and Parasitic Agents and Mycobacteria, Robert Koch-Institut, Berlin, Germany
| | - Steffen Zander
- Department of Mycotic and Parasitic Agents and Mycobacteria, Robert Koch-Institut, Berlin, Germany
| | - Heinz Ellerbrok
- Center for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Highly Pathogenic Viruses, Robert Koch-Institut, Berlin, Germany
| | - Georg Kochs
- Institute of Virology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Christian Klotz
- Department of Mycotic and Parasitic Agents and Mycobacteria, Robert Koch-Institut, Berlin, Germany
| | - Frank Seeber
- Department of Mycotic and Parasitic Agents and Mycobacteria, Robert Koch-Institut, Berlin, Germany.
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24
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Franke A, Ulrich RG, Weber S, Osterrieder N, Keller M, Hoffmann D, Beer M. Experimental Cowpox Virus (CPXV) Infections of Bank Voles: Exceptional Clinical Resistance and Variable Reservoir Competence. Viruses 2017; 9:v9120391. [PMID: 29257111 PMCID: PMC5744165 DOI: 10.3390/v9120391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Revised: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 12/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) is a zoonotic virus and endemic in wild rodent populations in Eurasia. Serological surveys in Europe have reported high prevalence in different vole and mouse species. Here, we report on experimental CPXV infections of bank voles (Myodes glareolus) from different evolutionary lineages with a spectrum of CPXV strains. All bank voles, independently of lineage, sex and age, were resistant to clinical signs following CPXV inoculation, and no virus shedding was detected in nasal or buccal swabs. In-contact control animals became only rarely infected. However, depending on the CPXV strain used, inoculated animals seroconverted and viral DNA could be detected preferentially in the upper respiratory tract. The highest antibody titers and virus DNA loads in the lungs were detected after inoculation with two strains from Britain and Finland. We conclude from our experiments that the role of bank voles as an efficient and exclusive CPXV reservoir seems questionable, and that CPXV may be maintained in most regions by other hosts, including other vole species. Further investigations are needed to identify factors that allow and modulate CPXV maintenance in bank voles and other potential reservoirs, which may also influence spill-over infections to accidental hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Franke
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Saskia Weber
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | | | - Markus Keller
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Donata Hoffmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
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25
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Cardeti G, Gruber CEM, Eleni C, Carletti F, Castilletti C, Manna G, Rosone F, Giombini E, Selleri M, Lapa D, Puro V, Di Caro A, Lorenzetti R, Scicluna MT, Grifoni G, Rizzoli A, Tagliapietra V, De Marco L, Capobianchi MR, Autorino GL. Fatal Outbreak in Tonkean Macaques Caused by Possibly Novel Orthopoxvirus, Italy, January 2015 1. Emerg Infect Dis 2017; 23:1941-1949. [PMID: 28975882 PMCID: PMC5708245 DOI: 10.3201/eid2312.162098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In January 2015, during a 3-week period, 12 captive Tonkean macacques at a sanctuary in Italy died. An orthopoxvirus infection was suspected because of negative-staining electron microscopy results. The diagnosis was confirmed by histology, virus isolation, and molecular analysis performed on different organs from all animals. An epidemiologic investigation was unable to define the infection source in the surrounding area. Trapped rodents were negative by virologic testing, but specific IgG was detected in 27.27% of small rodents and 14.28% of rats. An attenuated live vaccine was administered to the susceptible monkey population, and no adverse reactions were observed; a detectable humoral immune response was induced in most of the vaccinated animals. We performed molecular characterization of the orthopoxvirus isolate by next-generation sequencing. According to the phylogenetic analysis of the 9 conserved genes, the virus could be part of a novel clade, lying between cowpox and ectromelia viruses.
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26
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Prkno A, Hoffmann D, Goerigk D, Kaiser M, van Maanen ACF, Jeske K, Jenckel M, Pfaff F, Vahlenkamp TW, Beer M, Ulrich RG, Starke A, Pfeffer M. Epidemiological Investigations of Four Cowpox Virus Outbreaks in Alpaca Herds, Germany. Viruses 2017; 9:v9110344. [PMID: 29156539 PMCID: PMC5707551 DOI: 10.3390/v9110344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Revised: 11/11/2017] [Accepted: 11/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Four cowpox virus (CPXV) outbreaks occurred in unrelated alpaca herds in Eastern Germany during 2012–2017. All incidents were initially noticed due to severe, generalized, and finally lethal CPXV infections, which were confirmed by testing of tissue and serum samples. As CPXV-infection has been described in South American camelids (SACs) only three times, all four herds were investigated to gain a deeper understanding of CPXV epidemiology in alpacas. The different herds were investigated twice, and various samples (serum, swab samples, and crusts of suspicious pox lesions, feces) were taken to identify additionally infected animals. Serum was used to detect CPXV-specific antibodies by performing an indirect immunofluorescence assay (iIFA); swab samples, crusts, and feces were used for detection of CPXV-specific DNA in a real-time PCR. In total, 28 out of 107 animals could be identified as affected by CPXV, by iIFA and/or PCR. Herd seroprevalence ranged from 16.1% to 81.2%. To investigate the potential source of infection, wild small mammals were trapped around all alpaca herds. In two herds, CPXV-specific antibodies were found in the local rodent population. In the third herd, CPXV could be isolated from a common vole (Microtus arvalis) found drowned in a water bucket used to water the alpacas. Full genome sequencing and comparison with the genome of a CPXV from an alpaca from the same herd reveal 99.997% identity, providing further evidence that the common vole is a reservoir host and infection source of CPXV. Only in the remaining fourth herd, none of the trapped rodents were found to be CPXV-infected. Rodents, as ubiquitous reservoir hosts, in combination with increasingly popular alpacas, as susceptible species, suggest an enhanced risk of future zoonotic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Almut Prkno
- Clinic for Ruminants and Swine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 11, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Donata Hoffmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Daniela Goerigk
- Veterinary practice Dr. Daniela Goerigk, Naundorfer Str. 9, 04668 Schkortitz, Germany.
| | - Matthias Kaiser
- Clinic for Ruminants and Swine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 11, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Anne Catherine Franscisca van Maanen
- Institute of Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, Centre for Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 1, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Kathrin Jeske
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Maria Jenckel
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Florian Pfaff
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Thomas W Vahlenkamp
- Institute of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 29, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Alexander Starke
- Clinic for Ruminants and Swine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 11, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Martin Pfeffer
- Institute of Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, Centre for Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 1, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
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27
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Drewes S, Straková P, Drexler JF, Jacob J, Ulrich RG. Assessing the Diversity of Rodent-Borne Viruses: Exploring of High-Throughput Sequencing and Classical Amplification/Sequencing Approaches. Adv Virus Res 2017; 99:61-108. [PMID: 29029730 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aivir.2017.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Rodents are distributed throughout the world and interact with humans in many ways. They provide vital ecosystem services, some species are useful models in biomedical research and some are held as pet animals. However, many rodent species can have adverse effects such as damage to crops and stored produce, and they are of health concern because of the transmission of pathogens to humans and livestock. The first rodent viruses were discovered by isolation approaches and resulted in break-through knowledge in immunology, molecular and cell biology, and cancer research. In addition to rodent-specific viruses, rodent-borne viruses are causing a large number of zoonotic diseases. Most prominent examples are reemerging outbreaks of human hemorrhagic fever disease cases caused by arena- and hantaviruses. In addition, rodents are reservoirs for vector-borne pathogens, such as tick-borne encephalitis virus and Borrelia spp., and may carry human pathogenic agents, but likely are not involved in their transmission to human. In our days, next-generation sequencing or high-throughput sequencing (HTS) is revolutionizing the speed of the discovery of novel viruses, but other molecular approaches, such as generic RT-PCR/PCR and rolling circle amplification techniques, contribute significantly to the rapidly ongoing process. However, the current knowledge still represents only the tip of the iceberg, when comparing the known human viruses to those known for rodents, the mammalian taxon with the largest species number. The diagnostic potential of HTS-based metagenomic approaches is illustrated by their use in the discovery and complete genome determination of novel borna- and adenoviruses as causative disease agents in squirrels. In conclusion, HTS, in combination with conventional RT-PCR/PCR-based approaches, resulted in a drastically increased knowledge of the diversity of rodent viruses. Future improvements of the used workflows, including bioinformatics analysis, will further enhance our knowledge and preparedness in case of the emergence of novel viruses. Classical virological and additional molecular approaches are needed for genome annotation and functional characterization of novel viruses, discovered by these technologies, and evaluation of their zoonotic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Drewes
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Petra Straková
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology v.v.i., Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan F Drexler
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Virology, Berlin, Germany; German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Germany
| | - Jens Jacob
- Julius Kühn-Institute, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Forests, Vertebrate Research, Münster, Germany
| | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel-Insel Riems, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
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28
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Classification of Cowpox Viruses into Several Distinct Clades and Identification of a Novel Lineage. Viruses 2017; 9:v9060142. [PMID: 28604604 PMCID: PMC5490819 DOI: 10.3390/v9060142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2017] [Revised: 05/24/2017] [Accepted: 06/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) was considered as uniform species within the genus Orthopoxvirus (OPV). Previous phylogenetic analysis indicated that CPXV is polyphyletic and isolates may cluster into different clades with two of these clades showing genetic similarities to either variola (VARV) or vaccinia viruses (VACV). Further analyses were initiated to assess both the genetic diversity and the evolutionary background of circulating CPXVs. Here we report the full-length sequences of 20 CPXV strains isolated from different animal species and humans in Germany. A phylogenetic analysis of altogether 83 full-length OPV genomes confirmed the polyphyletic character of the species CPXV and suggested at least four different clades. The German isolates from this study mainly clustered into two CPXV-like clades, and VARV- and VACV-like strains were not observed. A single strain, isolated from a cotton-top tamarin, clustered distantly from all other CPXVs and might represent a novel and unique evolutionary lineage. The classification of CPXV strains into clades roughly followed their geographic origin, with the highest clade diversity so far observed for Germany. Furthermore, we found evidence for recombination between OPV clades without significant disruption of the observed clustering. In conclusion, this analysis markedly expands the number of available CPXV full-length sequences and confirms the co-circulation of several CPXV clades in Germany, and provides the first data about a new evolutionary CPXV lineage.
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29
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Mauldin MR, Antwerpen M, Emerson GL, Li Y, Zoeller G, Carroll DS, Meyer H. Cowpox virus: What's in a Name? Viruses 2017; 9:E101. [PMID: 28486428 PMCID: PMC5454414 DOI: 10.3390/v9050101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Revised: 05/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditionally, virus taxonomy relied on phenotypic properties; however, a sequence-based virus taxonomy has become essential since the recent requirement of a species to exhibit monophyly. The species Cowpox virus has failed to meet this requirement, necessitating a reexamination of this species. Here, we report the genomic sequences of nine Cowpox viruses and, by combining them with the available data of 37 additional genomes, confirm polyphyly of Cowpox viruses and find statistical support based on genetic data for more than a dozen species. These results are discussed in light of the current International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses species definition, as well as immediate and future implications for poxvirus taxonomic classification schemes. Data support the recognition of five monophyletic clades of Cowpox viruses as valid species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Mauldin
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, P.O. Box 117, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA.
| | - Markus Antwerpen
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstr 11, 80937 Munich, Germany.
| | - Ginny L Emerson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Yu Li
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Gudrun Zoeller
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstr 11, 80937 Munich, Germany.
| | - Darin S Carroll
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Hermann Meyer
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstr 11, 80937 Munich, Germany.
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30
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Heuser E, Fischer S, Ryll R, Mayer-Scholl A, Hoffmann D, Spahr C, Imholt C, Alfa DM, Fröhlich A, Lüschow D, Johne R, Ehlers B, Essbauer S, Nöckler K, Ulrich RG. Survey for zoonotic pathogens in Norway rat populations from Europe. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2017; 73:341-348. [PMID: 27299665 DOI: 10.1002/ps.4339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Revised: 06/08/2016] [Accepted: 06/09/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Norway rat Rattus norvegicus is an important reservoir of various zoonotic pathogens, such as cowpox virus and Leptospira, but also for agents of no or unknown zoonotic potential. We describe a survey of 426 Norway rats originating from five European countries and different habitats for Leptospira spp., rickettsiae, orthopoxvirus (OPV), avian metapneumovirus subtypes A and B (aMPV) and rat polyomavirus (rat PyV). RESULTS Leptospira DNA was detected in 60 out of 420 (14.3%) rats, and Rickettsia DNA was found in three out of 369 (0.8%) rats investigated. PCR-based typing resulted in the identification of L. interrogans sequence type 17, which corresponds to the serogroup Icterohaemorrhagiae, and Rickettsia helvetica respectively. Rat PyV DNA was detected in 103 out of 421 (24.5%) rats. OPV DNA and aMPV RNA were detected in none of the rats, but OPV-specific antibodies were detected in three out of 388 (0.8%) rats. The frequency of single Leptospira and rat PyV infections and coinfections was, independent of sex, greater for adults compared with juveniles/subadults and greater at rural sites compared with urban areas. CONCLUSIONS Study results indicate a broad geographical distribution of Leptospira DNA in rats within Europe, underlining the need to investigate further the potential mechanisms leading to increased prevalence in rural habitats and to assess the relevance to public health. In contrast, rickettsia and OPV infections rarely occurred in wild rat populations. The potential influence of rat PyV on the susceptibility to infections with other pathogens should be investigated in future studies. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Heuser
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Stefan Fischer
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - René Ryll
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | | | - Donata Hoffmann
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Carina Spahr
- Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Imholt
- Julius Kühn-Institute, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Forestry, Vertebrate Research, Münster, Germany
| | - Dewi Murni Alfa
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Andreas Fröhlich
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Epidemiology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Dörte Lüschow
- Freie Universität Berlin, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Poultry Diseases, Berlin, Germany
| | - Reimar Johne
- Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel-Insel Riems, Germany
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31
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Tamošiūnaitė A, Hoffmann D, Franke A, Schluckebier J, Tauscher K, Tischer BK, Beer M, Klopfleisch R, Osterrieder N. Histopathological and Immunohistochemical Studies of Cowpox Virus Replication in a Three-Dimensional Skin Model. J Comp Pathol 2016; 155:55-61. [PMID: 27291992 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2016.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2016] [Revised: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Human cowpox virus (CPXV) infections are rare, but can result in severe and sometimes fatal outcomes. The majority of recent cases were traced back to contacts with infected domestic cats or pet rats. The aim of the present study was to evaluate a three-dimensional (3D) skin model as a possible replacement for animal experiments. We monitored CPXV lesion formation, viral gene expression and cell cycle patterns after infection of 3D skin cultures with two CPXV strains of different pathogenic potential: a recent pet rat isolate (RatPox09) and the reference Brighton red strain. Infected 3D skin cultures exhibited histological alterations that were similar to those of mammal skin infections, but there were no differences in gene expression patterns and tissue damage between the two CPXV strains in the model system. In conclusion, 3D skin cultures reflect the development of pox lesions in the skin very well, but seem not to allow differentiation between more or less virulent virus strains, a distinction that is made possible by experimental infection in suitable animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Tamošiūnaitė
- Institut für Virologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Zentrum für Infektionsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - D Hoffmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - A Franke
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - J Schluckebier
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - K Tauscher
- Department of Experimental Animal Facilities and Biorisk Management, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Südufer 10, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - B K Tischer
- Institut für Virologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Zentrum für Infektionsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - M Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - R Klopfleisch
- Institute for Veterinary Pathology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - N Osterrieder
- Institut für Virologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Zentrum für Infektionsmedizin, Berlin, Germany.
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