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Fuel Cell Reactors for the Clean Cogeneration of Electrical Energy and Value-Added Chemicals. ELECTROCHEM ENERGY R 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s41918-022-00168-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
AbstractFuel cell reactors can be tailored to simultaneously cogenerate value-added chemicals and electrical energy while releasing negligible CO2 emissions or other pollution; moreover, some of these reactors can even “breathe in” poisonous gas as feedstock. Such clean cogeneration favorably offsets the fast depletion of fossil fuel resources and eases growing environmental concerns. These unique reactors inherit advantages from fuel cells: a high energy conversion efficiency and high selectivity. Compared with similar energy conversion devices with sandwich structures, fuel cell reactors have successfully “hit three birds with one stone” by generating power, producing chemicals, and maintaining eco-friendliness. In this review, we provide a systematic summary on the state of the art regarding fuel cell reactors and key components, as well as the typical cogeneration reactions accomplished in these reactors. Most strategies fall short in reaching a win–win situation that meets production demand while concurrently addressing environmental issues. The use of fuel cells (FCs) as reactors to simultaneously produce value-added chemicals and electrical power without environmental pollution has emerged as a promising direction. The FC reactor has been well recognized due to its “one stone hitting three birds” merit, namely, efficient chemical production, electrical power generation, and environmental friendliness. Fuel cell reactors for cogeneration provide multidisciplinary perspectives on clean chemical production, effective energy utilization, and even pollutant treatment, with far-reaching implications for the wider scientific community and society. The scope of this review focuses on unique reactors that can convert low-value reactants and/or industrial wastes to value-added chemicals while simultaneously cogenerating electrical power in an environmentally friendly manner.
Graphical Abstract
A schematic diagram for the concept of fuel cell reactors for cogeneration of electrical energy and value-added chemicals
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McKenzie ECR, Hosseini S, Petro AGC, Rudman KK, Gerroll BHR, Mubarak MS, Baker LA, Little RD. Versatile Tools for Understanding Electrosynthetic Mechanisms. Chem Rev 2021; 122:3292-3335. [PMID: 34919393 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Electrosynthesis is a popular, green alternative to traditional organic methods. Understanding the mechanisms is not trivial yet is necessary to optimize reaction processes. To this end, a multitude of analytical tools is available to identify and quantitate reaction products and intermediates. The first portion of this review serves as a guide that underscores electrosynthesis fundamentals, including instrumentation, electrode selection, impacts of electrolyte and solvent, cell configuration, and methods of electrosynthesis. Next, the broad base of analytical techniques that aid in mechanism elucidation are covered in detail. These methods are divided into electrochemical, spectroscopic, chromatographic, microscopic, and computational. Technique selection is dependent on predicted reaction pathways and electrogenerated intermediates. Often, a combination of techniques must be utilized to ensure accuracy of the proposed model. To conclude, future prospects that aim to enhance the field are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric C R McKenzie
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Seyyedamirhossein Hosseini
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Ana G Couto Petro
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Kelly K Rudman
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Benjamin H R Gerroll
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | | | - Lane A Baker
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - R Daniel Little
- Department of Chemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Building 232, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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Cembellín S, Batanero B. Organic Electrosynthesis Towards Sustainability: Fundamentals and Greener Methodologies. CHEM REC 2021; 21:2453-2471. [PMID: 33955158 DOI: 10.1002/tcr.202100128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The adoption of new measures that preserve our environment, on which our survival depends, is a necessity. Electro-organic processes are sustainable per se, by producing the activation of a substrate by electron transfer at normal pressure and room temperature. In the recent years, a highly crescent number of works on organic electrosynthesis are available. Novel strategies at the electrode are being developed enabling the construction of a great variety of complex organic molecules. However, the possibility of being scaled-up is mandatory in terms of sustainability. Thus, some electrochemical methodologies have demonstrated to report the best results in reducing pollution and saving energy. In this personal account, these methods have been compiled, being organized as follows: • Direct discharge electrosynthesis • Paired electrochemical reactions. and • Organic transformations utilizing electrocatalysis (in absence of heavy metals). Selected protocols are herein presented and discussed with representative recent examples. Final perspectives and reflections are also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Cembellín
- University of Alcala, Organic and Inorganic Chemistry Department (Organic area), Campus, km 33,6 A2, 28805, Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain
| | - Belén Batanero
- University of Alcala, Organic and Inorganic Chemistry Department (Organic area), Campus, km 33,6 A2, 28805, Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Química, "Andrés M. del Río" (IQAR) University of Alcala
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Barham JP, König B. Synthetic Photoelectrochemistry. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:11732-11747. [PMID: 31805216 PMCID: PMC7383880 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201913767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Revised: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Photoredox catalysis (PRC) and synthetic organic electrochemistry (SOE) are often considered competing technologies in organic synthesis. Their fusion has been largely overlooked. We review state-of-the-art synthetic organic photoelectrochemistry, grouping examples into three categories: 1) electrochemically mediated photoredox catalysis (e-PRC), 2) decoupled photoelectrochemistry (dPEC), and 3) interfacial photoelectrochemistry (iPEC). Such synergies prove beneficial not only for synthetic "greenness" and chemical selectivity, but also in the accumulation of energy for accessing super-oxidizing or -reducing single electron transfer (SET) agents. Opportunities and challenges in this emerging and exciting field are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua P. Barham
- Universität RegensburgFakultät für Chemie und Pharmazie93040RegensburgGermany
| | - Burkhard König
- Universität RegensburgFakultät für Chemie und Pharmazie93040RegensburgGermany
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Akhmedov MA, Ibragimova KO, Khidirov SS. Comparative Evaluation of Dimethylsulfoxide and Dimethylsulfone Adsorption on a Smooth Platinum Electrode in Acidic Environment. RUSS J ELECTROCHEM+ 2020. [DOI: 10.1134/s1023193520040023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua P. Barham
- Universität Regensburg Fakultät für Chemie und Pharmazie 93040 Regensburg Deutschland
| | - Burkhard König
- Universität Regensburg Fakultät für Chemie und Pharmazie 93040 Regensburg Deutschland
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Abstract
With water providing a highly favored solution environment for industrial processes (and in biological processes), it is interesting to develop water-based electrolysis processes for the synthesis and conversion of organic and biomass-based molecules. Molecules with low solubility in aqueous media can be dispersed/solubilized (i) by physical dispersion tools (e.g., milling, power ultrasound, or high-shear ultraturrax processing), (ii) in some cases by pressurization/supersaturation (e.g., for gases), (iii) by adding cosolvents or "carriers" such as chremophor EL, or (iv) by adding surfactants to generate micelles, microemulsions, and/or stabilized biphasic conditions. This Account examines and compares methodologies to bring the dispersed or multiphase system into contact with an electrode. Both the microscopic process based on individual particle impact and the overall electro-organic transformation are of interest. Distinct mechanistic cases for multiphase redox processes are considered. Most traditional electro-organic transformations are performed in homogeneous solution with reagents, products, electrolyte, and possibly mediators or redox catalysts all in the same (usually organic) solution phase. This may lead to challenges in the product separation step and in the reuse of solvents and electrolytes. When aqueous electrolyte media are used, reagents and products (or even the electrolyte) may be present as microdroplets or nanoparticles. Redox transformations then occur during interfacial "collisions" under multiphase conditions or within a reaction layer when a redox mediator is present. Benefits of this approach can be (i) the use of a highly conducting aqueous electrolyte, (ii) simple separation of products and reuse of the electrolyte, (iii) phase-transfer conditions in redox catalysis, (iv) new reaction pathways, and (v) improved sustainability. In some cases, a surface phase or phase boundary processes can lead to interesting changes in reaction pathways. Controlling the reaction zone within the multiphase redox system poses a challenge, and methods based on microchannel flow reactors have been developed to provide a higher degree of control. However, detrimental effects in microchannel systems are also observed, in particular for limited current densities (which can be very low in microchannel multiphase flow) or in the development of technical solutions for scale-up of multiphase redox transformations. This Account describes physical approaches (and reactor designs) to bring multiphase redox systems into effective contact with the electrode surface as well as cases of important electro-organic multiphase transformations. Mechanistic cases considered are "impacts" by microdroplets or particles at the electrode, effects of dissolved intermediates or redox mediators, and effects of dissolved redox catalysts. These mechanistic cases are discussed for important multiphase transformations for gaseous, liquid, and solid dispersed phases. Processes based on mesoporous membranes and hydrogen-permeable palladium membranes are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Marken
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, U.K
| | - Jay D. Wadhawan
- School of Engineering, University of Hull, Cottingham Road, Kingston upon Hull, North Humberside HU6 7RX, U.K
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Gleede B, Selt M, Gütz C, Stenglein A, Waldvogel SR. Large, Highly Modular Narrow-Gap Electrolytic Flow Cell and Application in Dehydrogenative Cross-Coupling of Phenols. Org Process Res Dev 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.9b00451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Gleede
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Duesbergweg 10-14, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Maximilian Selt
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Duesbergweg 10-14, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Christoph Gütz
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Duesbergweg 10-14, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Andreas Stenglein
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Duesbergweg 10-14, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Siegfried R. Waldvogel
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Duesbergweg 10-14, 55128 Mainz, Germany
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Gleede B, Yamamoto T, Nakahara K, Botz A, Graßl T, Neuber R, Matthée T, Einaga Y, Schuhmann W, Waldvogel SR. Influence of the Nature of Boron‐Doped Diamond Anodes on the Dehydrogenative Phenol‐Phenol Cross‐Coupling. ChemElectroChem 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.201900225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Gleede
- Institute of Organic ChemistryJohannes Gutenberg University Duesbergweg 10–14 55128 Mainz Germany
- Department of ChemistyKeio University Hiyoshi 3-14-1 Yokohama 233-8522 Japan
| | - Takashi Yamamoto
- Department of ChemistyKeio University Hiyoshi 3-14-1 Yokohama 233-8522 Japan
| | - Kenshin Nakahara
- Department of ChemistyKeio University Hiyoshi 3-14-1 Yokohama 233-8522 Japan
| | - Alexander Botz
- Analytical Chemistry – Center for Electrochemical Sciences (CES) Faculty of Chemistry and BiochemistryRuhr-University Bochum Universitätsstraße 150 44780 Bochum Germany
| | - Tobias Graßl
- CONDIAS GmbH Fraunhofer Straße 1b 25524 Itzehoe Germany
| | - Rieke Neuber
- CONDIAS GmbH Fraunhofer Straße 1b 25524 Itzehoe Germany
| | | | - Yasuaki Einaga
- Department of ChemistyKeio University Hiyoshi 3-14-1 Yokohama 233-8522 Japan
| | - Wolfgang Schuhmann
- Analytical Chemistry – Center for Electrochemical Sciences (CES) Faculty of Chemistry and BiochemistryRuhr-University Bochum Universitätsstraße 150 44780 Bochum Germany
| | - Siegfried R. Waldvogel
- Institute of Organic ChemistryJohannes Gutenberg University Duesbergweg 10–14 55128 Mainz Germany
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Lips S, Waldvogel SR. Use of Boron‐Doped Diamond Electrodes in Electro‐Organic Synthesis. ChemElectroChem 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.201801620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Lips
- Institut für Organische ChemieJohannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz Duesbergweg 10–14 55128 Mainz Germany) Homepage: http//www.chemie.uni-mainz.de/OC/AK-Waldvogel/
| | - Siegfried R. Waldvogel
- Institut für Organische ChemieJohannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz Duesbergweg 10–14 55128 Mainz Germany) Homepage: http//www.chemie.uni-mainz.de/OC/AK-Waldvogel/
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Kärkäs MD. Electrochemical strategies for C-H functionalization and C-N bond formation. Chem Soc Rev 2018; 47:5786-5865. [PMID: 29911724 DOI: 10.1039/c7cs00619e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 590] [Impact Index Per Article: 98.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Conventional methods for carrying out carbon-hydrogen functionalization and carbon-nitrogen bond formation are typically conducted at elevated temperatures, and rely on expensive catalysts as well as the use of stoichiometric, and perhaps toxic, oxidants. In this regard, electrochemical synthesis has recently been recognized as a sustainable and scalable strategy for the construction of challenging carbon-carbon and carbon-heteroatom bonds. Here, electrosynthesis has proven to be an environmentally benign, highly effective and versatile platform for achieving a wide range of nonclassical bond disconnections via generation of radical intermediates under mild reaction conditions. This review provides an overview on the use of anodic electrochemical methods for expediting the development of carbon-hydrogen functionalization and carbon-nitrogen bond formation strategies. Emphasis is placed on methodology development and mechanistic insight and aims to provide inspiration for future synthetic applications in the field of electrosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus D Kärkäs
- Department of Chemistry, Organic Chemistry, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden.
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Cardoso DSP, Šljukić B, Santos DMF, Sequeira CAC. Organic Electrosynthesis: From Laboratorial Practice to Industrial Applications. Org Process Res Dev 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.7b00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- David S. P. Cardoso
- Materials Electrochemistry
Group, Center of Physics and Engineering of Advanced Materials (CeFEMA), Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Biljana Šljukić
- Materials Electrochemistry
Group, Center of Physics and Engineering of Advanced Materials (CeFEMA), Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Diogo M. F. Santos
- Materials Electrochemistry
Group, Center of Physics and Engineering of Advanced Materials (CeFEMA), Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - César A. C. Sequeira
- Materials Electrochemistry
Group, Center of Physics and Engineering of Advanced Materials (CeFEMA), Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
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Das A, Stahl SS. Noncovalent Immobilization of Molecular Electrocatalysts for Chemical Synthesis: Efficient Electrochemical Alcohol Oxidation with a Pyrene-TEMPO Conjugate. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017; 56:8892-8897. [PMID: 28586133 PMCID: PMC5831151 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201704921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Electrocatalytic methods for organic synthesis could offer sustainable alternatives to traditional redox reactions, but strategies are needed to enhance the performance of molecular catalysts designed for this purpose. The synthesis of a pyrene-tethered TEMPO derivative (TEMPO=2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidinyl-N-oxyl) is described, which undergoes facile in situ noncovalent immobilization onto a carbon cloth electrode. Cyclic voltammetry and controlled potential electrolysis studies demonstrate that the immobilized catalyst exhibits much higher activity relative to 4-acetamido-TEMPO, an electronically similar homogeneous catalyst. In preparative electrolysis experiments with a series of alcohol substrates and the immobilized catalyst, turnover numbers and frequencies approach 2 000 and 4 000 h-1 , respectively. The synthetic utility of the method is further demonstrated in the oxidation of a sterically hindered hydroxymethylpyrimidine precursor to the blockbuster drug, rosuvastatin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Das
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Shannon S Stahl
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
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Das A, Stahl SS. Noncovalent Immobilization of Molecular Electrocatalysts for Chemical Synthesis: Efficient Electrochemical Alcohol Oxidation with a Pyrene–TEMPO Conjugate. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201704921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amit Das
- Department of Chemistry University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison WI 53706 USA
| | - Shannon S. Stahl
- Department of Chemistry University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison WI 53706 USA
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