1
|
Scheibel DM, Gitsov IPI, Gitsov I. Enzymes in "Green" Synthetic Chemistry: Laccase and Lipase. Molecules 2024; 29:989. [PMID: 38474502 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29050989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Enzymes play an important role in numerous natural processes and are increasingly being utilized as environmentally friendly substitutes and alternatives to many common catalysts. Their essential advantages are high catalytic efficiency, substrate specificity, minimal formation of byproducts, and low energy demand. All of these benefits make enzymes highly desirable targets of academic research and industrial development. This review has the modest aim of briefly overviewing the classification, mechanism of action, basic kinetics and reaction condition effects that are common across all six enzyme classes. Special attention is devoted to immobilization strategies as the main tools to improve the resistance to environmental stress factors (temperature, pH and solvents) and prolong the catalytic lifecycle of these biocatalysts. The advantages and drawbacks of methods such as macromolecular crosslinking, solid scaffold carriers, entrapment, and surface modification (covalent and physical) are discussed and illustrated using numerous examples. Among the hundreds and possibly thousands of known and recently discovered enzymes, hydrolases and oxidoreductases are distinguished by their relative availability, stability, and wide use in synthetic applications, which include pharmaceutics, food and beverage treatments, environmental clean-up, and polymerizations. Two representatives of those groups-laccase (an oxidoreductase) and lipase (a hydrolase)-are discussed at length, including their structure, catalytic mechanism, and diverse usage. Objective representation of the current status and emerging trends are provided in the main conclusions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dieter M Scheibel
- Department of Chemistry, State University of New York-ESF, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
| | - Ioan Pavel Ivanov Gitsov
- Science and Technology, Medtronic Incorporated, 710 Medtronic Parkway, Minneapolis, MN 55432, USA
| | - Ivan Gitsov
- Department of Chemistry, State University of New York-ESF, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
- The Michael M. Szwarc Polymer Research Institute, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
- Biomedical and Chemical Engineering Department, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
- BioInspired Institute, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Zeng B, Chen FR, Sun H, Liu Y, Wu SF, Bass C, Gao CF. Molecular and functional analysis of chitin synthase genes in Chilo suppressalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae). INSECT SCIENCE 2023; 30:661-676. [PMID: 36269029 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.13134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The rice stem borer, Chilo suppressalis, has developed a high level of resistance to many of the compounds currently used for control. There is therefore an urgent need to develop novel control methods for C. suppressalis. Insect chitin synthases (CHS) have attracted interest as a potential target for insect pest management. However, to date, CHS have not been characterized in C. suppressalis. Two CHS genes (CsCHS1 and CsCHS2) were identified and cloned from C. suppressalis. Two transcript variants were identified for CsCHS1, CsCHS1a and CsCHS1b. Spatiotemporal expression profiling showed that both transcripts of CsCHS1 are most highly expressed on the last day of each larval instar stage and show the highest expression levels in the integument. In contrast, CsCHS2 is predominantly expressed during the larval feeding stages and shows the highest expression levels in the midgut. Knockdown of CsCHS1 by RNA interference significantly inhibited the molting and pupation of C. suppressalis, and knockdown of CsCHS2 significantly affected growth during the larval stage, but had no significant effect on the pupation. Moreover, knockout of CsCHS1 by CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing severely lowered the hatching rate, larval survivorship, pupation rate, and eclosion rate, but only larval survivorship at the G0 generation was lowered after the knockout of CsCHS2. These results demonstrate that CsCHS1 and CsCHS2 play vital roles in the growth and development of C. suppressalis, and so have potential as insecticidal targets for the control of this highly damaging pest.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bin Zeng
- State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application/College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Biosciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | - Fu-Rong Chen
- State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application/College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Hao Sun
- State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application/College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yan Liu
- State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application/College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Shun-Fan Wu
- State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application/College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Chris Bass
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Biosciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | - Cong-Fen Gao
- State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application/College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Xiao J, Yang K, Liang Z, Zhang Y, Wei L. BCB1, a member of the acyl-coenzyme A synthetase family, regulates the morphogenesis and pathogenicity of Botrytis cinerea. Arch Microbiol 2023; 205:206. [PMID: 37160639 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-023-03540-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Botrytis cinerea is a non-host-specific phytopathogenic fungus capable of infecting numerous cash crops. Here, we analyzed the functions of the Bcb1 gene in B. cinerea, which encodes a membrane protein belonging to the acyl-coenzyme A synthase family. Compared to the wild type, Bcb1-deletion mutants exhibited obvious morphological abnormalities, including slower vegetative growth and reduced melanin production. The absence of Bcb1 causes B. cinerea to form only small and incompletely developed infection cushions and fail to produce spores. The Bcb1 mutants displayed hypersensitivity to the membrane stressor SDS, the cell wall stressor Congo red, and the oxidative stressor H2O2 and increased resistance to intracellular osmotic stress caused by KCl compared to the wild-type strain. However, there were no differences in tolerance to extracellular osmotic stress caused by NaCl. The deletion of Bcb1 also caused a reduction in pathogenicity. The qRT‒PCR results showed that the genes Bcpks12 and Bcpks13, which are related to melanin biosynthesis, and Bcpg2, BcBOT2, and cutA, which are related to virulence, were downregulated in ∆Bcb1. These data suggest that BCB1 is important for conidial morphogenesis, and pathogenesis in B. cinerea.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiling Xiao
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Pesticide Biology and Precise Use Technology, Hunan Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute, Changsha, 410125, People's Republic of China
- College of Plant Protection, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, 410125, China
| | - Ke Yang
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Pesticide Biology and Precise Use Technology, Hunan Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute, Changsha, 410125, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhihuai Liang
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Pesticide Biology and Precise Use Technology, Hunan Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute, Changsha, 410125, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yi Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Indica Rice Genetics and Breeding in the Middle and Lower Reaches of Yangtze River Valley, Hunan Rice Research Institute, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Lin Wei
- Hunan Plant Protection Institute, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha, 410125, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Brauer VS, Pessoni AM, Freitas MS, Cavalcanti-Neto MP, Ries LNA, Almeida F. Chitin Biosynthesis in Aspergillus Species. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:jof9010089. [PMID: 36675910 PMCID: PMC9865612 DOI: 10.3390/jof9010089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The fungal cell wall (FCW) is a dynamic structure responsible for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis, and is essential for modulating the interaction of the fungus with its environment. It is composed of proteins, lipids, pigments and polysaccharides, including chitin. Chitin synthesis is catalyzed by chitin synthases (CS), and up to eight CS-encoding genes can be found in Aspergillus species. This review discusses in detail the chitin synthesis and regulation in Aspergillus species, and how manipulation of chitin synthesis pathways can modulate fungal growth, enzyme production, virulence and susceptibility to antifungal agents. More specifically, the metabolic steps involved in chitin biosynthesis are described with an emphasis on how the initiation of chitin biosynthesis remains unknown. A description of the classification, localization and transport of CS was also made. Chitin biosynthesis is shown to underlie a complex regulatory network, with extensive cross-talks existing between the different signaling pathways. Furthermore, pathways and recently identified regulators of chitin biosynthesis during the caspofungin paradoxical effect (CPE) are described. The effect of a chitin on the mammalian immune system is also discussed. Lastly, interference with chitin biosynthesis may also be beneficial for biotechnological applications. Even after more than 30 years of research, chitin biosynthesis remains a topic of current interest in mycology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Veronica S. Brauer
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 01000-000, Brazil
| | - André M. Pessoni
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 01000-000, Brazil
| | - Mateus S. Freitas
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 01000-000, Brazil
| | - Marinaldo P. Cavalcanti-Neto
- Integrated Laboratory of Morphofunctional Sciences, Institute of Biodiversity and Sustainability (NUPEM), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 27965-045, Brazil
| | - Laure N. A. Ries
- MRC Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK
- Correspondence: (L.N.A.R.); (F.A.)
| | - Fausto Almeida
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 01000-000, Brazil
- Correspondence: (L.N.A.R.); (F.A.)
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Slavin YN, Bach H. Mechanisms of Antifungal Properties of Metal Nanoparticles. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 12:nano12244470. [PMID: 36558323 PMCID: PMC9781740 DOI: 10.3390/nano12244470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Revised: 12/11/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The appearance of resistant species of fungi to the existent antimycotics is challenging for the scientific community. One emergent technology is the application of nanotechnology to develop novel antifungal agents. Metal nanoparticles (NPs) have shown promising results as an alternative to classical antimycotics. This review summarizes and discusses the antifungal mechanisms of metal NPs, including combinations with other antimycotics, covering the period from 2005 to 2022. These mechanisms include but are not limited to the generation of toxic oxygen species and their cellular target, the effect of the cell wall damage and the hyphae and spores, and the mechanisms of defense implied by the fungal cell. Lastly, a description of the impact of NPs on the transcriptomic and proteomic profiles is discussed.
Collapse
|
6
|
Chitin Synthesis in Yeast: A Matter of Trafficking. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232012251. [PMID: 36293107 PMCID: PMC9603707 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232012251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Revised: 10/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Chitin synthesis has attracted scientific interest for decades as an essential part of fungal biology and for its potential as a target for antifungal therapies. While this interest remains, three decades ago, pioneering molecular studies on chitin synthesis regulation identified the major chitin synthase in yeast, Chs3, as an authentic paradigm in the field of the intracellular trafficking of integral membrane proteins. Over the years, researchers have shown how the intracellular trafficking of Chs3 recapitulates all the steps in the intracellular trafficking of integral membrane proteins, from their synthesis in the endoplasmic reticulum to their degradation in the vacuole. This trafficking includes specific mechanisms for sorting in the trans-Golgi network, regulated endocytosis, and endosomal recycling at different levels. This review summarizes the work carried out on chitin synthesis regulation, mostly focusing on Chs3 as a molecular model to study the mechanisms involved in the control of the intracellular trafficking of proteins.
Collapse
|
7
|
Jiang C, Wang H, Liu M, Wang L, Yang R, Wang P, Lu Z, Zhou Y, Zheng Z, Zhao G. Identification of chitin synthase activator in Aspergillus niger and its application in citric acid fermentation. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2022; 106:6993-7011. [PMID: 36149454 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-022-12174-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The biosynthesis of citric acid (CA) using Aspergillus niger as a carrier is influenced by mycelium morphology, which is determined by the expression level of morphology-related genes. As a key component of the fungal cell wall, chitin content has an important effect on morphogenesis, and to investigate the effects of this on fermentation performance, we used RNA interference to knockdown chitin synthase C (CHSC) and chitin synthase activator (CHS3) to obtain the single-gene mutant strains A. niger chs3 and chsC and the double mutant A. niger chs3C. We found that the CA fermentation performance of the two single mutants was significantly better than that of the double mutant. The mutant A. niger chs3-4 exhibited CA production potential compared to that of the parent strain in scale-up fermentation; we determined certain characteristics of CA high-yielding strain fermentation pellets. In addition, when chsC alone was silenced, there was very little change in chs3 mRNA levels, whereas those of chsC were significantly reduced when only chs3 was silenced. As this may be because of a synergistic effect between chsC and chs3, and we speculated that the latent activation target of CHS3 is CHSC, our results confirmed this hypothesis. This study is the first application of a separation and combination silence strategy of chitin synthase and chitin synthase activator in the morphology of A. niger CA fermentation. Furthermore, it provides new insights into the method for the morphological study of A. niger fermentation and the interaction of homologous genes. KEY POINTS: • The function of chitin synthase C (chsC) and chitin synthase activator (chs3) is tightly interrelated. • Mycelial morphology was optimized by knockdown of CHS3, resulting in the overproduction of citric acid. • The separation and combination silence strategies are promising tools for the interaction of homologous housekeeping genes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chunxu Jiang
- Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Comprehensive Laboratory Building, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 350 Shushanhu Road, P.O. Box 1138, Hefei Anhui, 230031, People's Republic of China.,University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, People's Republic of China
| | - Han Wang
- Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Comprehensive Laboratory Building, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 350 Shushanhu Road, P.O. Box 1138, Hefei Anhui, 230031, People's Republic of China.
| | - Menghan Liu
- COFCO Biotechnology Co, Ltd. No. 1, Zhongliang Avenue, Bengbu Anhui, 233010, People's Republic of China
| | - Li Wang
- Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Comprehensive Laboratory Building, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 350 Shushanhu Road, P.O. Box 1138, Hefei Anhui, 230031, People's Republic of China
| | - Ruwen Yang
- COFCO Biotechnology Co, Ltd. No. 1, Zhongliang Avenue, Bengbu Anhui, 233010, People's Republic of China
| | - Peng Wang
- Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Comprehensive Laboratory Building, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 350 Shushanhu Road, P.O. Box 1138, Hefei Anhui, 230031, People's Republic of China
| | - Zongmei Lu
- COFCO Biotechnology Co, Ltd. No. 1, Zhongliang Avenue, Bengbu Anhui, 233010, People's Republic of China
| | - Yong Zhou
- COFCO Biotechnology Co, Ltd. No. 1, Zhongliang Avenue, Bengbu Anhui, 233010, People's Republic of China.
| | - Zhiming Zheng
- Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Comprehensive Laboratory Building, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 350 Shushanhu Road, P.O. Box 1138, Hefei Anhui, 230031, People's Republic of China.
| | - Genhai Zhao
- Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Comprehensive Laboratory Building, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 350 Shushanhu Road, P.O. Box 1138, Hefei Anhui, 230031, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Chitin Synthase Genes Are Differentially Required for Growth, Stress Response, and Virulence in Verticillium dahliae. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8070681. [PMID: 35887437 PMCID: PMC9320267 DOI: 10.3390/jof8070681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Crop wilt disease caused by Verticillium dahliae usually leads to serious yield loss. Chitin, an important component of most fungal cell walls, functions to maintain the rigidity of cell walls and septa. Chitin synthesis mainly relies on the activity of chitin synthase (CHS). Eight CHS genes have been predicted in V. dahliae. In this study, we characterized the functions of these genes in terms of growth, stress responses, penetration, and virulence. Results showed that VdCHS5 is important for conidia germination and resistance to hyperosmotic stress. Conidial production is significantly decreased in Vdchs1, Vdchs4, and Vdchs8 mutants. VdCHS1, VdCHS2, VdCHS4, VdCHS6, VdCHS7, and VdCHS8 genes are important for cell wall integrity, while all mutants are important for cell membrane integrity. All of the VdCHS genes, except for VdCHS3, are required for the full pathogenicity of V. dahliae to Arabidopsis thaliana and cotton plants. The in vitro and in vivo penetration of Vdchs1, Vdchs4, Vdchs6, and Vdchs7 mutants was impaired, while that of the other mutants was normal. Overall, our results indicate that the VdCHS genes exert diverse functions to regulate the growth and development, conidial germination, conidial production, stress response, penetration, and virulence in V. dahliae.
Collapse
|
9
|
Umamaheswaran R, Dutta S, Khan MA, Bera M, Bera S, Kumar S. Identification of Chitin in Pliocene Fungi Using Py-GC × GC-TOFMS: Potential Implications for the Study of the Evolution of the Fungal Clade in Deep Time. Anal Chem 2022; 94:1958-1964. [PMID: 35037459 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c03143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Molecular dating estimates the origin of the fungal clade to the Pre-Cambrian. Yet, the oldest unambiguous fungal fossils date to the Ordovician and show remarkable diversity and organizational development. Recent studies have suggested that the dates for the emergence of fungi in the fossil record may be pushed back to the Proterozoic. However, the nonspecificity of the methods used in those studies necessitates the employment of a wider variety of analytical techniques that can independently verify the presence of chitin, a crucial prerequisite in the assignment of fungal affinity, particularly of putative fossils from the Pre-Cambrian. In this paper, we propose Py-GC × GC-TOFMS as an example of one such technique. We analyze fungal fossils from the Pliocene. We find that a suite of N-bearing compounds are present in the pyrolysis products of these fossils, from which we suggest that 3-acetamidopyrones and their methylated homologues can serve as specific pyrolytic markers for chitin. We discuss both how this technique can potentially be used to differentiate between biopolymers, including those similar to chitin such as peptidoglycan, and the potential implications of identifying such markers in fossils from deep time. We conclude that Py-GC × GC-TOFMS is a promising technique that can potentially be used alongside, or independent of, staining methods to detect the presence of chitin in fossils.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raman Umamaheswaran
- Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Suryendu Dutta
- Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Mahasin Ali Khan
- Department of Botany, Siddho-Kanho-Birsa University, Puruliya 723149, India
| | - Meghma Bera
- Department of Botany, Vidyanagar College, Vidyanagar 743503, India
| | - Subir Bera
- Department of Botany, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 700019, India
| | - Sumit Kumar
- Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Khokhani D, Carrera Carriel C, Vayla S, Irving TB, Stonoha-Arther C, Keller NP, Ané JM. Deciphering the Chitin Code in Plant Symbiosis, Defense, and Microbial Networks. Annu Rev Microbiol 2021; 75:583-607. [PMID: 34623896 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-micro-051921-114809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Chitin is a structural polymer in many eukaryotes. Many organisms can degrade chitin to defend against chitinous pathogens or use chitin oligomers as food. Beneficial microorganisms like nitrogen-fixing symbiotic rhizobia and mycorrhizal fungi produce chitin-based signal molecules called lipo-chitooligosaccharides (LCOs) and short chitin oligomers to initiate a symbiotic relationship with their compatible hosts and exchange nutrients. A recent study revealed that a broad range of fungi produce LCOs and chitooligosaccharides (COs), suggesting that these signaling molecules are not limited to beneficial microbes. The fungal LCOs also affect fungal growth and development, indicating that the roles of LCOs beyond symbiosis and LCO production may predate mycorrhizal symbiosis. This review describes the diverse structures of chitin; their perception by eukaryotes and prokaryotes; and their roles in symbiotic interactions, defense, and microbe-microbe interactions. We also discuss potential strategies of fungi to synthesize LCOs and their roles in fungi with different lifestyles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Devanshi Khokhani
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA; , , , , , .,Current affiliation: Department of Plant Pathology, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota 55108, USA;
| | - Cristobal Carrera Carriel
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA; , , , , ,
| | - Shivangi Vayla
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA; , , , , ,
| | - Thomas B Irving
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA; , , , , ,
| | - Christina Stonoha-Arther
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA; , , , , ,
| | - Nancy P Keller
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA; , , , , , .,Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
| | - Jean-Michel Ané
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA; , , , , , .,Department of Agronomy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Perrine-Walker F, Payne J. Rapid screening method of Saccharomyces cerevisiae mutants using calcofluor white and aniline blue. Braz J Microbiol 2021; 52:1077-1086. [PMID: 33948877 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-021-00515-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Fungal cell walls are composed of polysaccharide scaffold that changes in response to environment. The structure and biosynthesis of the wall are unique to fungi, with plant and mammalian immune systems evolved to recognize wall components. Additionally, the enzymes that assemble fungal cell wall components are excellent targets for antifungal chemotherapies and fungicides. Understanding changes in the cell wall are important for fundamental understanding of cell wall dynamics and for drug development. Here we describe a screening technique to monitor the gross morphological changes of two key cell wall polysaccharides of chitin and β-1,3-glucan combined with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) genotyping. Changes in chitin and β-1,3-glucan were detected microscopically by using the dyes calcofluor white and aniline blue. Combining PCR and fluorescence microscopy, as a quick and easy screening technique, confirmed both the phenotype and genotype of the wild-type, h chitin synthase mutants (chs1Δ and chs3Δ) and one β-1,3-glucan synthase mutant fks2Δ from Saccharomyces cerevisiae knockout library. This combined screening method highlighted that the fks1Δ strain obtained commercially was in fact not FKS1 deletion strain, and instead had both wild-type genotype and phenotype. A new β-1,3-glucan synthase knockout fks1::URA3 strain was created. Fluorescence microscopy confirmed its phenotype revealing that the chitin and the new β-1,3-glucan profiles were elevated in the mother cells and in the emerging buds respectively in the fks1Δ cell walls. This combination of PCR with fluorescence microscopy is a quick and easy screening method to determine and verify morphological changes in the S. cerevisiae cell wall.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francine Perrine-Walker
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, 3086, Australia. .,The University of Sydney Institute of Agriculture, 1 Central Avenue, Australian Technology Park, Eveleigh, NSW, 2015, Australia. .,School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Life Earth and Environmental Sciences Building (F22), Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia.
| | - Jennifer Payne
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, 3086, Australia.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia.,EMBL Australia, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Su X, Yan X, Chen X, Guo M, Xia Y, Cao Y. Calcofluor white hypersensitive proteins contribute to stress tolerance and pathogenicity in entomopathogenic fungus, Metarhizium acridum. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2021; 77:1915-1924. [PMID: 33300230 DOI: 10.1002/ps.6218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fungal cell wall integrity is vital for fungal pathogenesis and stress tolerance. Calcofluor white (CFW), a cell wall perturbing agent, inhibits fungal growth by binding chitin in the cell wall. The roles of CFW sensitive proteins remain insufficiently understood in pathogenic fungi. RESULTS We investigated two calcofluor white hypersensitive proteins, MaCwh1 and MaCwh43, in the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium acridum. Both Green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged MaCwh1 and MaCwh43 localized at the endoplasmic reticulum. Our results showed that the ΔMacwh1 and ΔMacwh43 mutants were more sensitive to CFW and ultraviolet irradiation stress compared to wild-type and complement strains. ΔMacwh1 had a stronger sensitivity to these stresses than ΔMacwh43. Both ΔMacwh1 and ΔMacwh43 mutants showed smoother cell wall surface, and drastically reduced chitin and mannose glycoprotein level in the cell wall and glycerol level in conidia compared to wild type. Insect bioassay showed significantly attenuated virulence for both ΔMacwh1 and ΔMacwh43 mutants with impaired ability in penetrating the host cuticle. RNA-Seq analysis revealed that a large number of genes presumably involved in cell wall construction and modification, pathogenicity and stress response were down-regulated in both ΔMacwh1 and ΔMacwh43 mutants. CONCLUSIONS These findings demonstrate that both Macwh1 and Macwh43 affect the fungal cell wall ultrastructure and contribute to the stress tolerance and pest control potential in M. acrdium. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xueling Su
- School of Life Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Fungal Insecticides, Chongqing, China
- Key Laboratory of Gene Function and Regulation Technologies under Chongqing Municipal Education Commission, Chongqing, China
| | - Xi Yan
- School of Life Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Fungal Insecticides, Chongqing, China
- Key Laboratory of Gene Function and Regulation Technologies under Chongqing Municipal Education Commission, Chongqing, China
| | - Xing Chen
- School of Life Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Fungal Insecticides, Chongqing, China
- Key Laboratory of Gene Function and Regulation Technologies under Chongqing Municipal Education Commission, Chongqing, China
| | - Mei Guo
- School of Life Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Fungal Insecticides, Chongqing, China
- Key Laboratory of Gene Function and Regulation Technologies under Chongqing Municipal Education Commission, Chongqing, China
| | - Yuxian Xia
- School of Life Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Fungal Insecticides, Chongqing, China
- Key Laboratory of Gene Function and Regulation Technologies under Chongqing Municipal Education Commission, Chongqing, China
| | - Yueqing Cao
- School of Life Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Fungal Insecticides, Chongqing, China
- Key Laboratory of Gene Function and Regulation Technologies under Chongqing Municipal Education Commission, Chongqing, China
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Prabhuling SH, Makwana P, Pradeep ANR, Vijayan K, Mishra RK. Release of Mediator Enzyme β-Hexosaminidase and Modulated Gene Expression Accompany Hemocyte Degranulation in Response to Parasitism in the Silkworm Bombyx mori. Biochem Genet 2021; 59:997-1017. [PMID: 33616803 DOI: 10.1007/s10528-021-10046-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
In insects infections trigger hemocyte-mediated immune reactions including degranulation by exocytosis; however, involvement of mediator enzymes in degranulation process is unknown in insects. We report here that in silkworm Bombyx mori, infection by endoparasitoid Exorista bombycis and microsporidian Nosema bombycis activated granulation in granulocytes and promoted degranulation of accumulated structured granules. During degranulation the mediator lysosomal enzyme β-hexosaminidase showed increased activity and expression of β-hexosaminidase gene was enhanced. The events were confirmed in vitro after incubation of uninfected hemocytes with E. bombycis larval tissue protein. On infection, cytotoxicity marker enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) was released from the hemocytes illustrating cell toxicity. Strong positive correlation (R2 = 0.71) between LDH activity and β-hexosaminidase released after the infection showed parasitic-protein-induced hemocyte damage and accompanied release of the enzymes. Expression of β-hexosaminidase gene was enhanced in early stages after infection followed by down regulation. The expression showed positive correlation (R2 = 0.705) with hexosaminidase activity pattern. B. mori hexosaminidase showed 98% amino acid similarity with that of B. mandarina showing origin from same ancestral gene; however, 45-60% varied from other lepidopterans showing diversity. The observation signifies the less known association of hexosaminidase in degranulation of hemocytes induced by parasitic infection in B. mori and its divergence in different species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shambhavi H Prabhuling
- Seribiotech Research Laboratory, CSB-Kodathi Campus, Carmelaram. P.O, Bangalore, Karnataka, 560035, India
| | - Pooja Makwana
- Seribiotech Research Laboratory, CSB-Kodathi Campus, Carmelaram. P.O, Bangalore, Karnataka, 560035, India.,Central Sericultural Research & Training Institute, Berhampore, West Bengal, India
| | - Appukuttan Nair R Pradeep
- Seribiotech Research Laboratory, CSB-Kodathi Campus, Carmelaram. P.O, Bangalore, Karnataka, 560035, India.
| | | | - Rakesh Kumar Mishra
- Seribiotech Research Laboratory, CSB-Kodathi Campus, Carmelaram. P.O, Bangalore, Karnataka, 560035, India
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Evolutionary Overview of Molecular Interactions and Enzymatic Activities in the Yeast Cell Walls. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21238996. [PMID: 33256216 PMCID: PMC7730094 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21238996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungal cell walls are composed of a polysaccharide network that serves as a scaffold in which different glycoproteins are embedded. Investigation of fungal cell walls, besides simple identification and characterization of the main cell wall building blocks, covers the pathways and regulations of synthesis of each individual component of the wall and biochemical reactions by which they are cross-linked and remodeled in response to different growth phase and environmental signals. In this review, a survey of composition and organization of so far identified and characterized cell wall components of different yeast genera including Saccharomyces, Candida, Kluyveromyces, Yarrowia, and Schizosaccharomyces are presented with the focus on their cell wall proteomes.
Collapse
|
15
|
Shao ZM, Li YJ, Ding JH, Liu ZX, Zhang XR, Wang J, Sheng S, Wu FA. Identification, Characterization, and Functional Analysis of Chitin Synthase Genes in Glyphodes pyloalis Walker (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21134656. [PMID: 32629944 PMCID: PMC7370082 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21134656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Revised: 06/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Glyphodes pyloalis Walker (G. pyloalis) causes significant damage to mulberry every year, and we currently lack effective and environmentally friendly ways to control the pest. Chitin synthase (CHS) is a critical regulatory enzyme related to chitin biosynthesis, which plays a vital role in the growth and development of insects. The function of CHS in G. pyloalis, however, has not been studied. In this study, two chitin synthase genes (GpCHSA and GpCHSB) were screened from our previously created transcriptome database. The complete coding sequences of the two genes are 5,955 bp and 5,896 bp, respectively. Expression of GpCHSA and GpCHSB could be detected throughout all developmental stages. Relatively high expression levels of GpCHSA occurred in the head and integument and GpCHSB was most highly expressed in the midgut. Moreover, silencing of GpCHSA and GpCHSB using dsRNA reduced expression of downstream chitin metabolism pathway genes and resulted in abnormal development and wings stretching, but did not affect normal pupating of larvae. Furthermore, the inhibitor of chitin synthesis diflubenzuron (DFB) was used to further validate the RNAi result. DFB treatment significantly improved expression of GpCHSA, except GpCHSB, and their downstream genes, and also effected G. Pyloali molting at 48 h (62% mortality rate) and 72 h (90% mortality rate), respectively. These results show that GpCHSA and GpCHSB play critical roles in the development and wing stretching in G. pyloalis adults, indicating that the genes are attractive potential pest control targets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zuo-Min Shao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212018, China; (Z.-M.S.); (Y.-J.L.); (J.-H.D.); (Z.-X.L.); (X.-R.Z.); (J.W.); (S.S.)
| | - Yi-Jiangcheng Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212018, China; (Z.-M.S.); (Y.-J.L.); (J.-H.D.); (Z.-X.L.); (X.-R.Z.); (J.W.); (S.S.)
| | - Jian-Hao Ding
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212018, China; (Z.-M.S.); (Y.-J.L.); (J.-H.D.); (Z.-X.L.); (X.-R.Z.); (J.W.); (S.S.)
| | - Zhi-Xiang Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212018, China; (Z.-M.S.); (Y.-J.L.); (J.-H.D.); (Z.-X.L.); (X.-R.Z.); (J.W.); (S.S.)
| | - Xiao-Rui Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212018, China; (Z.-M.S.); (Y.-J.L.); (J.-H.D.); (Z.-X.L.); (X.-R.Z.); (J.W.); (S.S.)
| | - Jun Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212018, China; (Z.-M.S.); (Y.-J.L.); (J.-H.D.); (Z.-X.L.); (X.-R.Z.); (J.W.); (S.S.)
- Key Laboratory of Silkworm and Mulberry Genetic Improvement, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Sericultural Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Zhenjiang 212018, China
| | - Sheng Sheng
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212018, China; (Z.-M.S.); (Y.-J.L.); (J.-H.D.); (Z.-X.L.); (X.-R.Z.); (J.W.); (S.S.)
- Key Laboratory of Silkworm and Mulberry Genetic Improvement, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Sericultural Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Zhenjiang 212018, China
| | - Fu-An Wu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212018, China; (Z.-M.S.); (Y.-J.L.); (J.-H.D.); (Z.-X.L.); (X.-R.Z.); (J.W.); (S.S.)
- Key Laboratory of Silkworm and Mulberry Genetic Improvement, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Sericultural Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Zhenjiang 212018, China
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Yeast as a Model to Understand Actin-Mediated Cellular Functions in Mammals-Illustrated with Four Actin Cytoskeleton Proteins. Cells 2020; 9:cells9030672. [PMID: 32164332 PMCID: PMC7140605 DOI: 10.3390/cells9030672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has an actin cytoskeleton that comprises a set of protein components analogous to those found in the actin cytoskeletons of higher eukaryotes. Furthermore, the actin cytoskeletons of S. cerevisiae and of higher eukaryotes have some similar physiological roles. The genetic tractability of budding yeast and the availability of a stable haploid cell type facilitates the application of molecular genetic approaches to assign functions to the various actin cytoskeleton components. This has provided information that is in general complementary to that provided by studies of the equivalent proteins of higher eukaryotes and hence has enabled a more complete view of the role of these proteins. Several human functional homologues of yeast actin effectors are implicated in diseases. A better understanding of the molecular mechanisms underpinning the functions of these proteins is critical to develop improved therapeutic strategies. In this article we chose as examples four evolutionarily conserved proteins that associate with the actin cytoskeleton: (1) yeast Hof1p/mammalian PSTPIP1, (2) yeast Rvs167p/mammalian BIN1, (3) yeast eEF1A/eEF1A1 and eEF1A2 and (4) yeast Yih1p/mammalian IMPACT. We compare the knowledge on the functions of these actin cytoskeleton-associated proteins that has arisen from studies of their homologues in yeast with information that has been obtained from in vivo studies using live animals or in vitro studies using cultured animal cell lines.
Collapse
|
17
|
Targeting the fungal cell wall: current therapies and implications for development of alternative antifungal agents. Future Med Chem 2019; 11:869-883. [PMID: 30994368 DOI: 10.4155/fmc-2018-0465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungal infections are a worldwide problem associated with high morbidity and mortality. There are relatively few antifungal agents, and resistance has emerged within these pathogens for the newest antifungal drugs. As the fungal cell wall is critical for growth and development, it is one of the most important targets for drug development. In this review, the currently available cell wall inhibitors and suitable drug candidates for the treatment of fungal infections are explored. Future studies of the fungal cell wall and compounds that have detrimental effects on this important outer structural layer could aid in antifungal drug discovery and lead to the development of alternative cell wall inhibitors to fill gaps in clinical therapies for difficult-to-treat fungal infections.
Collapse
|
18
|
Li J, Zhu F, Li J. Expression of the Histidine Kinase Gene Sshk Correlates with Dimethachlone Resistance in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2019; 109:395-401. [PMID: 30070619 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-05-18-0156-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Histidine kinases (HK) are implicated in virulence, vegetative mycelial growth, and osmotic and oxidative responses in pathogenic fungi. Our previous work showed that transcriptional levels of the group III HK gene Sshk are higher in field dimethachlone-resistant isolates of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum compared with sensitive isolates. However, it is not clear whether the overexpression of Sshk is the major mechanism for resistance to dimethachlone. In this study, we constructed Sshk silencing and overexpression vectors and assessed dimethachlone resistance levels, virulence, mycelial growth, and sensitivity to osmotic stress for the Sshk-silenced and -overexpression transformants. Overexpression of Sshk resulted in resistance to dimethachlone and increased sensitivity to various stresses and to the cell-wall-perturbing agents sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and Congo red (CR). Compared with the parent isolate, Sshk-silenced transformants had reduced resistance to dimethachlone, significantly higher (P < 0.05) mycelial growth and virulence, and lower sclerotium production, and were less sensitive to various exogenous stresses such as sodium chloride. Compared with the parent sensitive isolate HLJMG1, dimethachlone resistance ratios of the three overexpression transformants ∆C101, ∆C21, and ∆C10 increased 168.1-, 189.5-, and 221.2-fold, respectively. The three overexpression transformants were more sensitive to CR and SDS than their parent isolate. These findings suggest that overexpression of Sshk is a major mechanism for dimethachlone resistance in some isolates of S. sclerotiorum, and that Sshk plays an important role in maintaining the integrity of the cell wall. Our findings reveal a novel molecular mechanism for dimethachlone resistance in plant-pathogenic fungi.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jinli Li
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Fuxing Zhu
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Jianhong Li
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Yang J, Zhang KQ. Chitin Synthesis and Degradation in Fungi: Biology and Enzymes. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1142:153-167. [PMID: 31102246 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-7318-3_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Chitin is one of the most important carbohydrates of the fungal cell wall, and is synthesized by chitin synthases. Chitin can be degraded by chitinases, which are important virulence factors in pathogenic fungi. Knowledge about the biosynthesis and degradation of chitin, and the enzymes responsible, has accumulated in recent years. In this review, we analyze the amino acid sequences of chitin synthases from several typical fungi. These enzymes can be divided into seven groups. While the different chitin synthases from a single fungus share a low degree of similarity, the same type of chitin synthase from different fungi shows high similarity. The number of chitinase genes in fungi display wide variation, from a single gene in Schizosaccharomyces pombe, to 36 genes in Trichoderma virens. Chitinases from different fungi can be divided into four groups. The functions of chitin synthases and chitinases in several typical fungi are summarized, and the crystal structures of chitinases and chitinase modification are also discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jinkui Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, and Key Laboratory for Microbial Resources of the Ministry of Education, Yunnan University, 650091, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Ke-Qin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, and Key Laboratory for Microbial Resources of the Ministry of Education, Yunnan University, 650091, Kunming, Yunnan, China.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Zhang R, Xu Q, Zhang Y, Zhu F. Baseline Sensitivity and Toxic Actions of Prochloraz to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. PLANT DISEASE 2018; 102:2149-2157. [PMID: 30145954 DOI: 10.1094/pdis-01-18-0148-re] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The ergosterol biosynthesis inhibitor prochloraz is a broad-spectrum fungicide and has been registered in China since 2007 for control of the economically important necrotrophic pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. In this study, relative baseline sensitivity and toxic actions of prochloraz on S. sclerotiorum were investigated. The mean EC50 values (effective concentrations causing 50% mycelial growth inhibition) for isolates collected in 2008 (n = 73) and 2014 (n = 76) were 0.0463 and 0.0434 µg/ml, respectively. There was no significant difference (P = 0.348) in EC50 values between the two years. Both frequency distributions of EC50 values for 2008 and 2014 were unimodal. The curative efficacy of prochloraz was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than that of the reference fungicide carbendazim. Prochloraz in potato dextrose agar (PDA) at concentrations from 0.01 to 0.36 µg/ml had no significant (P = 0.574) effects on the weight of sclerotia, but the number of sclerotia per plate increased for treatments with prochloraz at 0.15 and 0.36 µg/ml. Light microscopic observations showed that prochloraz in PDA at 0.03 µg/ml increased the number of hyphal offshoots. Observations with a transmission electron microscope showed that the cell wall of the prochloraz-treated hyphae became thicker and darker than the nontreated control. Prochloraz at 0.01 and 0.04 µg/ml significantly (P < 0.001) reduced rather than increased cell membrane permeability. Prochloraz significantly (P = 0.041) increased the mannan content in the cell wall of S. sclerotiorum. The observed mycelial growth inhibitions for the mixtures of prochloraz at 0.03 µg/ml and Congo red at a dose range from 0.05 to 0.4% (w/v) were lower than the expected inhibitions, indicating prochloraz might reduce the content of chitin in S. sclerotiorum. These results demonstrate that prochloraz has significant effects on the morphology and components of the cell wall of S. sclerotiorum and thus will advance our understanding of the toxic actions of prochloraz on phytopathogenic fungi.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ran Zhang
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Qianru Xu
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Yuchao Zhang
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Fuxing Zhu
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Johnson BR. Taxonomically Restricted Genes Are Fundamental to Biology and Evolution. Front Genet 2018; 9:407. [PMID: 30294344 PMCID: PMC6158316 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2018.00407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Genes limited to particular clades, taxonomically restricted genes (TRGs), are common in all sequenced genomes. TRGs have recently become associated with the evolution of novelty, as numerous studies across the tree of life have now linked expression of TRGs with novel phenotypes. However, TRGs that underlie ancient lineage specific traits have been largely omitted from discussions of the general importance of TRGs. Here it is argued that when all TRGs are considered, it is apparent that TRGs are fundamental to biology and evolution and likely play many complementary roles to the better understood toolkit genes. Genes underlying photosynthesis and skeletons, for example, are examples of commonplace fundamental TRGs. Essentially, although basic cell biology has a highly conserved genetic basis across the tree of life, most major clades also have lineage specific traits central to their biology and these traits are often based on TRGs. In short, toolkit genes underlie what is conserved across organisms, while TRGs define in many cases what is unique. An appreciation of the importance of TRGs will improve our understanding of evolution by triggering the study of neglected topics in which TRGs are of paramount importance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian R Johnson
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, Center for Population Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Rico-Ramírez AM, Roberson RW, Riquelme M. Imaging the secretory compartments involved in the intracellular traffic of CHS-4, a class IV chitin synthase, in Neurospora crassa. Fungal Genet Biol 2018; 117:30-42. [PMID: 29601947 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2018.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2018] [Revised: 03/25/2018] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In Neurospora crassa hyphae the localization of all seven chitin synthases (CHSs) at the Spitzenkörper (SPK) and at developing septa has been well analyzed. Hitherto, the mechanisms of CHSs traffic and sorting from synthesis to delivery sites remain largely unexplored. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae exit of Chs3p from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) requires chaperone Chs7p. Here, we analyzed the role of CSE-7, N. crassa Chs7p orthologue, in the biogenesis of CHS-4 (orthologue of Chs3p). In a N. crassa Δcse-7 mutant, CHS-4-GFP no longer accumulated at the SPK and septa. Instead, fluorescence was retained in hyphal subapical regions in an extensive network of elongated cisternae (NEC) referred to previously as tubular vacuoles. In a complemented strain expressing a copy of cse-7 the localization of CHS-4-GFP at the SPK and septa was restored, providing evidence that CSE-7 is necessary for the localization of CHS-4 at hyphal tips and septa. CSE-7 was revealed at delimited regions of the ER at the immediacies of nuclei, at the NEC, and remarkably also at septa and the SPK. The organization of the NEC was dependent on the cytoskeleton. SEC-63, an extensively used ER marker, and NCA-1, a SERCA-type ATPase previously localized at the nuclear envelope, were used as markers to discern the nature of the membranes containing CSE-7. Both SEC-63 and NCA-1 were found at the nuclear envelope, but also at regions of the NEC. However, at the NEC only NCA-1 co-localized extensively with CSE-7. Observations by transmission electron microscopy revealed abundant rough ER sheets and distinct electron translucent smooth flattened cisternae, which could correspond collectively to the NEC, thorough the subapical cytoplasm. This study identifies CSE-7 as the putative ER receptor for its cognate cargo, the polytopic membrane protein CHS-4, and elucidates the complexity of the ER system in filamentous fungi.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adriana M Rico-Ramírez
- Department of Microbiology, Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Ensenada, BC 22860, Mexico
| | | | - Meritxell Riquelme
- Department of Microbiology, Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Ensenada, BC 22860, Mexico.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Lopes-Bezerra LM, Mora-Montes HM, Zhang Y, Nino-Vega G, Rodrigues AM, de Camargo ZP, de Hoog S. Sporotrichosis between 1898 and 2017: The evolution of knowledge on a changeable disease and on emerging etiological agents. Med Mycol 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myx103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Leila M Lopes-Bezerra
- Laboratory of Cellular Mycology and Proteomics, Department of Cell Biology, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Hector M Mora-Montes
- Departamento de Biología, División de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | - Yu Zhang
- Department of Dermatology, Tianjin Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Gustavo Nino-Vega
- Departamento de Biología, División de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | - Anderson Messias Rodrigues
- Cell Biology Division, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Zoilo Pires de Camargo
- Cell Biology Division, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sybren de Hoog
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht, and Center of Expertise in Mycology of Radboudumc/CWZ, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Chitin synthesis by Chlorella cells infected by chloroviruses: Enhancement by adopting a slow-growing virus and treatment with aphidicolin. J Biosci Bioeng 2018; 125:311-315. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2017.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Revised: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
|
25
|
Disruption of the cell wall integrity gene ECM33 results in improved fermentation by wine yeast. Metab Eng 2018; 45:255-264. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2017.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Revised: 09/24/2017] [Accepted: 12/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
26
|
TLC-Digital Image-Based Fluorometric Analysis of Ergosterol and Chitin Content in Food Grains Artificially Infested with Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium verticillioides. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-017-1123-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
27
|
Oliveira AF, Fernandes FF, Mariano VS, Almeida F, Ruas LP, Oliveira LL, Oliver C, Jamur MC, Roque-Barreira MC. Paracoccin distribution supports its role in Paracoccidioides brasiliensis growth and dimorphic transformation. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0184010. [PMID: 28846733 PMCID: PMC5573292 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0184010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 08/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Paracoccidioides brasiliensis yeast was reported to express paracoccin, a GlcNAc-binding protein that displays N-acetyl-β-d-glucosaminidase (NAGase) activity. Highly specific anti-paracoccin antibodies have been previously used to examine the localization of paracoccin in yeast and inhibit its growth in vitro. In the present study, anti-paracoccin antibodies were used to characterize, by scanning confocal microscopy, the distribution of paracoccin in P. brasiliensis hyphae, transition forms from hyphae to yeast, and mature yeast. In the mycelial phase, paracoccin was detected mainly in the hyphae tips, where it demonstrated a punctate distribution, and was associated with the cell wall. During the first 48 hours after a temperature shift from 26°C to 37°C, paracoccin expression in the differentiating hyphae was mainly detected in the budding regions, i.e. lateral protrusions, and inside the new daughter cells. There was an increased number of chlamydoconidia that expressed a high concentration of paracoccin on their surfaces and/or in their interiors 72–96 hours after the temperature shift. After 120 hours, yeast cells were the predominant form and their cytoplasm stained extensively for paracoccin, whereas Wheat Germ Agglutinin (WGA) staining was predominant on their exterior walls. After 10 days at 37°C, the interior of both mother and daughter yeast cells, as well as the budding regions, stained intensely for paracoccin. The comparison of mRNA-expression in the different fungal forms showed that PCN transcripts, although detected in all evaluated morphological forms, were higher in hypha and yeast-to-hypha transition forms. In conclusion, the pattern of paracoccin distribution in all P. brasiliensis morphotypes supports prevalent beliefs that it plays important roles in fungal growth and dimorphic transformation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aline Ferreira Oliveira
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Fabricio Freitas Fernandes
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Vânia Sammartino Mariano
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Fausto Almeida
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Luciana Pereira Ruas
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brasil
| | | | - Constance Oliver
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Maria Celia Jamur
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Maria Cristina Roque-Barreira
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brasil
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Biancalana F, Kopprio GA, Lara RJ, Alonso C. A protocol for the simultaneous identification of chitin-containing particles and their associated bacteria. Syst Appl Microbiol 2017. [PMID: 28648723 DOI: 10.1016/j.syapm.2017.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Chitin is the second most abundant polymer on Earth, playing a crucial role in the biogeochemical cycles. A core issue for studying its processing in aquatic systems is the identification and enumeration of chitin-containing particles and organisms, ideally in a manner that can be directly linked to bulk chitin quantification. The aim of this study was the development of such a technique. We successfully combined the methodology of bulk chitin determination using wheat germ agglutinin (FITC-WGA) for staining chitin-containing particles and organisms along with CARD-FISH staining of either chitin-containing eukaryotic cells or bacteria associated with them. Environmental chitin staining was successfully applied to natural water samples. Fungal hyphae, diatoms, and dinoflagellates, sestonic aggregates and chitin-containing structures derived from metazoa were observed. Also, hybridized bacteria attached to chitinaceous debris were clearly visualized. Finally, as proof of principle, cultured yeast cells were simultaneously-targeted by FITC-WGA and the EUK516 probe without exhibiting any interference between both stains. The presented approach appears as a powerful tool to evaluate the contribution of different size classes and organisms to chitin production and consumption, opening the possibility for application of single-cell approaches targeting the ecophysiology of chitin transformations in aquatic systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Florencia Biancalana
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas and Universidad Nacional del Sur, Florida 4750, B8000FWB Bahía Blanca, Argentina.
| | - Germán A Kopprio
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas and Universidad Nacional del Sur, Florida 4750, B8000FWB Bahía Blanca, Argentina; Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT), Fahrenheitstr. 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - Rubén J Lara
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas and Universidad Nacional del Sur, Florida 4750, B8000FWB Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - Cecilia Alonso
- Microbial Ecology of Aquatic Transitional Systems Research Group, Centro Universitario Región Este, Universidad de la República, Ruta nacional N°9, 2700 Rocha, Uruguay
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Hwang DS, Lee MC, Kyung DH, Kim HS, Han J, Kim IC, Puthumana J, Lee JS. WAFs lead molting retardation of naupliar stages with down-regulated expression profiles of chitin metabolic pathway and related genes in the copepod Tigriopus japonicus. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2017; 193:9-17. [PMID: 27939724 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2016.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2016] [Revised: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 12/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Oil pollution is considered being disastrous to marine organisms and ecosystems. As molting is critical in the developmental process of arthropods in general and copepods, in particular, the impact will be adverse if the target of spilled oil is on molting. Thus, we investigated the harmful effects of water accommodated fractions (WAFs) of crude oil with an emphasis on inhibition of chitin metabolic pathways related genes and developmental retardation in the copepod Tigriopus japonicus. Also, we analysed the ontology and domain of chitin metabolic pathway genes and mRNA expression patterns of developmental stage-specific genes. Further, the developmental retardation followed by transcriptional modulations in nuclear receptor genes (NR) and chitin metabolic pathway-related genes were observed in the WAFs-exposed T. japonicus. As a result, the developmental time was found significantly (P<0.05) delayed in response to 40% WAFs in comparison with that of control. Moreover, the NR gene, HR3 and chitinases (CHT9 and CHT10) were up-regulated in N4-5 stages, while chitin synthase genes (CHS-1, CHS-2-1, and CHS-2-2) down-regulated in response to WAFs. In brief, a high concentration of WAFs repressed nuclear receptor genes but elicited activation of some of the transcription factors at low concentration of WAFs, resulting in suppression of chitin synthesis. Thus, we suggest that WAF can lead molting retardation of naupliar stages in T. japonicus through down-regulations of chitin metabolism. These findings will provide a better understanding of the mode of action of chitin biosynthesis associated with molting mechanism in WAF-exposed T. japonicus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dae-Sik Hwang
- Department of Biological Science, College of Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Min-Chul Lee
- Department of Biological Science, College of Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Do-Hyun Kyung
- Department of Molecular and Environmental Bioscience, Graduate School, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, South Korea
| | - Hui-Su Kim
- Department of Biological Science, College of Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Jeonghoon Han
- Department of Biological Science, College of Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Il-Chan Kim
- Division of Polar Life Sciences, Korea Polar Research Institute, Incheon 21990, South Korea
| | - Jayesh Puthumana
- Department of Biological Science, College of Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea.
| | - Jae-Seong Lee
- Department of Biological Science, College of Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Hoch H, Galvani C, Szarowski D, Turner J. Two new fluorescent dyes applicable for visualization of fungal cell walls. Mycologia 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/15572536.2006.11832788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - C.D. Galvani
- Department of Plant Pathology, Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, New York 14456
| | | | - J.N. Turner
- New York State Department of Health, Wadsworth Center, Empire State Plaza, Albany, New York 12237
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Fernandes C, Gow NA, Gonçalves T. The importance of subclasses of chitin synthase enzymes with myosin-like domains for the fitness of fungi. FUNGAL BIOL REV 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbr.2016.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
|
32
|
Zhang YZ, Chen Q, Liu CH, Liu YB, Yi P, Niu KX, Wang YQ, Wang AQ, Yu HY, Pu ZE, Jiang QT, Wei YM, Qi PF, Zheng YL. Chitin synthase gene FgCHS8 affects virulence and fungal cell wall sensitivity to environmental stress in Fusarium graminearum. Fungal Biol 2016; 120:764-74. [PMID: 27109372 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2016.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Revised: 01/30/2016] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Fusarium graminearum is the major causal agent of Fusarium head blight (FHB) of wheat and barley and is considered to be one of the most devastating plant diseases worldwide. Chitin is a critical component of the fungal cell wall and is polymerized from UDP-N-acetyl-alpha-D-glucosamine by chitin synthase. We characterized FgCHS8, a new class of the chitin synthase gene in F. graminearum. Disruption of FgCHS8 resulted in reduced accumulation of chitin, decreased chitin synthase activity, and had no effect on conidia growth when compared with the wild-type isolate. ΔFgCHS8 had a growth rate comparable to that of the wild-type isolate in vitro. However, ΔFgCHS8 had reduced growth when grown on agar supplemented with either 0.025% SDS or 0.9 mM salicylic acid. ΔFgCHS8 produced significantly less deoxynivalenol and exhibited reduced pathogenicity in wheat spikes. Re-introduction of a functional FgCHS8 gene into the ΔFgCHS8 mutant strain restored the wild-type phenotypes. Fluorescence microscopy revealed that FgCHS8 protein was initially expressed in the septa zone, and then gradually distributed over the entire cellular membrane, indicating that FgCHS8 was required for cell wall development. Our results demonstrated that FgCHS8 is important for cell wall sensitivity to environmental stress factors and deoxynivalenol production in F. graminearum.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Zhou Zhang
- Triticeae Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130, China.
| | - Qing Chen
- Triticeae Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130, China.
| | - Cai-Hong Liu
- Agronomy College, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130, China.
| | - Yu-Bin Liu
- Agricultural Science Research Institute, Xichang, Sichuan 615000, China.
| | - Pan Yi
- Agronomy College, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130, China.
| | - Ke-Xin Niu
- Agronomy College, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130, China.
| | - Yan-Qing Wang
- Agronomy College, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130, China.
| | - An-Qi Wang
- Agronomy College, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130, China.
| | - Hai-Yue Yu
- Agronomy College, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130, China.
| | - Zhi-En Pu
- Agronomy College, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130, China.
| | - Qian-Tao Jiang
- Triticeae Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130, China.
| | - Yu-Ming Wei
- Triticeae Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130, China.
| | - Peng-Fei Qi
- Triticeae Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130, China.
| | - You-Liang Zheng
- Triticeae Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130, China.
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Bi Y, Hubbard C, Purushotham P, Zimmer J. Insights into the structure and function of membrane-integrated processive glycosyltransferases. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2015; 34:78-86. [PMID: 26342143 PMCID: PMC4684724 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2015.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2015] [Revised: 07/17/2015] [Accepted: 07/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Complex carbohydrates perform essential functions in life, including energy storage, cell signaling, protein targeting, quality control, as well as supporting cell structure and stability. Extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) represent mainly structural polymers and are found in essentially all kingdoms of life. For example, EPS are important biofilm and capsule components in bacteria, represent major constituents in cell walls of fungi, algae, arthropods and plants, and modulate the extracellular matrix in vertebrates. Different mechanisms evolved by which EPS are synthesized. Here, we review the structures and functions of membrane-integrated processive glycosyltransferases (GTs) implicated in the synthesis and secretion of chitin, alginate, hyaluronan and poly-N-acetylglucosamine (PNAG).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yunchen Bi
- Center for Membrane Biology, Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, 480 Ray C. Hunt Dr., Charlottesville, VA 22908, United States
| | - Caitlin Hubbard
- Center for Membrane Biology, Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, 480 Ray C. Hunt Dr., Charlottesville, VA 22908, United States
| | - Pallinti Purushotham
- Center for Membrane Biology, Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, 480 Ray C. Hunt Dr., Charlottesville, VA 22908, United States
| | - Jochen Zimmer
- Center for Membrane Biology, Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, 480 Ray C. Hunt Dr., Charlottesville, VA 22908, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Hynson NA, Allison SD, Treseder KK. Quantum Dots Reveal Shifts in Organic Nitrogen Uptake by Fungi Exposed to Long-Term Nitrogen Enrichment. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0138158. [PMID: 26367868 PMCID: PMC4569051 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2015] [Accepted: 08/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthropogenic nitrogen (N) enrichment can alter N dynamics associated with decomposing plant litter. However, it is unclear to what extent these alterations occur via microbial effects (e.g., changes in gene regulation, physiology, or community composition) versus plant litter effects (e.g., changes in composition of N and C compounds). To isolate microbial effects from plant litter effects, we collected plant litter from long-term N fertilized and control plots, reciprocally inoculated it with microbes from the two treatments, and incubated it in a common field setting for three months. We used quantum dots (QDs) to track fungal uptake of glycine and chitosan. Glycine is a relatively simple organic N compound; chitosan is more complex. We found that microbial and litter origins each contributed to a shift in fungal uptake capacities under N fertilization. Specifically, N fungi preferred glycine over chitosan, but control fungi did not. In comparison, litter effects were more subtle, and manifested as a three-way interaction between litter origin, microbial origin, and type of organic N (glycine versus chitosan). In particular, control fungi tended to target chitosan only when incubated with control litter, while N fungi targeted glycine regardless of litter type. Overall, microbial effects may mediate how N dynamics respond to anthropogenic N enrichment in ecosystems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole A. Hynson
- Department of Botany, University of Hawai‘i Manoa, 3190 Maile Way, Honolulu, HI, 96822, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Steven D. Allison
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, United States of America
| | - Kathleen K. Treseder
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Lee DW, Kim BS. Antimicrobial cyclic peptides for plant disease control. THE PLANT PATHOLOGY JOURNAL 2015; 31:1-11. [PMID: 25774105 PMCID: PMC4356600 DOI: 10.5423/ppj.rw.08.2014.0074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2014] [Revised: 11/18/2014] [Accepted: 11/25/2014] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Antimicrobial cyclic peptides derived from microbes bind stably with target sites, have a tolerance to hydrolysis by proteases, and a favorable degradability under field conditions, which make them an attractive proposition for use as agricultural fungicides. Antimicrobial cyclic peptides are classified according to the types of bonds within the ring structure; homodetic, heterodetic, and complex cyclic peptides, which in turn reflect diverse physicochemical features. Most antimicrobial cyclic peptides affect the integrity of the cell envelope. This is achieved through direct interaction with the cell membrane or disturbance of the cell wall and membrane component biosynthesis such as chitin, glucan, and sphingolipid. These are specific and selective targets providing reliable activity and safety for non-target organisms. Synthetic cyclic peptides produced through combinatorial chemistry offer an alternative approach to develop antimicrobials for agricultural uses. Those synthesized so far have been studied for antibacterial activity, however, the recent advancements in powerful technologies now promise to provide novel antimicrobial cyclic peptides that are yet to be discovered from natural resources.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Beom Seok Kim
- Corresponding author. Phone) 2-3290-3047, FAX) 2-921-1715, E-mail)
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Fajardo-Somera RA, Jöhnk B, Bayram Ö, Valerius O, Braus GH, Riquelme M. Dissecting the function of the different chitin synthases in vegetative growth and sexual development in Neurospora crassa. Fungal Genet Biol 2015; 75:30-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2015.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Revised: 12/17/2014] [Accepted: 01/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
|
37
|
Molecular phylogeny and predicted 3D structure of plant beta-D-N-acetylhexosaminidase. ScientificWorldJournal 2014; 2014:186029. [PMID: 25165734 PMCID: PMC4129151 DOI: 10.1155/2014/186029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2014] [Revised: 06/14/2014] [Accepted: 06/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
beta-D-N-Acetylhexosaminidase, a family 20 glycosyl hydrolase, catalyzes the removal of β-1,4-linked N-acetylhexosamine residues from oligosaccharides and their conjugates. We constructed phylogenetic tree of β-hexosaminidases to analyze the evolutionary history and predicted functions of plant hexosaminidases. Phylogenetic analysis reveals the complex history of evolution of plant β-hexosaminidase that can be described by gene duplication events. The 3D structure of tomato β-hexosaminidase (β-Hex-Sl) was predicted by homology modeling using 1now as a template. Structural conformity studies of the best fit model showed that more than 98% of the residues lie inside the favoured and allowed regions where only 0.9% lie in the unfavourable region. Predicted 3D structure contains 531 amino acids residues with glycosyl hydrolase20b domain-I and glycosyl hydrolase20 superfamily domain-II including the (β/α)8 barrel in the central part. The α and β contents of the modeled structure were found to be 33.3% and 12.2%, respectively. Eleven amino acids were found to be involved in ligand-binding site; Asp(330) and Glu(331) could play important roles in enzyme-catalyzed reactions. The predicted model provides a structural framework that can act as a guide to develop a hypothesis for β-Hex-Sl mutagenesis experiments for exploring the functions of this class of enzymes in plant kingdom.
Collapse
|
38
|
Delgado-Álvarez DL, Bartnicki-García S, Seiler S, Mouriño-Pérez RR. Septum development in Neurospora crassa: the septal actomyosin tangle. PLoS One 2014; 9:e96744. [PMID: 24800890 PMCID: PMC4011870 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0096744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2014] [Accepted: 04/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Septum formation in Neurospora crassa was studied by fluorescent tagging of actin, myosin, tropomyosin, formin, fimbrin, BUD-4, and CHS-1. In chronological order, we recognized three septum development stages: 1) septal actomyosin tangle (SAT) assembly, 2) contractile actomyosin ring (CAR) formation, 3) CAR constriction together with plasma membrane ingrowth and cell wall construction. Septation began with the assembly of a conspicuous tangle of cortical actin cables (SAT) in the septation site >5 min before plasma membrane ingrowth. Tropomyosin and myosin were detected as components of the SAT from the outset. The SAT gradually condensed to form a proto-CAR that preceded CAR formation. During septum development, the contractile actomyosin ring remained associated with the advancing edge of the septum. Formin and BUD-4 were recruited during the transition from SAT to CAR and CHS-1 appeared two min before CAR constriction. Actin patches containing fimbrin were observed surrounding the ingrowing septum, an indication of endocytic activity. Although the trigger of SAT assembly remains unclear, the regularity of septation both in space and time gives us reason to believe that the initiation of the septation process is integrated with the mechanisms that control both the cell cycle and the overall growth of hyphae, despite the asynchronous nature of mitosis in N. crassa.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Diego Luis Delgado-Álvarez
- Departamento de Microbiología, Centro de Educación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Ensenada, B. C. México
| | - Salomón Bartnicki-García
- Departamento de Microbiología, Centro de Educación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Ensenada, B. C. México
| | - Stephan Seiler
- Institute for Biology II – Molecular Plant Physiology, Albert-Ludwigs University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies (FRIAS), Albert-Ludwigs University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Rosa Reyna Mouriño-Pérez
- Departamento de Microbiología, Centro de Educación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Ensenada, B. C. México
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Affiliation(s)
- Meritxell Riquelme
- Departamento de Microbiología, Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada (CICESE), Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico 22860;
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Identification and first insights into the structure and biosynthesis of chitin from the freshwater sponge Spongilla lacustris. J Struct Biol 2013; 183:474-483. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2013.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2013] [Revised: 06/24/2013] [Accepted: 06/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
41
|
Ehrlich H, Kaluzhnaya OV, Tsurkan MV, Ereskovsky A, Tabachnick KR, Ilan M, Stelling A, Galli R, Petrova OV, Nekipelov SV, Sivkov VN, Vyalikh D, Born R, Behm T, Ehrlich A, Chernogor LI, Belikov S, Janussen D, Bazhenov VV, Wörheide G. First report on chitinous holdfast in sponges (Porifera). Proc Biol Sci 2013; 280:20130339. [PMID: 23677340 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2013.0339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A holdfast is a root- or basal plate-like structure of principal importance that anchors aquatic sessile organisms, including sponges, to hard substrates. There is to date little information about the nature and origin of sponges' holdfasts in both marine and freshwater environments. This work, to our knowledge, demonstrates for the first time that chitin is an important structural component within holdfasts of the endemic freshwater demosponge Lubomirskia baicalensis. Using a variety of techniques (near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure, Raman, electrospray ionization mas spectrometry, Morgan-Elson assay and Calcofluor White staining), we show that chitin from the sponge holdfast is much closer to α-chitin than to β-chitin. Most of the three-dimensional fibrous skeleton of this sponge consists of spicule-containing proteinaceous spongin. Intriguingly, the chitinous holdfast is not spongin-based, and is ontogenetically the oldest part of the sponge body. Sequencing revealed the presence of four previously undescribed genes encoding chitin synthases in the L. baicalensis sponge. This discovery of chitin within freshwater sponge holdfasts highlights the novel and specific functions of this biopolymer within these ancient sessile invertebrates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hermann Ehrlich
- Institute of Experimental Physics, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, 09599 Freiberg, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
|
43
|
Walker LA, Lenardon MD, Preechasuth K, Munro CA, Gow NAR. Cell wall stress induces alternative fungal cytokinesis and septation strategies. J Cell Sci 2013; 126:2668-77. [PMID: 23606739 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.118885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In fungi, as with all walled organisms, cytokinesis followed by septation marks the end of the cell cycle and is essential for cell division and viability. For yeasts, the septal cross-wall comprises a ring and primary septal plate composed of chitin, and a secondary septum thickened with β(1,3)-glucan. In the human pathogen Candida albicans, chitin synthase enzyme Chs1 builds the primary septum that is surrounded by a chitin ring made by Chs3. Here we show that the lethal phenotype induced by repression of CHS1 was abrogated by stress-induced synthesis of alternative and novel septal types synthesized by other chitin synthase enzymes that have never before been implicated in septation. Chs2 and Chs8 formed a functional salvage septum, even in the absence of both Chs1 and Chs3. A second type of salvage septum formed by Chs2 in combination with Chs3 or Chs8 was proximally offset in the mother-bud neck. Chs3 alone or in combination with Chs8 formed a greatly thickened third type of salvage septum. Therefore, cell wall stress induced alternative forms of septation that rescued cell division in the absence of Chs1, demonstrating that fungi have previously unsuspected redundant strategies to enable septation and cell division to be maintained, even under potentially lethal environmental conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Louise A Walker
- Aberdeen Fungal Group, School of Medical Sciences, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Munro CA. Chitin and glucan, the yin and yang of the fungal cell wall, implications for antifungal drug discovery and therapy. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2013; 83:145-72. [PMID: 23651596 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-407678-5.00004-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The structural carbohydrate polymers glucan and chitin compliment and reinforce each other in a dynamic process to maintain the integrity and physical strength of the fungal cell wall. The assembly of chitin and glucan in the cell wall of the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the polymorphic human pathogen Candida albicans are essential processes that involve a range of fungal-specific enzymes and regulatory networks. The fungal cell wall is, therefore, an attractive target for novel therapies as host cells lack many cell wall-related proteins. The most recent class of antifungal drug approved for clinical use, the echinocandins, targets the synthesis of cell wall β(1-3)glucan. The echinocandins are effective at treating invasive and bloodstream Candida infections and are now widely used in the clinic. However, there have been sporadic reports of breakthrough infections in patients undergoing echinocandin therapy. The acquisition of point mutations in the FKS genes that encode the catalytic β(1-3)glucan synthase subunits, the target of the echinocandins, has emerged as a dominant resistance mechanism. Cells with elevated chitin levels are also less susceptible to echinocandins and in addition, treatment with sub-MIC echinocandin activates cell wall salvage pathways that increase chitin synthesis to compensate for reduced glucan production. The development of drugs targeting the cell wall has already proven to be beneficial in providing an alternative class of drug for use in the clinic. Other cell wall targets such as chitin synthesis still hold great potential for drug development but careful consideration should be given to the capacity of fungi to manipulate their walls in a dynamic response to cell wall perturbations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carol A Munro
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK, E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Orlean P. Architecture and biosynthesis of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell wall. Genetics 2012; 192:775-818. [PMID: 23135325 PMCID: PMC3522159 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.112.144485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 301] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2012] [Accepted: 08/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The wall gives a Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell its osmotic integrity; defines cell shape during budding growth, mating, sporulation, and pseudohypha formation; and presents adhesive glycoproteins to other yeast cells. The wall consists of β1,3- and β1,6-glucans, a small amount of chitin, and many different proteins that may bear N- and O-linked glycans and a glycolipid anchor. These components become cross-linked in various ways to form higher-order complexes. Wall composition and degree of cross-linking vary during growth and development and change in response to cell wall stress. This article reviews wall biogenesis in vegetative cells, covering the structure of wall components and how they are cross-linked; the biosynthesis of N- and O-linked glycans, glycosylphosphatidylinositol membrane anchors, β1,3- and β1,6-linked glucans, and chitin; the reactions that cross-link wall components; and the possible functions of enzymatic and nonenzymatic cell wall proteins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Orlean
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Temme N, Oeser B, Massaroli M, Heller J, Simon A, Collado IG, Viaud M, Tudzynski P. BcAtf1, a global regulator, controls various differentiation processes and phytotoxin production in Botrytis cinerea. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2012; 13:704-18. [PMID: 22293085 PMCID: PMC6638710 DOI: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2011.00778.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Atf1-homologous basic region leucine zipper (bZIP) transcription factors are known to act downstream of the stress-activated mitogen-activated protein kinase (SAPK) cascade in mammals, as well as in several fungi; they regulate the transcription of genes involved in the general stress response. Functional analyses of BcAtf1 in Botrytis cinerea show that it is also connected to the SAPK BcSak1, as it shares several stress response target genes. However, Δbcatf1 mutants are not hypersensitive to osmotic or oxidative stress, as are Δbcsak1 mutants. Both BcSak1 and BcAtf1 are regulators of differentiation, but their roles in these processes are almost inverse as, in contrast with Δbcsak1, Δbcatf1 mutants are significantly impaired in conidia production and do not differentiate any sclerotia. They show extremely vigorous growth in axenic culture, with a thick layer of aerial hyphae and a marked increase in colonization efficiency on different host plants and tissues. In addition, the sensitivity to cell wall-interfering agents is increased strongly. Microarray analyses demonstrate that the loss of BcAtf1 leads to extensive transcriptional changes: apart from stress response genes, the expression of a broad set of genes, probably involved in primary metabolism, cell wall synthesis and development, is affected by BcAtf1. Unexpectedly, BcAtf1 also controls secondary metabolism: the mutant contains significantly elevated levels of phytotoxins. These data indicate that BcAtf1 controls a diversity of cellular processes and has broad regulatory functions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nora Temme
- Institut für Biologie und Biotechnologie der Pflanzen, Westf. Wilhelms-Universität, Hindenburgplatz 55, D-48143 Münster, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
Wang Y, Fan HW, Huang HJ, Xue J, Wu WJ, Bao YY, Xu HJ, Zhu ZR, Cheng JA, Zhang CX. Chitin synthase 1 gene and its two alternative splicing variants from two sap-sucking insects, Nilaparvata lugens and Laodelphax striatellus (Hemiptera: Delphacidae). INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2012; 42:637-46. [PMID: 22634163 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2012.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2012] [Revised: 04/12/2012] [Accepted: 04/16/2012] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Chitin synthase (CHS) is an enzyme that is required for chitin formation in insect cuticles and other tissues. In this study, CHS genes from two destructive rice insect pests, the brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens and the small brown planthopper Laodelphax striatellus, were cloned. Phylogenetic analysis showed that these genes belonged to class CHS1 of the CHS gene family. Most insects possess two CHS genes (CHS1 and CHS2); however, genome and transcriptome searches showed that N. lugens possibly possess only CHS1 in both databases. Two transcript variants (CHS1a and CHS1b) resulting from exclusively alternative splicing (exon 19a or 19b in N. lugens) were identified for each of the two rice planthopper CHS1s. Gene structure comparison using the genomes that are currently sequenced showed that the CHS1 genes in all insects except Acyrthosiphon pisum have two transcript variants. Transcription of NlCHS1a reached its highest level just after molting, whereas NlCHS1b reached its highest expression level 1-2 days before molting. Injection of the N. lugens nymphs with double-strand RNA (dsRNA) of CHS1, CHS1a and CHS1b reduced the corresponding variant transcript levels and exhibited subsequent phenotypes. Silencing of CHS1 and CHS1a resulted in elongated distal wing pads and the "wasp-waisted" or crimpled cuticle phenotypes and eventually died, whereas the phenotypes caused by injection of NlCHS1b dsRNA seem not so obvious although slightly increased mortality was observed. Our results suggest that N. lugens likely lacks CHS2 and CHS1 may be efficient target gene for RNAi-based N. lugens control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ying Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Agricultural Entomology, Institute of Insect Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, PR China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
48
|
Wloka C, Bi E. Mechanisms of cytokinesis in budding yeast. Cytoskeleton (Hoboken) 2012; 69:710-26. [DOI: 10.1002/cm.21046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2012] [Accepted: 06/15/2012] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
|
49
|
Bi E, Park HO. Cell polarization and cytokinesis in budding yeast. Genetics 2012; 191:347-87. [PMID: 22701052 PMCID: PMC3374305 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.111.132886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 217] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2011] [Accepted: 11/04/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Asymmetric cell division, which includes cell polarization and cytokinesis, is essential for generating cell diversity during development. The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae reproduces by asymmetric cell division, and has thus served as an attractive model for unraveling the general principles of eukaryotic cell polarization and cytokinesis. Polarity development requires G-protein signaling, cytoskeletal polarization, and exocytosis, whereas cytokinesis requires concerted actions of a contractile actomyosin ring and targeted membrane deposition. In this chapter, we discuss the mechanics and spatial control of polarity development and cytokinesis, emphasizing the key concepts, mechanisms, and emerging questions in the field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erfei Bi
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6058, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
50
|
Cryptomycota: the missing link. Protein Cell 2012; 3:161-2. [PMID: 22528810 DOI: 10.1007/s13238-012-2013-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
|