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Pappas G, Wilkinson ML, Gow AJ. Nitric oxide regulation of cellular metabolism: Adaptive tuning of cellular energy. Nitric Oxide 2023; 131:8-17. [PMID: 36470373 PMCID: PMC9839556 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2022.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide can interact with a wide range of proteins including many that are involved in metabolism. In this review we have summarized the effects of NO on glycolysis, fatty acid metabolism, the TCA cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation with reference to skeletal muscle. Low to moderate NO concentrations upregulate glucose and fatty acid oxidation, while higher NO concentrations shift cellular reliance toward a fully glycolytic phenotype. Moderate NO production directly inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase activity, reducing glucose-derived carbon entry into the TCA cycle and subsequently increasing anaploretic reactions. NO directly inhibits aconitase activity, increasing reliance on glutamine for continued energy production. At higher or prolonged NO exposure, citrate accumulation can inhibit multiple ATP-producing pathways. Reduced TCA flux slows NADH/FADH entry into the ETC. NO can also inhibit the ETC directly, further limiting oxidative phosphorylation. Moderate NO production improves mitochondrial efficiency while improving O2 utilization increasing whole-body energy production. Long-term bioenergetic capacity may be increased because of NO-derived ROS, which participate in adaptive cellular redox signaling through AMPK, PCG1-α, HIF-1, and NF-κB. However, prolonged exposure or high concentrations of NO can result in membrane depolarization and opening of the MPT. In this way NO may serve as a biochemical rheostat matching energy supply with demand for optimal respiratory function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory Pappas
- Department of Kinesiology & Applied Physiology, Rutgers the State University of New Jersey, NJ, 08854, USA.
| | - Melissa L Wilkinson
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers the State University of New Jersey, NJ, 08854, USA.
| | - Andrew J Gow
- Department of Kinesiology & Applied Physiology, Rutgers the State University of New Jersey, NJ, 08854, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers the State University of New Jersey, NJ, 08854, USA.
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2
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Elsasser TH, Ma B, Ravel J, Kahl S, Gajer P, Cross A. Short-term feeding of defatted bovine colostrum mitigates inflammation in the gut via changes in metabolites and microbiota in a chicken animal model. Anim Microbiome 2023; 5:6. [PMID: 36703224 PMCID: PMC9878500 DOI: 10.1186/s42523-023-00225-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nondrug supplement strategies to improve gut health have largely focused on the effects of individual compounds to improve one aspect of gut homeostasis. However, there is no comprehensive assessment of the reproducible effects of oral, short-term, low-level colostrum supplementation on gut inflammation status that are specific to the ileum. Herein, a chicken animal model highly responsive to even mild gut inflammatory stimuli was employed to compare the outcomes of feeding a standard diet (CON) to those of CON supplemented with a centrifuge-defatted bovine colostrum (BC) or a nonfat dried milk (NFDM) control on the efficiency of nutrient use, ileal morphology, gut nitro-oxidative inflammation status, metabolites, and the composition of the microbiota. RESULTS A repeated design, iterative multiple regression model was developed to analyze how BC affected ileal digesta-associated anti-inflammatory metabolite abundance coincident with observed changes in the ileal microbiome, mitigation of epithelial inflammation, and ileal surface morphology. An improved whole body nutrient use efficiency in the BC group (v CON and NFDM) coincided with the observed increased ileum absorptive surface and reduced epithelial cell content of tyrosine-nitrated protein (NT, biomarker of nitro-oxidative inflammatory stress). Metabolome analysis revealed that anti-inflammatory metabolites were significantly greater in abundance in BC-fed animals. BC also had a beneficial BC impact on microbiota, particularly in promoting the presence of the bacterial types associated with eubiosis and the segmented filamentous bacteria, Candidatus Arthromitus. CONCLUSION The data suggest that an anti-inflammatory environment in the ileum was more evident in BC than in the other feeding groups and associated with an increased content of statistically definable groups of anti-inflammatory metabolites that appear to functionally link the observed interactions between the host's improved gut health with an observed increase in whole body nutrient use efficiency, beneficial changes in the microbiome and immunometabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ted H. Elsasser
- grid.463419.d0000 0001 0946 3608Animal Biosciences and Biotechnology Laboratory, USA Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Beltsville, MD 20705 USA
| | - Bing Ma
- grid.411024.20000 0001 2175 4264Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201 USA
| | - Jacques Ravel
- grid.411024.20000 0001 2175 4264Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201 USA
| | - Stanislaw Kahl
- grid.463419.d0000 0001 0946 3608Animal Biosciences and Biotechnology Laboratory, USA Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Beltsville, MD 20705 USA
| | - Pawel Gajer
- grid.411024.20000 0001 2175 4264Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201 USA
| | - Alan Cross
- grid.411024.20000 0001 2175 4264Center for Vaccine Development and Global Health, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201 USA
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3
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Characterization of a novel affinity binding ligand for tyrosine nitrated peptides from a phage-displayed peptide library. Talanta 2022; 241:123225. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2022.123225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2021] [Revised: 12/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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4
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Danylovych HV, Chunikhin AY, Danylovych YV, Kosterin SO. Application of petri nets methodology to determine biophysicochemical parameters of mitochondria functioning. UKRAINIAN BIOCHEMICAL JOURNAL 2021. [DOI: 10.15407/ubj93.03.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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5
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Santulli G, Monaco G, Parra V, Morciano G. Editorial: Mitochondrial Remodeling and Dynamic Inter-Organellar Contacts in Cardiovascular Physiopathology. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:679725. [PMID: 33996837 PMCID: PMC8120264 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.679725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Gaetano Santulli
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Wilf Family Cardiovascular Research Institute and Einstein Institute for Aging Research, New York, NY, United States.,Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Einstein-Sinai Diabetes Research Center (ES-DRC), Fleischer Institute for Diabetes and Metabolism (FIDAM), Montefiore University Hospital, New York, NY, United States.,International Translational Research and Medical Education Academic Research Unit (ITME), Department of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, "Federico II" University, Naples, Italy
| | - Giovanni Monaco
- Center for Innovation and Stimulation of Drug Discovery (CISTIM), Leuven, Belgium.,Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Signaling, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Valentina Parra
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Advanced Center of Chronic Diseases (ACCDiS), Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas y Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Network for the Study of High-Lethality Cardiopulmonary Diseases (REECPAL), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Giampaolo Morciano
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Experimental Medicine, Laboratory for Technologies of Advanced Therapies (LTTA), University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy.,Maria Cecilia Hospital, GVM Care and Research, Cotignola, Italy
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6
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Abdelmegeed MA, Ha SK, Choi Y, Akbar M, Song BJ. Role of CYP2E1 in Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Hepatic Injury by Alcohol and Non-Alcoholic Substances. Curr Mol Pharmacol 2019; 10:207-225. [PMID: 26278393 DOI: 10.2174/1874467208666150817111114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2015] [Revised: 08/07/2015] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Alcoholic fatty liver disease (AFLD) and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) are two pathological conditions that are spreading worldwide. Both conditions are remarkably similar with regard to the pathophysiological mechanism and progression despite different causes. Oxidative stressinduced mitochondrial dysfunction through post-translational protein modifications and/or mitochondrial DNA damage has been a major risk factor in both AFLD and NAFLD development and progression. Cytochrome P450-2E1 (CYP2E1), a known important inducer of oxidative radicals in the cells, has been reported to remarkably increase in both AFLD and NAFLD. Interestingly, CYP2E1 isoforms expressed in both endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria, likely lead to the deleterious consequences in response to alcohol or in conditions of NAFLD after exposure to high fat diet (HFD) and in obesity and diabetes. Whether CYP2E1 in both ER and mitochondria work simultaneously or sequentially in various conditions and whether mitochondrial CYP2E1 may exert more pronounced effects on mitochondrial dysfunction in AFLD and NAFLD are unclear. The aims of this review are to briefly describe the role of CYP2E1 and resultant oxidative stress in promoting mitochondrial dysfunction and the development or progression of AFLD and NAFLD, to shed a light on the function of the mitochondrial CYP2E1 as compared with the ER-associated CYP2E1. We finally discuss translational research opportunities related to this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed A Abdelmegeed
- Section of Molecular Pharmacology and Toxicology, Laboratory of Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892. United States
| | - Seung-Kwon Ha
- Section of Molecular Pharmacology and Toxicology, Laboratory of Membrane, Biochemistry and Biophysics, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, MD. United States
| | - Youngshim Choi
- Section of Molecular Pharmacology and Toxicology, Laboratory of Membrane, Biochemistry and Biophysics, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, MD. United States
| | - Mohammed Akbar
- Section of Molecular Pharmacology and Toxicology, Laboratory of Membrane, Biochemistry and Biophysics, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, MD. United States
| | - Byoung-Joon Song
- Section of Molecular Pharmacology and Toxicology, Laboratory of Membrane, Biochemistry and Biophysics, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, MD. United States
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7
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KOHUTIAR M, ECKHARDT A, MIKŠÍK I, ŠANTOROVÁ P, WILHELM J. Proteomic Analysis of Peroxynitrite-Induced Protein Nitration in Isolated Beef Heart Mitochondria. Physiol Res 2018. [DOI: 10.33549/10.33549/physiolres.933608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are exposed to reactive nitrogen species under physiological conditions and even more under several pathologic states. In order to reveal the mechanism of these processes we studied the effects of peroxynitrite on isolated beef heart mitochondria in vitro. Peroxynitrite has the potential to nitrate protein tyrosine moieties, break the peptide bond, and eventually release the membrane proteins into the solution. All these effects were found in our experiments. Mitochondrial proteins were resolved by 2D electrophoresis and the protein nitration was detected by immunochemical methods and by nano LC-MS/MS. Mass spectrometry confirmed nitration of ATP synthase subunit beta, pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 component subunit beta, citrate synthase and acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase. Immunoblot detection using chemiluminiscence showed possible nitration of other proteins such as cytochrome b-c1 complex subunit 1, NADH dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] iron-sulfur protein 2, elongation factor Tu, NADH dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] flavoprotein 2, heat shock protein beta-1 and NADH dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] iron-sulfur protein 8. ATP synthase beta subunit was nitrated both in membrane and in fraction prepared by osmotic lysis. The high sensitivity of proteins to nitration by peroxynitrite is of potential biological importance, as these enzymes are involved in various pathways associated with energy production in the heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. KOHUTIAR
- Department of Medical Chemistry and Clinical Biochemistry, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic
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8
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Nitric Oxide and Mitochondrial Function in Neurological Diseases. Neuroscience 2018; 376:48-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Revised: 01/20/2018] [Accepted: 02/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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9
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Danylovych GV, Bohach TV, Danylovych YV. The biosynthesis of nitric oxide from L-arginine. Nitric oxide formation features and its functional role in mitochondria. UKRAINIAN BIOCHEMICAL JOURNAL 2018. [DOI: 10.15407/ubj90.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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10
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Kohutiar M, Eckhardt A, Mikšík I, Šantorová P, Wilhelm J. Proteomic analysis of peroxynitrite-induced protein nitration in isolated beef heart mitochondria. Physiol Res 2018; 67:239-250. [PMID: 29303599 DOI: 10.33549/physiolres.933608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are exposed to reactive nitrogen species under physiological conditions and even more under several pathologic states. In order to reveal the mechanism of these processes we studied the effects of peroxynitrite on isolated beef heart mitochondria in vitro. Peroxynitrite has the potential to nitrate protein tyrosine moieties, break the peptide bond, and eventually release the membrane proteins into the solution. All these effects were found in our experiments. Mitochondrial proteins were resolved by 2D electrophoresis and the protein nitration was detected by immunochemical methods and by nano LC-MS/MS. Mass spectrometry confirmed nitration of ATP synthase subunit beta, pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 component subunit beta, citrate synthase and acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase. Immunoblot detection using chemiluminiscence showed possible nitration of other proteins such as cytochrome b-c1 complex subunit 1, NADH dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] iron-sulfur protein 2, elongation factor Tu, NADH dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] flavoprotein 2, heat shock protein beta-1 and NADH dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] iron-sulfur protein 8. ATP synthase beta subunit was nitrated both in membrane and in fraction prepared by osmotic lysis. The high sensitivity of proteins to nitration by peroxynitrite is of potential biological importance, as these enzymes are involved in various pathways associated with energy production in the heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kohutiar
- Department of Medical Chemistry and Clinical Biochemistry, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic.
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11
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Chang JYH, Chow LW, Dismuke WM, Ethier CR, Stevens MM, Stamer WD, Overby DR. Peptide-Functionalized Fluorescent Particles for In Situ Detection of Nitric Oxide via Peroxynitrite-Mediated Nitration. Adv Healthc Mater 2017; 6:1700383. [PMID: 28512791 PMCID: PMC5568941 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201700383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is a free radical signaling molecule that plays a crucial role in modulating physiological homeostasis across multiple biological systems. NO dysregulation is linked to the pathogenesis of multiple diseases; therefore, its quantification is important for understanding pathophysiological processes. The detection of NO is challenging, typically limited by its reactive nature and short half-life. Additionally, the presence of interfering analytes and accessibility to biological fluids in the native tissues make the measurement technically challenging and often unreliable. Here, a bio-inspired peptide-based NO sensor is developed, which detects NO-derived oxidants, predominately peroxynitrite-mediated nitration of tyrosine residues. It is demonstrated that these peptide-based NO sensors can detect peroxynitrite-mediated nitration in response to physiological shear stress by endothelial cells in vitro. Using the peptide-conjugated fluorescent particle immunoassay, peroxynitrite-mediated nitration activity with a detection limit of ≈100 × 10-9 m is detected. This study envisions that the NO detection platform can be applied to a multitude of applications including monitoring of NO activity in healthy and diseased tissues, localized detection of NO production of specific cells, and cell-based/therapeutic screening of peroxynitrite levels to monitor pronitroxidative stress in biological samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Y. H. Chang
- Department of BioengineeringImperial College LondonLondonSW7 2AZUK
- Department of OphthalmologyDuke University School of MedicineDurhamNC27710USA
| | - Lesley W. Chow
- Department of Materials, Department of Bioengineering, and Institute of Biomedical EngineeringImperial College LondonLondonSW7 2AZUK
| | - W. Michael Dismuke
- Department of OphthalmologyDuke University School of MedicineDurhamNC27710USA
| | - C. Ross Ethier
- Department of BioengineeringImperial College LondonLondonSW7 2AZUK
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical EngineeringGeorgia Institute of Technology and Emory UniversityAtlantaGA30332USA
| | - Molly M. Stevens
- Department of Materials, Department of Bioengineering, and Institute of Biomedical EngineeringImperial College LondonLondonSW7 2AZUK
| | - W. Daniel Stamer
- Department of OphthalmologyDuke University School of MedicineDurhamNC27710USA
| | - Darryl R. Overby
- Department of BioengineeringImperial College LondonLondonSW7 2AZUK
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12
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Feng J, Chen X, Shen J. Reactive nitrogen species as therapeutic targets for autophagy: implication for ischemic stroke. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2017; 21:305-317. [DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2017.1281250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jinghan Feng
- School of Chinese Medicine, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- The University of Hong Kong-Shenzhen Institute of Research and Innovation (HKU-SIRI), Shenzhen, China
| | - Xingmiao Chen
- School of Chinese Medicine, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- The University of Hong Kong-Shenzhen Institute of Research and Innovation (HKU-SIRI), Shenzhen, China
| | - Jiangang Shen
- School of Chinese Medicine, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- The University of Hong Kong-Shenzhen Institute of Research and Innovation (HKU-SIRI), Shenzhen, China
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13
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Peroxynitrite: From interception to signaling. Arch Biochem Biophys 2016; 595:153-60. [PMID: 27095233 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2015.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Accepted: 06/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Peroxynitrite is a strong oxidant and nitrating species that mediates certain biological effects of superoxide and nitrogen monoxide. These biological effects include oxidative damage to proteins as well as the formation of 3-nitrotyrosyl moieties in proteins. As a consequence, such proteins may lose their activity, gain altered function, or become prone to proteolytic degradation - resulting in modulation of cellular protein turnover and in the modulation of signaling cascades. In analogy to hydrogen peroxide, peroxynitrite may be scavenged by selenoproteins like glutathione peroxidase-1 (GPx-1) or by selenocompounds with a GPx-like activity, such as ebselen; in further analogy to H2O2, peroxiredoxins have also been established as contributors to peroxynitrite reduction. This review covers three aspects of peroxynitrite biochemistry, (i) the interaction of selenocompounds/-proteins with peroxynitrite, (ii) peroxynitrite-induced modulation of cellular proteolysis, and (iii) peroxynitrite-induced modulation of cellular signaling.
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14
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Napoli E, Ross-Inta C, Song G, Wong S, Hagerman R, Gane LW, Smilowitz JT, Tassone F, Giulivi C. Premutation in the Fragile X Mental Retardation 1 (FMR1) Gene Affects Maternal Zn-milk and Perinatal Brain Bioenergetics and Scaffolding. Front Neurosci 2016; 10:159. [PMID: 27147951 PMCID: PMC4835505 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2016.00159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2016] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Fragile X premutation alleles have 55–200 CGG repeats in the 5′ UTR of the FMR1 gene. Altered zinc (Zn) homeostasis has been reported in fibroblasts from >60 years old premutation carriers, in which Zn supplementation significantly restored Zn-dependent mitochondrial protein import/processing and function. Given that mitochondria play a critical role in synaptic transmission, brain function, and cognition, we tested FMRP protein expression, brain bioenergetics, and expression of the Zn-dependent synaptic scaffolding protein SH3 and multiple ankyrin repeat domains 3 (Shank3) in a knock-in (KI) premutation mouse model with 180 CGG repeats. Mitochondrial outcomes correlated with FMRP protein expression (but not FMR1 gene expression) in KI mice and human fibroblasts from carriers of the pre- and full-mutation. Significant deficits in brain bioenergetics, Zn levels, and Shank3 protein expression were observed in the Zn-rich regions KI hippocampus and cerebellum at PND21, with some of these effects lasting into adulthood (PND210). A strong genotype × age interaction was observed for most of the outcomes tested in hippocampus and cerebellum, whereas in cortex, age played a major role. Given that the most significant effects were observed at the end of the lactation period, we hypothesized that KI milk might have a role at compounding the deleterious effects on the FMR1 genetic background. A higher gene expression of ZnT4 and ZnT6, Zn transporters abundant in brain and lactating mammary glands, was observed in the latter tissue of KI dams. A cross-fostering experiment allowed improving cortex bioenergetics in KI pups nursing on WT milk. Conversely, WT pups nursing on KI milk showed deficits in hippocampus and cerebellum bioenergetics. A highly significant milk type × genotype interaction was observed for all three-brain regions, being cortex the most influenced. Finally, lower milk-Zn levels were recorded in milk from lactating women carrying the premutation as well as other Zn-related outcomes (Zn-dependent alkaline phosphatase activity and lactose biosynthesis—whose limiting step is the Zn-dependent β-1,4-galactosyltransferase). In premutation carriers, altered Zn homeostasis, brain bioenergetics and Shank3 levels could be compounded by Zn-deficient milk, increasing the risk of developing emotional and neurological/cognitive problems and/or FXTAS later in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Napoli
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine Davis, CA, USA
| | - Catherine Ross-Inta
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine Davis, CA, USA
| | - Gyu Song
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine Davis, CA, USA
| | - Sarah Wong
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine Davis, CA, USA
| | - Randi Hagerman
- Medical Investigations of Neurodevelopmental Disorders Institute, University of California, DavisDavis, CA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of California Davis Medical CenterSacramento, CA, USA
| | - Louise W Gane
- Medical Investigations of Neurodevelopmental Disorders Institute, University of California, Davis Davis, CA, USA
| | - Jennifer T Smilowitz
- Department of Food Science and Technology and Foods for Health Institute, University of California, Davis Davis, CA, USA
| | - Flora Tassone
- Medical Investigations of Neurodevelopmental Disorders Institute, University of California, DavisDavis, CA, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California, DavisDavis, CA, USA
| | - Cecilia Giulivi
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary MedicineDavis, CA, USA; Medical Investigations of Neurodevelopmental Disorders Institute, University of California, DavisDavis, CA, USA
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15
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Song BJ, Akbar M, Abdelmegeed MA, Byun K, Lee B, Yoon SK, Hardwick JP. Mitochondrial dysfunction and tissue injury by alcohol, high fat, nonalcoholic substances and pathological conditions through post-translational protein modifications. Redox Biol 2015; 3:109-23. [PMID: 25465468 PMCID: PMC4297931 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2014.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2014] [Revised: 10/21/2014] [Accepted: 10/23/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are critically important in providing cellular energy ATP as well as their involvement in anti-oxidant defense, fat oxidation, intermediary metabolism and cell death processes. It is well-established that mitochondrial functions are suppressed when living cells or organisms are exposed to potentially toxic agents including alcohol, high fat diets, smoking and certain drugs or in many pathophysiological states through increased levels of oxidative/nitrative stress. Under elevated nitroxidative stress, cellular macromolecules proteins, DNA, and lipids can undergo different oxidative modifications, leading to disruption of their normal, sometimes critical, physiological functions. Recent reports also indicated that many mitochondrial proteins are modified via various post-translation modifications (PTMs) and primarily inactivated. Because of the recently-emerging information, in this review, we specifically focus on the mechanisms and roles of five major PTMs (namely oxidation, nitration, phosphorylation, acetylation, and adduct formation with lipid-peroxides, reactive metabolites, or advanced glycation end products) in experimental models of alcoholic and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease as well as acute hepatic injury caused by toxic compounds. We also highlight the role of the ethanol-inducible cytochrome P450-2E1 (CYP2E1) in some of these PTM changes. Finally, we discuss translational research opportunities with natural and/or synthetic anti-oxidants, which can prevent or delay the onset of mitochondrial dysfunction, fat accumulation and tissue injury. Hepatotoxic agents including alcohol and high fat elevate nitroxidative stress. Increased nitroxidative stress promotes post-translational protein modifications. Post-translational protein modifications of many proteins lead to their inactivation. Inactivation of mitochondrial proteins contributes to mitochondrial dysfunction. Mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to necrotic or apoptotic tissue injury.
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16
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Yeo WS, Kim YJ, Kabir MH, Kang JW, Ahsan-Ul-Bari M, Kim KP. Mass spectrometric analysis of protein tyrosine nitration in aging and neurodegenerative diseases. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2015; 34:166-183. [PMID: 24889964 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
This review highlights the significance of protein tyrosine nitration (PTN) in signal transduction pathways, the progress achieved in analytical methods, and the implication of nitration in the cellular pathophysiology of aging and age-related neurodegenerative diseases. Although mass spectrometry of nitrated peptides has become a powerful tool for the characterization of nitrated peptides, the low stoichiometry of this modification clearly necessitates the use of affinity chromatography to enrich modified peptides. Analysis of nitropeptides involves identification of endogenous, intact modification as well as chemical conversion of the nitro group to a chemically reactive amine group and further modifications that enable affinity capture and enhance detectability by altering molecular properties. In this review, we focus on the recent progress in chemical derivatization of nitropeptides for enrichment and mass analysis, and for detection and quantification using various analytical tools. PTN participates in physiological processes, such as aging and neurodegenerative diseases. Accumulation of 3-nitrotyrosine has been found to occur during the aging process; this was identified through mass spectrometry. Further, there are several studies implicating the presence of nitrated tyrosine in age-related diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woon-Seok Yeo
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Bio/Molecular Informatics Center, Konkuk University, Seoul, 143-701, Republic of Korea
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Vernau K, Napoli E, Wong S, Ross-Inta C, Cameron J, Bannasch D, Bollen A, Dickinson P, Giulivi C. Thiamine Deficiency-Mediated Brain Mitochondrial Pathology in Alaskan Huskies with Mutation in SLC19A3.1. Brain Pathol 2014; 25:441-53. [PMID: 25117056 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.12188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Alaskan Husky encephalopathy (AHE(1) ) is a fatal brain disease associated with a mutation in SLC19A3.1 (c.624insTTGC, c.625C>A). This gene encodes for a thiamine transporter 2 with a predominately (CNS) central nervous system distribution. Considering that brain is particularly vulnerable to thiamine deficiency because of its reliance on thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP)-dependent metabolic pathways involved in energy metabolism and neurotransmitter synthesis, we characterized the impact of this mutation on thiamine status, brain bioenergetics and the contribution of oxidative stress to this phenotype. In silico modeling of the mutated transporter indicated a significant loss of alpha-helices resulting in a more open protein structure suggesting an impaired thiamine transport ability. The cerebral cortex and thalamus of affected dogs were severely deficient in TPP-dependent enzymes accompanied by decreases in mitochondrial mass and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) capacity, and increases in oxidative stress. These results along with the behavioral and pathological findings indicate that the phenotype associated with AHE is consistent with a brain-specific thiamine deficiency, leading to brain mitochondrial dysfunction and increased oxidative stress. While some of the biochemical deficits, neurobehavior and affected brain areas in AHE were shared by Wernicke's and Korsakoff's syndromes, several differences were noted likely arising from a tissue-specific vs. that from a whole-body thiamine deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Vernau
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, University of California Davis, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Eleonora Napoli
- Molecular Biosciences, University of California Davis, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sarah Wong
- Molecular Biosciences, University of California Davis, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Catherine Ross-Inta
- Molecular Biosciences, University of California Davis, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jessie Cameron
- Department of Genetics and Genome Biology, Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Danika Bannasch
- Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of California Davis, Sacramento, CA
| | - Andrew Bollen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California San Francisco
| | - Peter Dickinson
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, University of California Davis, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Cecilia Giulivi
- Molecular Biosciences, University of California Davis, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Medical Investigation of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (MIND) Institute, Sacramento, CA
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Functional roles of protein nitration in acute and chronic liver diseases. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2014; 2014:149627. [PMID: 24876909 PMCID: PMC4021747 DOI: 10.1155/2014/149627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Revised: 04/01/2014] [Accepted: 04/04/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Nitric oxide, when combined with superoxide, produces peroxynitrite, which is known to be an important mediator for a number of diseases including various liver diseases. Peroxynitrite can modify tyrosine residue(s) of many proteins resulting in protein nitration, which may alter structure and function of each target protein. Various proteomics and immunological methods including mass spectrometry combined with both high pressure liquid chromatography and 2D PAGE have been employed to identify and characterize nitrated proteins from pathological tissue samples to determine their roles. However, these methods contain a few technical problems such as low efficiencies with the detection of a limited number of nitrated proteins and labor intensiveness. Therefore, a systematic approach to efficiently identify nitrated proteins and characterize their functional roles is likely to shed new insights into understanding of the mechanisms of hepatic disease pathophysiology and subsequent development of new therapeutics. The aims of this review are to briefly describe the mechanisms of hepatic diseases. In addition, we specifically describe a systematic approach to efficiently identify nitrated proteins to study their causal roles or functional consequences in promoting acute and chronic liver diseases including alcoholic and nonalcoholic fatty liver diseases. We finally discuss translational research applications by analyzing nitrated proteins in evaluating the efficacies of potentially beneficial agents to prevent or treat various diseases in the liver and other tissues.
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Pandya JD, Nukala VN, Sullivan PG. Concentration dependent effect of calcium on brain mitochondrial bioenergetics and oxidative stress parameters. FRONTIERS IN NEUROENERGETICS 2013; 5:10. [PMID: 24385963 PMCID: PMC3866544 DOI: 10.3389/fnene.2013.00010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2013] [Accepted: 11/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction following traumatic brain and spinal cord injury (TBI and SCI) plays a pivotal role in the development of secondary pathophysiology and subsequent neuronal cell death. Previously, we demonstrated a loss of mitochondrial bioenergetics in the first 24 h following TBI and SCI initiates a rapid and extensive necrotic event at the primary site of injury. Within the mitochondrial derived mechanisms, the cross talk and imbalance amongst the processes of excitotoxicity, Ca2+ cycling/overload, ATP synthesis, free radical production and oxidative damage ultimately lead to mitochondrial damage followed by neuronal cell death. Mitochondria are one of the important organelles that regulate intracellular calcium (Ca2+) homeostasis and are equipped with a tightly regulated Ca2+ transport system. However, owing to the lack of consensus and the link between downstream effects of calcium in published literature, we undertook a systematic in vitro study for measuring concentration dependent effects of calcium (100–1000 nmols/mg mitochondrial protein) on mitochondrial respiration, enzyme activities, reactive oxygen/nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) generation, membrane potential (ΔΨ) and oxidative damage markers in isolated brain mitochondria. We observed a dose- and time-dependent inhibition of mitochondrial respiration by calcium without influencing mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHC) and NADH dehydrogenase (Complex I) enzyme activities. We observed dose-dependent decreased production of hydrogen peroxide and total ROS/RNS species generation by calcium and no significant changes in protein and lipid oxidative damage markers. These results may shed new light on the prevailing dogma of the direct effects of calcium on mitochondrial bioenergetics, free radical production and oxidative stress parameters that are primary regulatory mitochondrial mechanisms following neuronal injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jignesh D Pandya
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Vidya N Nukala
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Patrick G Sullivan
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky Lexington, KY, USA
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20
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Gomes LH, Raftery MJ, Yan WX, Goyette JD, Thomas PS, Geczy CL. S100A8 and S100A9-oxidant scavengers in inflammation. Free Radic Biol Med 2013; 58:170-86. [PMID: 23277148 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2012.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2012] [Revised: 11/24/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
S100A8 and S100A9 are generally considered proinflammatory. Hypohalous acids generated by activated phagocytes promote novel modifications in murine S100A8 but modifications to human S100A8 are undefined and there is no evidence that these proteins scavenge oxidants in human disease. Recombinant S100A8 was exquisitely sensitive to equimolar ratios of HOCl, which generated sulfinic and sulfonic acid intermediates and novel oxathiazolidine oxide/dioxide forms (mass additions, m/z +30 and +46) on the single Cys42 residue. Met78(O) and Trp54(+16) were also present. HOBr generated sulfonic acid intermediates and oxidized Trp54(+16). Evidence for oxidation of the single Cys3 residue in recS100A9 HOCl was weak; Met63, Met81, Met83, and Met94 were converted to Met(O) in vitro. Oxidized S100A8 was prominent in lungs from patients with asthma and significantly elevated in sputum compared to controls, whereas S100A8 and S100A9 were not significantly increased. Oxidized monomeric S100A8 was the major component in asthmatic sputum, and modifications, including the oxathiazolidine adducts, were similar to those generated by HOCl in vitro. Oxidized Met63, Met81, and Met94 were variously present in S100A9 from asthmatic sputum. Results have broad implications for conditions under which hypohalous acid oxidants are generated by activated phagocytes. Identification in human disease of the novel S100A8 Cys derivatives typical of those generated in vitro strongly supports the notion that S100A8 contributes to antioxidant defense during oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lincoln H Gomes
- Inflammation and Infection Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
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21
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Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition curbs tyrosine nitration of mitochondrial proteins in the renal cortex during the early stage of diabetes mellitus in rats. Clin Sci (Lond) 2013; 124:543-52. [PMID: 23130652 PMCID: PMC3540783 DOI: 10.1042/cs20120251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Experiments were performed to evaluate the hypothesis that ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) inhibition (enalapril) suppresses 3-NT (3-nitrotyrosine) production in the renal cortex during the early stage of Type 1 DM (diabetes mellitus) in the rat. Enalapril was administered chronically for 2 weeks to subsets of STZ (streptozotocin)-induced DM and vehicle-treated sham rats. O2− (superoxide anion) and NOx (nitrate+nitrite) levels were measured in the media bathing renal cortical slices after 90 min incubation in vitro. SOD (superoxide dismutase) activity and 3-NT content were measured in the renal cortex homogenate. Renal cortical nitrated protein was identified by proteomic analysis. Renal cortical production of O2− and 3-NT was increased in DM rats; however, enalapril suppressed these changes. DM rats also exhibited elevated renal cortical NOx production and SOD activity, and these changes were magnified by enalapril treatment. 2-DE (two-dimensional gel electrophoresis)-based Western blotting revealed more than 20 spots with positive 3-NT immunoreactivity in the renal cortex of DM rats. Enalapril treatment blunted the DM-induced increase in tyrosine nitration of three proteins ACO2, GDH1 and MMSDH (aconitase 2, glutamate dehydrogenase 1 and methylmalonate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase), each of which resides in mitochondria. These data are consistent with enalapril preventing DM-induced tyrosine nitration of mitochondrial proteins by a mechanism involving suppression of oxidant production and enhancement of antioxidant capacity, including SOD activation.
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Ng JY, Boelen L, Wong JWH. Bioinformatics analysis reveals biophysical and evolutionary insights into the 3-nitrotyrosine post-translational modification in the human proteome. Open Biol 2013; 3:120148. [PMID: 23389939 PMCID: PMC3603447 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.120148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein 3-nitrotyrosine is a post-translational modification that commonly arises from the nitration of tyrosine residues. This modification has been detected under a wide range of pathological conditions and has been shown to alter protein function. Whether 3-nitrotyrosine is important in normal cellular processes or is likely to affect specific biological pathways remains unclear. Using GPS-YNO2, a recently described 3-nitrotyrosine prediction algorithm, a set of predictions for nitrated residues in the human proteome was generated. In total, 9.27 per cent of the proteome was predicted to be nitratable (27 922/301 091). By matching the predictions against a set of curated and experimentally validated 3-nitrotyrosine sites in human proteins, it was found that GPS-YNO2 is able to predict 73.1 per cent (404/553) of these sites. Furthermore, of these sites, 42 have been shown to be nitrated endogenously, with 85.7 per cent (36/42) of these predicted to be nitrated. This demonstrates the feasibility of using the predicted dataset for a whole proteome analysis. A comprehensive bioinformatics analysis was subsequently performed on predicted and all experimentally validated nitrated tyrosine. This found mild but specific biophysical constraints that affect the susceptibility of tyrosine to nitration, and these may play a role in increasing the likelihood of 3-nitrotyrosine to affect processes, including phosphorylation and DNA binding. Furthermore, examining the evolutionary conservation of predicted 3-nitrotyrosine showed that, relative to non-nitrated tyrosine residues, 3-nitrotyrosine residues are generally less conserved. This suggests that, at least in the majority of cases, 3-nitrotyrosine is likely to have a deleterious effect on protein function and less likely to be important in normal cellular function.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Y Ng
- Lowy Cancer Research Centre, Prince of Wales Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
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23
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Napoli E, Hung C, Wong S, Giulivi C. Toxicity of the flame-retardant BDE-49 on brain mitochondria and neuronal progenitor striatal cells enhanced by a PTEN-deficient background. Toxicol Sci 2013; 132:196-210. [PMID: 23288049 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfs339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) represent an important group of flame retardants extensively used, tonnage of which in the environment has been steadily increasing over the past 25 years. PBDEs or metabolites can induce neurotoxicity and mitochondrial dysfunction (MD) through a variety of mechanisms. Recently, PBDEs with < 5 Br substitutions (i.e., 2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether [BDE-47] and 2,2',4,5'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether [BDE-49]) have gained interest because of their high bioaccumulation. In particular, congeners such as BDE-49 arise as one of the most biologically active, with concentrations typically lower than those observed for BDE-47 in biological tissues; however, its potential to cause MD at biologically relevant concentrations is unknown. To this end, the effect of BDE-49 was studied in brain mitochondria and neuronal progenitor striatal cells (NPC). BDE-49 uncoupled mitochondria at concentrations < 0.1 nM, whereas at > 1 nM, it inhibited the electron transport at Complex V (mixed type inhibition; IC(50) = 6 nM) and Complex IV (noncompetitive inhibition; IC(50) = 40 nM). These concentrations are easily achieved in plasma concentrations considering that BDE-49 (this study, 400-fold) and other PBDEs accumulate 1-3 orders of magnitude in the cells, particularly in mitochondria and microsomes. Similar effects were observed in NPC and exacerbated with PTEN (negative modulator of the PI3K/Akt pathway) deficiency, background associated with autism-like behavior, schizophrenia, and epilepsy. PBDE-mediated MD per se or enhanced by a background that confers susceptibility to this exposure may have profound implications in the energy balance of brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Napoli
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
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24
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Seeley KW, Stevens SM. Investigation of local primary structure effects on peroxynitrite-mediated tyrosine nitration using targeted mass spectrometry. J Proteomics 2012; 75:1691-700. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2011.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2011] [Revised: 11/15/2011] [Accepted: 11/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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25
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Bayden AS, Yakovlev VA, Graves PR, Mikkelsen RB, Kellogg GE. Factors influencing protein tyrosine nitration--structure-based predictive models. Free Radic Biol Med 2011; 50:749-62. [PMID: 21172423 PMCID: PMC3039091 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2010.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2010] [Revised: 11/15/2010] [Accepted: 12/10/2010] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Models for exploring tyrosine nitration in proteins have been created based on 3D structural features of 20 proteins for which high-resolution X-ray crystallographic or NMR data are available and for which nitration of 35 total tyrosines has been experimentally proven under oxidative stress. Factors suggested in previous work to enhance nitration were examined with quantitative structural descriptors. The role of neighboring acidic and basic residues is complex: for the majority of tyrosines that are nitrated the distance to the heteroatom of the closest charged side chain corresponds to the distance needed for suspected nitrating species to form hydrogen bond bridges between the tyrosine and that charged amino acid. This suggests that such bridges play a very important role in tyrosine nitration. Nitration is generally hindered for tyrosines that are buried and for those tyrosines for which there is insufficient space for the nitro group. For in vitro nitration, closed environments with nearby heteroatoms or unsaturated centers that can stabilize radicals are somewhat favored. Four quantitative structure-based models, depending on the conditions of nitration, have been developed for predicting site-specific tyrosine nitration. The best model, relevant for both in vitro and in vivo cases, predicts 30 of 35 tyrosine nitrations (positive predictive value) and has a sensitivity of 60/71 (11 false positives).
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander S. Bayden
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Structural Biology and Drug Discovery, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Vasily A. Yakovlev
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Paul R. Graves
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Ross B. Mikkelsen
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
- Corresponding authors. (R.B. Mikkelsen); (G.E. Kellogg)
| | - Glen E. Kellogg
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Structural Biology and Drug Discovery, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
- Corresponding authors. (R.B. Mikkelsen); (G.E. Kellogg)
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26
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Liu Z, Cao J, Ma Q, Gao X, Ren J, Xue Y. GPS-YNO2: computational prediction of tyrosine nitration sites in proteins. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2011; 7:1197-204. [PMID: 21258675 DOI: 10.1039/c0mb00279h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The last decade has witnessed rapid progress in the identification of protein tyrosine nitration (PTN), which is an essential and ubiquitous post-translational modification (PTM) that plays a variety of important roles in both physiological and pathological processes, such as the immune response, cell death, aging and neurodegeneration. Identification of site-specific nitrated substrates is fundamental for understanding the molecular mechanisms and biological functions of PTN. In contrast with labor-intensive and time-consuming experimental approaches, here we report the development of the novel software package GPS-YNO2 to predict PTN sites. The software demonstrated a promising accuracy of 76.51%, a sensitivity of 50.09% and a specificity of 80.18% from the leave-one-out validation. As an example application, we predicted potential PTN sites for hundreds of nitrated substrates which had been experimentally detected in small-scale or large-scale studies, even though the actual nitration sites had still not been determined. Through a statistical functional comparison with the nitric oxide (NO) dependent reversible modification of S-nitrosylation, we observed that PTN prefers to attack certain fundamental biological processes and functions. These prediction and analysis results might be helpful for further experimental investigation. Finally, the online service and local packages of GPS-YNO2 1.0 were implemented in JAVA and freely available at: .
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Affiliation(s)
- Zexian Liu
- Life Sciences School, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
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27
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Giulivi C, Ross-Inta C, Omanska-Klusek A, Napoli E, Sakaguchi D, Barrientos G, Allen PD, Pessah IN. Basal bioenergetic abnormalities in skeletal muscle from ryanodine receptor malignant hyperthermia-susceptible R163C knock-in mice. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:99-113. [PMID: 20978128 PMCID: PMC3013050 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.153247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2010] [Revised: 10/13/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Malignant hyperthermia (MH) and central core disease in humans have been associated with mutations in the skeletal ryanodine receptor (RyR1). Heterozygous mice expressing the human MH/central core disease RyR1 R163C mutation exhibit MH when exposed to halothane or heat stress. Considering that many MH symptoms resemble those that could ensue from a mitochondrial dysfunction (e.g. metabolic acidosis and hyperthermia) and that MH-susceptible mice or humans have a higher than normal cytoplasmic Ca(2+) concentration at rest, we evaluated the role of mitochondria in skeletal muscle from R163C compared with wild type mice under basal (untriggered) conditions. R163C skeletal muscle exhibited a significant increase in matrix Ca(2+), increased reactive oxygen species production, lower expression of mitochondrial proteins, and higher mtDNA copy number. These changes, in conjunction with lower myoglobin and glycogen contents, Myh4 and GAPDH transcript levels, GAPDH activity, and lower glucose utilization suggested a switch to a compromised bioenergetic state characterized by both low oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis. The shift in bioenergetic state was accompanied by a dysregulation of Ca(2+)-responsive signaling pathways regulated by calcineurin and ERK1/2. Chronically elevated resting Ca(2+) in R163C skeletal muscle elicited the maintenance of a fast-twitch fiber program and the development of insulin resistance-like phenotype as part of a metabolic adaptation to the R163C RyR1 mutation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Giulivi
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA.
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28
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Tyther R, McDonagh B, Sheehan D. Proteomics in investigation of protein nitration in kidney disease: technical challenges and perspectives from the spontaneously hypertensive rat. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2011; 30:121-141. [PMID: 21166007 DOI: 10.1002/mas.20270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Kidneys are the mammalian organs with widest range of oxidative status ranging from the well-perfused cortex to the relatively anoxic medulla. This organ is of key interest from the perspective of hypertension, an important contributor to human mortality, and there has been growing use of the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) as a model to explore oxidative stress in hypertensive kidney. Nitrosative stress is often associated with oxidative stress and, like oxidative stress, can lead to covalent modification of protein side-chains. It is especially relevant to kidney because of high levels of both nitrite/nitrate and nitric oxide synthase in medulla. Because of their relatively low abundance and their well-known role in signal transduction, nitration of tyrosines to 3-nitrotyrosines (3NT) is of particular interest in this regard. This modification has the potential to contribute to changes in regulation, in protein activity and may provide a means of specific targeting of key proteins. Mass spectrometry (MS) offers a promising route to detecting this modification. This review surveys protein nitration in kidney disease and highlights opportunities for MS detection of nitrated residues in the SHR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond Tyther
- Upstream Bioprocessing Group, National Institute for Bioprocessing Research and Training, NICB, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
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29
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Vattemi G, Mechref Y, Marini M, Tonin P, Minuz P, Grigoli L, Guglielmi V, Klouckova I, Chiamulera C, Meneguzzi A, Di Chio M, Tedesco V, Lovato L, Degan M, Arcaro G, Lechi A, Novotny MV, Tomelleri G. Increased protein nitration in mitochondrial diseases: evidence for vessel wall involvement. Mol Cell Proteomics 2010; 10:M110.002964. [PMID: 21156839 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m110.002964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial diseases (MD) are heterogeneous disorders because of impairment of respiratory chain function leading to oxidative stress. We hypothesized that in MD the vascular endothelium may be affected by increased oxidative/nitrative stress causing a reduction of nitric oxide availability. We therefore, investigated the pathobiology of vasculature in MD patients by assaying the presence of 3-nitrotyrosine in muscle biopsies followed by the proteomic identification of proteins which undergo tyrosine nitration. We then measured the flow-mediated vasodilatation as a proof of altered nitric oxide generation/bioactivity. Here, we show that 3-nitrotyrosine staining is specifically located in the small vessels of muscle tissue and that the reaction is stronger and more evident in a significant percentage of vessels from MD patients as compared with controls. Eleven specific proteins which are nitrated under pathological conditions were identified; most of them are involved in energy metabolism and are located mainly in mitochondria. In MD patients the flow-mediated vasodilatation was reduced whereas baseline arterial diameters, blood flow velocity and endothelium-independent vasodilatation were similar to controls. The present results provide evidence that in MD the vessel wall is a target of increased oxidative/nitrative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaetano Vattemi
- Department of Neurological Sciences and Vision, Section of Clinical Neurology, University of Verona, Italy
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30
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Yoon SW, Kang S, Ryu SE, Poo H. Identification of tyrosine-nitrated proteins in HT22 hippocampal cells during glutamate-induced oxidative stress. Cell Prolif 2010; 43:584-93. [PMID: 21039997 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2184.2010.00708.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Nitration of tyrosine residues in protein is a post-translational modification, which occurs under oxidative stress, and is associated with several neurodegenerative diseases. To understand the role of nitrated proteins in oxidative stress-induced cell death, we identified nitrated proteins and checked correlation of their nitration in glutamate-induced HT22 cell death. MATERIALS AND METHODS Nitrated proteins were detected by western blotting using an anti-nitrotyrosine antibody, extracted from matching reference 2-dimensional electrophoresis gels, and identified with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. RESULTS Glutamate treatment induced apoptosis in HT22 cells, while reactive oxygen species (ROS) inhibitor or neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) inhibitor blocked glutamate-induced HT22 cell death. Nitration levels of 13 proteins were increased after glutamate stimulation; six of them were involved in regulation of energy production and two were related to apoptosis. The other nitrated proteins were associated with calcium signal modulation, ER dysfunction, or were of unknown function. CONCLUSIONS The 13 tyrosine-nitrated proteins were detected in these glutamate-treated HT22 cells. Results demonstrated that cell death, ROS accumulation and nNOS expression were related to nitration of protein tyrosine in the glutamate-stimulated cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- S-W Yoon
- Viral Infectious Disease Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejon, Korea
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31
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Burke AS, MacMillan-Crow LA, Hinson JA. The Hepatocyte Suspension Assay Is Superior to the Cultured Hepatocyte Assay for Determining Mechanisms of Acetaminophen Hepatotoxicity Relevant to in Vivo Toxicity. Chem Res Toxicol 2010. [DOI: 10.1021/tx1003744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Angela S. Burke
- WIL Research Laboratories, LLC, 1407 George Road, Ashland, Ohio 44805, United States
| | - Lee Ann MacMillan-Crow
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 West Markham Street, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205, United States
| | - Jack A. Hinson
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 West Markham Street, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205, United States
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32
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Campbell GR, Ziabreva I, Reeve AK, Krishnan KJ, Reynolds R, Howell O, Lassmann H, Turnbull DM, Mahad DJ. Mitochondrial DNA deletions and neurodegeneration in multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol 2010; 69:481-92. [PMID: 21446022 PMCID: PMC3580047 DOI: 10.1002/ana.22109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 257] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2010] [Revised: 05/26/2010] [Accepted: 05/28/2010] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Objective Cerebral atrophy is a correlate of clinical progression in multiple sclerosis (MS). Mitochondria are now established to play a part in the pathogenesis of MS. Uniquely, mitochondria harbor their own mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), essential for maintaining a healthy central nervous system. We explored mitochondrial respiratory chain activity and mtDNA deletions in single neurons from secondary progressive MS (SPMS) cases. Methods Ninety-eight snap-frozen brain blocks from 13 SPMS cases together with complex IV/complex II histochemistry, immunohistochemistry, laser dissection microscopy, long-range and real-time PCR and sequencing were used to identify and analyze respiratory-deficient neurons devoid of complex IV and with complex II activity. Results The density of respiratory-deficient neurons in SPMS was strikingly in excess of aged controls. The majority of respiratory-deficient neurons were located in layer VI and immediate subcortical white matter (WM) irrespective of lesions. Multiple deletions of mtDNA were apparent throughout the gray matter (GM) in MS. The respiratory-deficient neurons harbored high levels of clonally expanded mtDNA deletions at a single-cell level. Furthermore, there were neurons lacking mtDNA-encoded catalytic subunits of complex IV. mtDNA deletions sufficiently explained the biochemical defect in the majority of respiratory-deficient neurons. Interpretation These findings provide evidence that neurons in MS are respiratory-deficient due to mtDNA deletions, which are extensive in GM and may be induced by inflammation. We propose induced multiple deletions of mtDNA as an important contributor to neurodegeneration in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham R Campbell
- Institute of Ageing and Health, Mitochondrial Research Group, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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Yakovlev VA, Mikkelsen RB. Protein tyrosine nitration in cellular signal transduction pathways. J Recept Signal Transduct Res 2010; 30:420-9. [PMID: 20843272 DOI: 10.3109/10799893.2010.513991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
How specificity and reversibility in tyrosine nitration are defined biologically in cellular systems is poorly understood. As more investigations identify proteins involved in cell regulatory pathways in which only a small fraction of that protein pool is modified by nitration to affect cell function, the mechanisms of biological specificity and reversal should come into focus. In this review experimental evidence has been summarized to suggest that tyrosine nitration is a highly selective modification and under certain physiological conditions fulfills the criteria of a physiologically relevant signal. It can be specific, reversible, occurs on a physiological time scale, and, depending on a target, can result in either activation or inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasily A Yakovlev
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
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Evidence of mitochondrial dysfunction in fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome. Biochem J 2010; 429:545-52. [PMID: 20513237 DOI: 10.1042/bj20091960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
FXTAS (fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome) is a late-onset neurodegenerative disorder that affects individuals who are carriers of premutation expansions (55-200 CGG repeats) in the 5' untranslated region of the FMR1 (fragile X mental retardation 1) gene. The role of MD (mitochondrial dysfunction) in FXTAS was evaluated in fibroblasts and brain samples from premutation carriers with and without FXTAS symptoms, with a range of CGG repeats. This study resulted in several important conclusions: (i) decreased NAD- and FAD-linked oxygen uptake rates and uncoupling between electron transport and synthesis of ATP were observed in fibroblasts from premutation carriers; (ii) a lower expression of mitochondrial proteins preceded both in age and in CGG repeats the appearance of overt clinical involvement; (iii) the CGG repeat size required for altered mitochondrial protein expression was also smaller than that required to produce brain intranuclear inclusions from individuals with the premutation who died, suggesting that MD is an incipient pathological process occurring in individuals who do not display overt features of FXTAS; and (iv) on the basis of the CGG repeats, MD preceded the increase in oxidative/nitrative stress damage, indicating that the latter is a late event. MD in carriers of small CGG repeats, even when the allele size is not sufficient to produce FXTAS, may predispose them to other disorders (e.g. Parkinson's disease) that are likely to involve MD, and to environmental stressors, which may trigger the development of FXTAS symptoms. Detection of MD is of critical importance to the management of FXTAS, since it opens up additional treatment options for this disorder.
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Haynes V, Traaseth NJ, Elfering S, Fujisawa Y, Giulivi C. Nitration of specific tyrosines in FoF1 ATP synthase and activity loss in aging. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2010; 298:E978-87. [PMID: 20159857 PMCID: PMC2867368 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00739.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
It has been reported that C-nitration of proteins occurs under nitrative/oxidative stress; however, its role in pathophysiological situations is not fully understood. In this study, we determined that nitration of Tyr(345) and Tyr(368) in the beta-subunit of the mitochondrial F(o)F(1)-ATPase is a major target for nitrative stress in rat liver under in vivo conditions. The chemical characteristics of these Tyr make them suitable for a facilitated nitration (solvent accessibility, consensus sequence, and pK(a)). Moreover, beta-subunit nitration increased significantly with the age of the rats (from 4 to 80 weeks old) and correlated with decreased ATP hydrolysis and synthesis rates. Although its affinity for ATP binding was unchanged, maximal ATPase activity decreased between young and old rats by a factor of two. These changes directly impacted the available ATP concentration in vivo, and it was expected that they would affect multiple cellular ATP-dependent processes. For instance, at least 50% of available [ATP] in the liver of older rats would have to be committed to sustain maximal Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase activity, whereas only 30% would be required for young rats. If this requirement was not fulfilled, the osmoregulation and Na(+)-nutrient cotransport in liver of older rats would be compromised. On the basis of our studies, we propose that targeted nitration of the beta-subunit is an early marker for nitrative stress and aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Haynes
- University of California, Davis, Department of Molecular Biosciences, 1120 Haring Hall, One Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616, USA
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36
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Myatt L. Review: Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and functional adaptation of the placenta. Placenta 2010; 31 Suppl:S66-9. [PMID: 20110125 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2009.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2009] [Revised: 12/16/2009] [Accepted: 12/17/2009] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The placenta regulates fetal growth and development via transport of nutrients and gases, and synthesis and secretion of steroid and peptide hormones. These functions are determined by vascular development and blood flow and by growth and differentiation of the trophoblast, which contains receptors, transporters and enzymes. The placenta generates reactive oxygen species which may contribute to the oxidative stress seen even in normal pregnancy but this is increased in pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia, IUGR and pregestational diabetes where oxidative and nitrative stress have been clearly documented. Nitrative stress is the covalent modification of proteins and DNA by peroxynitrite formed by the interaction of superoxide and nitric oxide. We have demonstrated nitrative stress by localizing nitrotyrosine residues in these placentas and found increased expression of NADPH oxidase (NOX) enzyme isoforms 1 and 5 as a potential source of superoxide generation. The presence of nitrative stress was associated with diminished vascular reactivity of the fetal placental circulation, a situation that could be reproduced by treatment with peroxynitrite in vitro. We find many nitrated proteins in the placenta, including p38 MAP kinase which has a role in development of the villous vasculature. Nitration of p38 MAPK was increased in the preeclamptic placenta and associated with loss of catalytic activity. We hypothesize that nitration of proteins in the placenta including receptors, transporters, enzymes and structural proteins can alter protein and placental function and this influences fetal growth and development. Increasing nitrative stress but a decrease in oxidative stress, measured as protein carbonylation, is found in the placenta with increasing BMI. Formation of peroxynitrite may then consume superoxide, decreasing nitrative stress. As protein carbonylation is a covalent modification at Lys, Arg, Pro and Thr residues the switch from carbonylation to nitration at tyrosine residues may alter protein function and hence placental function.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Myatt
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Center for Pregnancy and Newborn Research, University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio, Mail Code 7836, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, San Antonio, TX 78229-3900, USA.
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Nitration of tyrosine residues 368 and 345 in the β-subunit elicits FoF1-ATPase activity loss. Biochem J 2009; 423:219-31. [DOI: 10.1042/bj20090594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Tyrosine nitration is a covalent post-translational protein modification associated with various diseases related to oxidative/nitrative stress. A role for nitration of tyrosine in protein inactivation has been proposed; however, few studies have established a direct link between this modification and loss of protein function. In the present study, we determined the effect of nitration of Tyr345 and Tyr368 in the β-subunit of the F1-ATPase using site-directed mutagenesis. Nitration of the β-subunit, achieved by using TNM (tetranitromethane), resulted in 66% ATPase activity loss. This treatment resulted in the modification of several asparagine, methionine and tyrosine residues. However, nitrated tyrosine and ATPase inactivation were decreased in reconstituted F1 with Y368F (54%), Y345F (28%) and Y345,368F (1%) β-subunits, indicating a clear link between nitration at these positions and activity loss, regardless of the presence of other modifications. Kinetic studies indicated that an F1 with one nitrated tyrosine residue (Tyr345 or Tyr368) or two Tyr368 residues was sufficient to grant inactivation. Tyr368 was four times more reactive to nitration due to its lower pKa. Inactivation was attributed mainly to steric hindrance caused by adding a bulky residue more than the presence of a charged group or change in the phenolic pKa due to the introduction of a nitro group. Nitration at this residue would be more relevant under conditions of low nitrative stress. Conversely, at high nitrative stress conditions, both tyrosine residues would contribute equally to ATPase inactivation.
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Abello N, Kerstjens HAM, Postma DS, Bischoff R. Protein tyrosine nitration: selectivity, physicochemical and biological consequences, denitration, and proteomics methods for the identification of tyrosine-nitrated proteins. J Proteome Res 2009; 8:3222-38. [PMID: 19415921 DOI: 10.1021/pr900039c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 260] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Protein tyrosine nitration (PTN) is a post-translational modification occurring under the action of a nitrating agent. Tyrosine is modified in the 3-position of the phenolic ring through the addition of a nitro group (NO2). In the present article, we review the main nitration reactions and elucidate why nitration is not a random chemical process. The particular physical and chemical properties of 3-nitrotyrosine (e.g., pKa, spectrophotometric properties, reduction to aminotyrosine) will be discussed, and the biological consequences of PTN (e.g., modification of enzymatic activity, sensitivity to proteolytic degradation, impact on protein phosphorylation, immunogenicity and implication in disease) will be reviewed. Recent data indicate the possibility of an in vivo denitration process, which will be discussed with respect to the different reaction mechanisms that have been proposed. The second part of this review article focuses on analytical methods to determine this post-translational modification in complex proteomes, which remains a major challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Abello
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Center for Pharmacy, University of Groningen, A. Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
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Abdelmegeed MA, Moon KH, Hardwick JP, Gonzalez FJ, Song BJ. Role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha in fasting-mediated oxidative stress. Free Radic Biol Med 2009; 47:767-78. [PMID: 19539749 PMCID: PMC2759705 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2009.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2009] [Revised: 06/07/2009] [Accepted: 06/12/2009] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPARalpha) regulates lipid homeostasis, particularly in the liver. This study was aimed at elucidating the relationship between hepatosteatosis and oxidative stress during fasting. Fasted Ppara-null mice exhibited marked hepatosteatosis, which was associated with elevated levels of lipid peroxidation, nitric oxide synthase activity, and hydrogen peroxide accumulation. Total glutathione (GSH), mitochondrial GSH, and the activities of major antioxidant enzymes were also lower in the fasted Ppara-null mice. Consequently, the number and extent of nitrated proteins were markedly increased in the fasted Ppara-null mice, although high levels of protein nitration were still detected in the fed Ppara-null mice while many oxidatively modified proteins were only found in the fasted Ppara-null mice. However, the role of inflammation in increased oxidative stress in the fasted Ppara-null mice was minimal based on the similar levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha change in all groups. These results with increased oxidative stress observed in the fasted Ppara-null mice compared with other groups demonstrate a role for PPAR alpha in fasting-mediated oxidative stress and that inhibition of PPAR alpha functions may increase the susceptibility to oxidative damage in the presence of another toxic agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed A Abdelmegeed
- Laboratory of Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892-9410, USA
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Mahad DJ, Ziabreva I, Campbell G, Laulund F, Murphy JL, Reeve AK, Greaves L, Smith KJ, Turnbull DM. Detection of cytochrome c oxidase activity and mitochondrial proteins in single cells. J Neurosci Methods 2009; 184:310-9. [PMID: 19723540 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2009.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2009] [Revised: 08/24/2009] [Accepted: 08/25/2009] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Cytochrome c oxidase or mitochondrial respiratory chain complex IV is where over 90% of oxygen is consumed. The relationship between complex IV activity and mitochondrial proteins, which provides a guide to understanding the mechanisms in primary mitochondrial disorders, has been determined by histochemistry (activity) and immunohistochemistry in serial sections. In the central nervous system (CNS), mitochondrial activity and immunoreactivity have been determined in populations of cells in serial sections as capturing cells in more than one section is difficult. In this report we describe a method to determine complex IV activity in relation to mitochondrial proteins at a single cell level in the CNS. We performed complex IV histochemistry and immunohistochemistry consecutively in snap frozen sections. Although the product of complex IV histochemistry reduces the sensitivity of standard immunohistochemistry (secondary antibody and ABC method) the biotin-free Menapath polymer detection system (A. Menarini Diagnostics, Wokingham, UK) enables mitochondrial proteins to be detected following complex IV histochemistry. The co-occurring chromogens may then be separately visualised and analysed using multi-spectral imaging (Nuance system CRi, Woburn, MA). Our technique is applicable for exploring mitochondrial defects within single cells in a variety of CNS disorders and animal models of those diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Mahad
- Mitochondrial Research Group, Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle University, Framlington Road, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK.
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Zhao YY, Zhao YD, Mirza MK, Huang JH, Potula HHSK, Vogel SM, Brovkovych V, Yuan JXJ, Wharton J, Malik AB. Persistent eNOS activation secondary to caveolin-1 deficiency induces pulmonary hypertension in mice and humans through PKG nitration. J Clin Invest 2009; 119:2009-18. [PMID: 19487814 DOI: 10.1172/jci33338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 227] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2007] [Accepted: 04/08/2009] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is an unremitting disease defined by a progressive increase in pulmonary vascular resistance leading to right-sided heart failure. Using mice with genetic deletions of caveolin 1 (Cav1) and eNOS (Nos3), we demonstrate here that chronic eNOS activation secondary to loss of caveolin-1 can lead to PH. Consistent with a role for eNOS in the pathogenesis of PH, the pulmonary vascular remodeling and PH phenotype of Cav1-/- mice were absent in Cav1-/-Nos3-/- mice. Further, treatment of Cav1-/- mice with either MnTMPyP (a superoxide scavenger) or l-NAME (a NOS inhibitor) reversed their pulmonary vascular pathology and PH phenotype. Activation of eNOS in Cav1-/- lungs led to the impairment of PKG activity through tyrosine nitration. Moreover, the PH phenotype in Cav1-/- lungs could be rescued by overexpression of PKG-1. The clinical relevance of the data was indicated by the observation that lung tissue from patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension demonstrated increased eNOS activation and PKG nitration and reduced caveolin-1 expression. Together, these data show that loss of caveolin-1 leads to hyperactive eNOS and subsequent tyrosine nitration-dependent impairment of PKG activity, which results in PH. Thus, targeting of PKG nitration represents a potential novel therapeutic strategy for the treatment of PH.
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Affiliation(s)
- You-Yang Zhao
- Department of Pharmacology and 2Center for Lung and Vascular Biology, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
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42
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Zhao YY, Zhao YD, Mirza MK, Huang JH, Potula HHSK, Vogel SM, Brovkovych V, Yuan JXJ, Wharton J, Malik AB. Persistent eNOS activation secondary to caveolin-1 deficiency induces pulmonary hypertension in mice and humans through PKG nitration. J Clin Invest 2009. [PMID: 19487814 DOI: 10.1172/jci.33338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is an unremitting disease defined by a progressive increase in pulmonary vascular resistance leading to right-sided heart failure. Using mice with genetic deletions of caveolin 1 (Cav1) and eNOS (Nos3), we demonstrate here that chronic eNOS activation secondary to loss of caveolin-1 can lead to PH. Consistent with a role for eNOS in the pathogenesis of PH, the pulmonary vascular remodeling and PH phenotype of Cav1-/- mice were absent in Cav1-/-Nos3-/- mice. Further, treatment of Cav1-/- mice with either MnTMPyP (a superoxide scavenger) or l-NAME (a NOS inhibitor) reversed their pulmonary vascular pathology and PH phenotype. Activation of eNOS in Cav1-/- lungs led to the impairment of PKG activity through tyrosine nitration. Moreover, the PH phenotype in Cav1-/- lungs could be rescued by overexpression of PKG-1. The clinical relevance of the data was indicated by the observation that lung tissue from patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension demonstrated increased eNOS activation and PKG nitration and reduced caveolin-1 expression. Together, these data show that loss of caveolin-1 leads to hyperactive eNOS and subsequent tyrosine nitration-dependent impairment of PKG activity, which results in PH. Thus, targeting of PKG nitration represents a potential novel therapeutic strategy for the treatment of PH.
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Affiliation(s)
- You-Yang Zhao
- Department of Pharmacology and 2Center for Lung and Vascular Biology, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
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Ross-Inta CM, Zhang YF, Almendares A, Giulivi C. Threonine-deficient diets induced changes in hepatic bioenergetics. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2009; 296:G1130-9. [PMID: 19228885 PMCID: PMC2696218 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.90545.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Diets deficient in an indispensable amino acid are known to suppress food intake in rats. Few studies were focused at understanding how amino acid-deficient diets may elicit biochemical changes at the mitochondrial level. The goal of this study was to evaluate mitochondrial function in rats fed diets with 0.00, 0.18, 0.36, and 0.88% threonine (Thr) (set at 0, 30, 60, and 140% of Thr requirement for growth). Here, it is described for the first time that Thr-deficient diets induce a specific uncoupling of mitochondria in liver, especially with NADH-linked substrates, not observed in heart (except for Thr-devoid diet). The advantage of this situation would be to provide ATP to support growth and maintenance when high-quality protein food (or wealth of high-quality food in general) is available, whereas Thr-deficient diets (or deficient-quality protein food) promote the opposite, increasing mitochondrial uncoupling in liver. The uncoupling with NADH substrates would favor the use of nutrients as energy sources with higher FADH-to-NADH ratios, such as fat, minimizing the first irreversible NADH-dependent catabolism of many amino acids, including Thr, thus enhancing the use of the limiting amino acid for protein synthesis when a low quality protein source is available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine M. Ross-Inta
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California
| | - Yi-Fan Zhang
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California
| | - Andrew Almendares
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California
| | - Cecilia Giulivi
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California
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The mitochondrial pool of free amino acids reflects the composition of mitochondrial DNA-encoded proteins: indication of a post- translational quality control for protein synthesis. Biosci Rep 2009; 28:239-49. [PMID: 18636966 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20080090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria can synthesize a limited number of proteins encoded by mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA) by using their own biosynthetic machinery, whereas most of the proteins in mitochondria are imported from the cytosol. It could be hypothesized that the mitochondrial pool of amino acids follows the frequency of amino acids in mtDNA-encoded proteins or, alternatively, that the profile is the result of the participation of amino acids in pathways other than protein synthesis (e.g. haem biosynthesis and aminotransferase reactions). These hypotheses were tested by evaluating the pool of free amino acids and derivatives in highly-coupled purified liver mitochondria obtained from rats fed on a nutritionally adequate diet for growth. Our results indicated that the pool mainly reflects the amino acid composition of mtDNA-encoded proteins, suggesting that there is a post-translational control of protein synthesis. This conclusion was supported by the following findings: (i) correlation between the concentration of free amino acids in the matrix and the frequency of abundance of amino acids in mtDNA-encoded proteins; (ii) the similar ratios of essential-to-non-essential amino acids in mtDNA-encoded proteins and the mitochondrial pool of amino acids; and (iii), lack of a correlation between codon usage or tRNA levels and amino-acid concentrations. Quantitative information on the mammalian mitochondrial content of amino acids, such as that presented in the present study, along with functional studies, will help us to better understand the pathogenesis of mitochondrial diseases or the biochemical implications in mitochondrial metabolism.
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Koeck T, Willard B, Crabb JW, Kinter M, Stuehr DJ, Aulak KS. Glucose-mediated tyrosine nitration in adipocytes: targets and consequences. Free Radic Biol Med 2009; 46:884-92. [PMID: 19135148 PMCID: PMC2888280 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2008.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2008] [Revised: 12/03/2008] [Accepted: 12/11/2008] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Hyperglycemia, a key factor in insulin resistance and diabetic pathology, is associated with cellular oxidative stress that promotes oxidative protein modifications. We report that protein nitration is responsive to changes in glucose concentrations in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Alterations in the extent of tyrosine nitration as well as the cellular nitroproteome profile correlated tightly with changing glucose concentrations. The target proteins we identified are involved in fatty acid binding, cell signaling, protein folding, energy metabolism, antioxidant capacity, and membrane permeability. The nitration of adipocyte fatty acid binding protein (FABP4) at Tyr19 decreases, similar to phosphorylation, the binding of palmitic acid to the fatty acid-free protein. This potentially alters intracellular fatty acid transport, nuclear translocation of FABP4, and agonism of PPAR gamma. Our results suggest that protein tyrosine nitration may be a factor in obesity, insulin resistance, and the pathogenesis of diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Koeck
- Department of Pathobiology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44118, USA
- Corresponding authors. Fax: +1 216 444 8372. (T. Koeck), (K.S. Aulak)
| | - Belinda Willard
- Department of Cell Biology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - John W. Crabb
- Departments of Ophthalmic Research and Cell Biology, Cole Eye Institute and Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Mike Kinter
- Department of Cell Biology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH, USA
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Dennis J. Stuehr
- Department of Pathobiology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44118, USA
| | - Kulwant S. Aulak
- Department of Pathobiology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44118, USA
- Corresponding authors. Fax: +1 216 444 8372. (T. Koeck), (K.S. Aulak)
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Hemin–H2O2–NO2− induced protein oxidation and tyrosine nitration are different from those of SIN-1: A study on glutamate dehydrogenase nitrative/oxidative modification. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2009; 41:907-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2008.08.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2008] [Revised: 08/20/2008] [Accepted: 08/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Ceriello A, Ihnat MA, Thorpe JE. Clinical review 2: The "metabolic memory": is more than just tight glucose control necessary to prevent diabetic complications? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009; 94:410-5. [PMID: 19066300 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2008-1824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 275] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT The concept of a "metabolic memory," that is of diabetic vascular stresses persisting after glucose normalization, has been supported both in the laboratory and in the clinic and in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION Using PubMed, we searched for publications on diabetic micro- and macrovascular complications using terms such as persistence, prolongation, sustained, and "memory" and focusing on the mechanistic basis behind this metabolic memory. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS We found that as early as the mid-1980s this memory phenomenon was described in diabetic animals and isolated cells exposed to high glucose followed by normalized glucose and then, beginning around 2002, in results from large clinical trials such as the Diabetes Complications and Control Trial-Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications and the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study. Furthermore, mechanisms for propagating this memory appear focused on the nonenzymatic glycation of cellular proteins and lipids and on an excess of cellular reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, in particular originating at the level of glycated mitochondrial proteins and perhaps acting in concert with one another to maintain stress signaling independent of glucose levels. CONCLUSIONS The emergence of this metabolic memory suggests the need for early aggressive treatment aiming to "normalize" metabolic control together perhaps with the addition of agents which reduce cellular reactive species and glycation in order to minimize long-term diabetic complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Ceriello
- Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Coventry CV2 2DX, United Kingdom.
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Lee HM, Reed J, Greeley GH, Englander EW. Impaired mitochondrial respiration and protein nitration in the rat hippocampus after acute inhalation of combustion smoke. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2008; 235:208-15. [PMID: 19133281 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2008.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2008] [Revised: 12/03/2008] [Accepted: 12/04/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Survivors of massive inhalation of combustion smoke endure critical injuries, including lasting neurological complications. We have previously reported that acute inhalation of combustion smoke disrupts the nitric oxide homeostasis in the rat brain. In this study, we extend our findings and report that a 30-minute exposure of awake rats to ambient wood combustion smoke induces protein nitration in the rat hippocampus and that mitochondrial proteins are a sensitive nitration target in this setting. Mitochondria are central to energy metabolism and cellular signaling and are critical to proper cell function. Here, analyses of the mitochondrial proteome showed elevated protein nitration in the course of a 24-hour recovery following exposure to smoke. Mass spectrometry identification of several significantly nitrated mitochondrial proteins revealed diverse functions and involvement in central aspects of mitochondrial physiology. The nitrated proteins include the ubiquitous mitochondrial creatine kinase, F1-ATP synthase alpha subunit, dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (E3), succinate dehydrogenase Fp subunit, and voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC1) protein. Furthermore, acute exposure to combustion smoke significantly compromised the respiratory capacity of hippocampal mitochondria. Importantly, elevated protein nitration and reduced mitochondrial respiration in the hippocampus persisted beyond the time required for restoration of normal oxygen and carboxyhemoglobin blood levels after the cessation of exposure to smoke. Thus, the time frame for intensification of the various smoke-induced effects differs between blood and brain tissues. Taken together, our findings suggest that nitration of essential mitochondrial proteins may contribute to the reduction in mitochondrial respiratory capacity and underlie, in part, the brain pathophysiology after acute inhalation of combustion smoke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heung M Lee
- Department of Surgery, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77550, USA
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Protein nitration in placenta - functional significance. Placenta 2008; 29:985-94. [PMID: 18851882 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2008.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2008] [Revised: 08/29/2008] [Accepted: 09/03/2008] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Crucial roles of the placenta are disrupted in early and mid-trimester pregnancy loss, preeclampsia, eclampsia and intrauterine growth restriction. The pathophysiology of these disorders includes a relative hypoxia of the placenta, ischemia/reperfusion injury, an inflammatory response and oxidative stress. Reactive oxygen species including nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide and superoxide have been shown to participate in trophoblast invasion, regulation of placental vascular reactivity and other events. Superoxide, which regulates expression of redox sensitive genes, has been implicated in up-regulation of transcription factors, antioxidant production, angiogenesis, proliferation and matrix remodeling. When superoxide and nitric oxide are present in abundance, their interaction yields peroxynitrite a potent pro-oxidant, but also alters levels of nitric oxide, which in turn affect physiological functions. The peroxynitrite anion is extremely unstable thus evidence of its formation in vivo has been indirect via the occurrence of nitrated moieties including nitrated lipids and nitrotyrosine residues in proteins. Formation of 3-nitrotyrosine (protein nitration) is a "molecular fingerprint" of peroxynitrite formation. Protein nitration has been widely reported in a number of pathological states associated with inflammation but is reported to occur in normal physiology and is thought of as a prevalent, functionally relevant post-translational modification of proteins. Nitration of proteins can give either no effect, a gain or a loss of function. Nitration of a range of placental proteins is found in normal pregnancy but increased in pathologic pregnancies. Evidence is presented for nitration of placental signal transduction enzymes and transporters. The targets and extent of nitration of enzymes, receptors, transporters and structural proteins may markedly influence placental cellular function in both physiologic and pathologic settings.
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Gao L, Laude K, Cai H. Mitochondrial pathophysiology, reactive oxygen species, and cardiovascular diseases. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2008; 38:137-55, vi. [PMID: 18249246 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2007.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
This article discusses mitochondrial pathophysiology, reactive oxygen species, and cardiovascular diseases. Mitochondrial respiratory chains are responsible for energy metabolism/ATP production through the tricyclic antidepressant cycle, coupling of oxidative phosphorylation, and electron transfer. The mitochondrion produces reactive oxygen species as "side products" of respiration. The mitochondrial derived reactive oxygen species is involved in the pathogenesis of various clinical disorders including heart failure, hypoxia, ischemia/reperfusion injury, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, and the physiologic process of aging. Observational and mechanistical studies of these pathologic roles of mitochondria are discussed in depth in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Gao
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Cardiovascular Research Laboratories, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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