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Wang H, Jiang Q, Shen Y, Zhang L, Haacke EM, Ge Y, Qi S, Hu J. The capability of detecting small vessels beyond the conventional MRI sensitivity using iron-based contrast agent enhanced susceptibility weighted imaging. NMR IN BIOMEDICINE 2020; 33:e4256. [PMID: 32045957 DOI: 10.1002/nbm.4256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Revised: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 12/14/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Imaging brain microvasculature is important in cerebrovascular diseases. However, there is still a lack of non-invasive, non-radiation, and whole-body imaging techniques to investigate them. The aim of this study is to develop an ultra-small superparamagnetic iron oxide (USPIO) enhanced susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI) method for imaging micro-vasculature in both animal (~10 μm in rat) and human brain. We hypothesized that the USPIO-SWI technique could improve the detection sensitivity of the diameter of small subpixel vessels 10-fold compared with conventional MRI methods. Computer simulations were first performed with a double-cylinder digital model to investigate the theoretical basis for this hypothesis. The theoretical results were verified using in vitro phantom studies and in vivo rat MRI studies (n = 6) with corresponding ex vivo histological examinations. Additionally, in vivo human studies (n = 3) were carried out to demonstrate the translational power of the USPIO-SWI method. By directly comparing the small vessel diameters of an in vivo rat using USPIO-SWI with the small vessel diameters of the corresponding histological slide using laser scanning confocal microscopy, 13.3-fold and 19.9-fold increases in SWI apparent diameter were obtained with 5.6 mg Fe/kg and 16.8 mg Fe/kg ferumoxytol, respectively. The USPIO-SWI method exhibited its excellent ability to detect small vessels down to about 10 μm diameter in rat brain. The in vivo human study unveiled hidden arterioles and venules and demonstrated its potential in clinical practice. Theoretical modeling simulations and in vitro phantom studies also confirmed a more than 10-fold increase in the USPIO-SWI apparent diameter compared with the actual small vessel diameter size. It is feasible to use SWI blooming effects induced by USPIO to detect small vessels (down to 10 μm in diameter for rat brain), well beyond the spatial resolution limit of conventional MRI methods. The USPIO-SWI method demonstrates higher potential in cerebrovascular disease investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoyu Wang
- Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Quan Jiang
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Yimin Shen
- Department of Radiology, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Li Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Michigan
| | - E Mark Haacke
- Department of Radiology, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Yulin Ge
- Department of Radiology, New York University, New York, New York
| | - Shouliang Qi
- The Sino-Dutch Biomedical and Information Engineering School of Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
| | - Jiani Hu
- Department of Radiology, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan
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Boziki M, Polyzos SA, Deretzi G, Kazakos E, Katsinelos P, Doulberis M, Kotronis G, Giartza-Taxidou E, Laskaridis L, Tzivras D, Vardaka E, Kountouras C, Grigoriadis N, Thomann R, Kountouras J. A potential impact of Helicobacter pylori-related galectin-3 in neurodegeneration. Neurochem Int 2017; 113:137-151. [PMID: 29246761 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2017.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Revised: 12/03/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Neurodegeneration represents a component of the central nervous system (CNS) diseases pathogenesis, either as a disability primary source in the frame of prototype neurodegenerative disorders, or as a secondary effect, following inflammation, hypoxia or neurotoxicity. Galectins are members of the lectin superfamily, a group of endogenous glycan-binding proteins, able to interact with glycosylated receptors expressed by several immune cell types. Glycan-lectin interactions play critical roles in the living systems by involving and mediating a variety of biologically important normal and pathological processes, including cell-cell signaling shaping cell communication, proliferation and migration, immune responses and fertilization, host-pathogen interactions and diseases such as neurodegenerative disorders and tumors. This review focuses in the role of Galectin-3 in shaping responses of the immune system against microbial agents, and concretely, Helicobacter pylori (Hp), thereby potentiating effect of the microbe in areas distant from the ordinary site of colonization, like the CNS. We hereby postulate that gastrointestinal Hp alterations in terms of immune cell functional phenotype, cytokine and chemokine secretion, may trigger systemic responses, thereby conferring implications for remote processes susceptible in immunity disequilibrium, namely, the CNS inflammation and/or neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Boziki
- Department of Medicine, Second Medical Clinic, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Ippokration Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece; Department of Neurology, AHEPA University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Stergios A Polyzos
- Department of Medicine, Second Medical Clinic, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Ippokration Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Georgia Deretzi
- Department of Neurology, Multiple Sclerosis Unit, Papageorgiou Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Evangelos Kazakos
- Department of Medicine, Second Medical Clinic, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Ippokration Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Panagiotis Katsinelos
- Department of Medicine, Second Medical Clinic, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Ippokration Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Michael Doulberis
- Department of Medicine, Second Medical Clinic, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Ippokration Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece; Department of Internal Medicine, Bürgerspital Solothurn, Solothurn, Switzerland
| | - Georgios Kotronis
- Department of Medicine, Second Medical Clinic, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Ippokration Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Evaggelia Giartza-Taxidou
- Department of Medicine, Second Medical Clinic, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Ippokration Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Leonidas Laskaridis
- Department of Neurology, AHEPA University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Dimitri Tzivras
- Department of Medicine, Second Medical Clinic, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Ippokration Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Elisabeth Vardaka
- Department of Medicine, Second Medical Clinic, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Ippokration Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Constantinos Kountouras
- Department of Medicine, Second Medical Clinic, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Ippokration Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Nikolaos Grigoriadis
- Department of Neurology, AHEPA University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Robert Thomann
- Department of Internal Medicine, Bürgerspital Solothurn, Solothurn, Switzerland
| | - Jannis Kountouras
- Department of Medicine, Second Medical Clinic, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Ippokration Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece.
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Conforti R, Cirillo M, Sardaro A, Caiazzo G, Negro A, Paccone A, Sacco R, Sparaco M, Gallo A, Lavorgna L, Tedeschi G, Cirillo S. Dilated perivascular spaces and fatigue: is there a link? Magnetic resonance retrospective 3Tesla study. Neuroradiology 2016; 58:859-66. [PMID: 27423658 DOI: 10.1007/s00234-016-1711-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Accepted: 05/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Fatigue (F) is a common, inexplicable, and disabling symptom in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients. The purpose of this study was to evaluate a possible correlation between fatigue and morpho-volumetric features and site of dilated perivascular spaces (dPS), visible on 3T magnetic resonance (MR) in fatigued multiple sclerosis patients (FMS). METHODS We studied 82 relapsing remitting (RR) FMS patients and 43 HC, matched for age, sex, and education. F was assessed by the Fatigue Severity Scale (FSS). To evaluate a possible correlation between degree of F and characteristics of dPS, patients were divided in two groups: more (mFMS) (FSS ≥ 5; n = 30) and less fatigued (lFMS) (FSS ≥ 4; n = 52), compared to a matched healthy control (HC) subject group. The MR study was performed with 3T scanner by SpinEcho T1, Fast-SpinEcho DP-T2, FLAIR, and 3D FSPGR T1 sequences. dPS volumes were measured with Medical Image Processing Analysis and Visualization (MIPAV); Global Cerebral Atrophy (GCA), expressed as Brain Parenchymal Fraction (BPF), was assessed by FSL SIENAX. RESULTS The t test showed significantly increased dPS number (p = 0.021) in FMS patients (mFMS p = 0.0024 and lFMS p = 0.033) compared to HC. Pearson correlation revealed a significant correlation between dPS number and FSS (r = 0.208 p = 0.051). Furthermore, the chi-squared test confirms the intragroup (HC, mFMS, lFMS) differences about dPS location (p = 0.01) and size (p = 0.0001). CONCLUSION Our study confirms that PS in MS patients presents with different volumetric and site characteristics as compared to HC; moreover, F severity significantly correlates with dPS number, site, and size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata Conforti
- Neuroradiology Service, Department of Radiology, Second University of Naples, C/o CTO Viale dei Colli Aminei 21, Naples, Italy
| | - Mario Cirillo
- Neuroradiology Service, Department of Radiology, Second University of Naples, C/o CTO Viale dei Colli Aminei 21, Naples, Italy
| | - Angela Sardaro
- Neuroradiology Service, Department of Radiology, Second University of Naples, C/o CTO Viale dei Colli Aminei 21, Naples, Italy.
| | - Giuseppina Caiazzo
- MRI Research Center SUN-FISM, Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Alberto Negro
- Neuroradiology Service, Department of Radiology, Second University of Naples, C/o CTO Viale dei Colli Aminei 21, Naples, Italy
| | - Antonella Paccone
- MRI Research Center SUN-FISM, Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Rosaria Sacco
- Department of Neurology, Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | | | - Antonio Gallo
- Department of Neurology, Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Luigi Lavorgna
- Department of Neurology, Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | | | - Sossio Cirillo
- Neuroradiology Service, Department of Radiology, Second University of Naples, C/o CTO Viale dei Colli Aminei 21, Naples, Italy
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Abad C, Jayaram B, Becquet L, Wang Y, O’Dorisio MS, Waschek JA, Tan YV. VPAC1 receptor (Vipr1)-deficient mice exhibit ameliorated experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, with specific deficits in the effector stage. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13:169. [PMID: 27357191 PMCID: PMC4928347 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-016-0626-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2016] [Accepted: 06/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and pituitary adenylyl cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) are two highly homologous neuropeptides. In vitro and ex vivo experiments repeatedly demonstrate that these peptides exert pronounced immunomodulatory (primarily anti-inflammatory) actions which are mediated by common VPAC1 and VPAC2 G protein-coupled receptors. In agreement, we have shown that mice deficient in PACAP ligand or VPAC2 receptors exhibit exacerbated experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). However, we observed that VIP-deficient mice are unexpectedly resistant to EAE, suggesting a requirement for this peptide at some stage of disease development. Here, we investigated the involvement of VPAC1 in the development of EAE using a VPAC1-deficient mouse model. METHODS EAE was induced in wild-type (WT) and VPAC1 knockout (KO) mice using myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein 35-55 (MOG35-55), and clinical scores were assessed continuously over 30 days. Immune responses in the spinal cords were determined by histology, real-time PCR and immunofluorescence, and in the draining lymph nodes by antigen-recall assays. The contribution of VPAC1 expression in the immune system to the development of EAE was evaluated by means of adoptive transfer and bone marrow chimera experiments. In other experiments, VPAC1 receptor analogs were given to WT mice. RESULTS MOG35-55-induced EAE was ameliorated in VPAC1 KO mice compared to WT mice. The EAE-resistant phenotype of VPAC1 KO mice correlated with reduced central nervous system (CNS) histopathology and cytokine expression in the spinal cord. The immunization phase of EAE appeared to be unimpaired because lymph node cells from EAE-induced VPAC1 KO mice stimulated in vitro with MOG exhibited robust proliferative and Th1/Th17 responses. Moreover, lymph node and spleen cells from KO mice were fully capable of inducing EAE upon transfer to WT recipients. In contrast, WT cells from MOG-immunized mice did not transfer the disease when administered to VPAC1 KO recipients, implicating a defect in the effector phase of the disease. Bone marrow chimera studies suggested that the resistance of VPAC1-deficient mice was only minimally dependent on the expression of this receptor in the immunogenic/hematopoietic compartment. Consistent with this, impaired spinal cord inductions of several chemokine mRNAs were observed in VPAC1 KO mice. Finally, treatment of WT mice with the VPAC1 receptor antagonist PG97-269 before, but not after, EAE induction mimicked the clinical phenotype of VPAC1 KO mice. CONCLUSIONS VPAC1 gene loss impairs the development of EAE in part by preventing an upregulation of CNS chemokines and invasion of inflammatory cells into the CNS. Use of VPAC1 antagonists in WT mice prior to EAE induction also support a critical role for VPAC1 signaling for the development of EAE.
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MESH Headings
- Adoptive Transfer
- Animals
- Central Nervous System/immunology
- Central Nervous System/metabolism
- Central Nervous System/pathology
- Cytokines/genetics
- Cytokines/metabolism
- Disease Models, Animal
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/chemically induced
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/complications
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/genetics
- Female
- Freund's Adjuvant/toxicity
- Laminin/metabolism
- Lymph Nodes/pathology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Myelin-Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein/toxicity
- Peptide Fragments/toxicity
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Receptors, Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide, Type I/deficiency
- Receptors, Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide, Type I/genetics
- Spinal Cord/metabolism
- Spinal Cord/pathology
- Th1 Cells/metabolism
- Th1 Cells/pathology
- Th17 Cells/metabolism
- Th17 Cells/pathology
- Time Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- Catalina Abad
- />Department of Psychiatry, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
- />Inserm U905, Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), University of Rouen, Normandy, France
| | - Bhavaani Jayaram
- />Department of Psychiatry, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Laurine Becquet
- />Inserm U905, Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), University of Rouen, Normandy, France
| | - Yuki Wang
- />Department of Psychiatry, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - M Sue O’Dorisio
- />Department of Pediatrics and Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, RJ and LA Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, 52242 IA USA
| | - James A. Waschek
- />Department of Psychiatry, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Yossan-Var Tan
- />Department of Psychiatry, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
- />Inserm U905, Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), University of Rouen, Normandy, France
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Smith KA, Lavin P, Chamoun R. Neuroendoscopic treatment of symptomatic giant Virchow-Robin spaces. Surg Neurol Int 2015; 6:120. [PMID: 26257981 PMCID: PMC4521222 DOI: 10.4103/2152-7806.161240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 05/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Virchow–Robin spaces (VRS) or perivascular spaces are interstitial cystic spaces surrounding the vasculature of brain parenchyma and course from the subarachnoid space. Small VRS (<2 mm) appear in all age groups, but can enlarge and be confused with other lesions like cystic neoplasms. These enlarged VRS are termed giant tumefactive perivascular spaces (GRPVS). Case Description: We present the case of a 50-year-old male who presents with right eye pain, blurred vision, headache, and gait imbalance. He was diagnosed with GRPVS and underwent an endoscopic third ventriculostomy and cyst fenestration. Postoperative imaging showed a decrease in size of the ventricular system with evidence of flow through the aqueduct and ventriculostomy. Brainstem VRS cysts decreased in size. Conclusion: Unlike the other small number of case reports, this patient is unique in his age of presentation and successful endoscopic method of treatment. The endoscopic approach provided great exposure and adequate access to the lesions. Clinically, symptoms improved, cyst size decreased, and need for permanent shunt placement was averted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle Anthony Smith
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Paul Lavin
- School of Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Roukoz Chamoun
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
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Eluvathingal Muttikkal TJ, Raghavan P. Spontaneous regression and recurrence of a tumefactive perivascular space. Neuroradiol J 2014; 27:195-202. [PMID: 24750709 DOI: 10.15274/nrj-2014-10034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Perivascular spaces can occasionally appear mass-like (tumefactive or giant perivascular space), and can be associated with clinical symptoms. Spontaneous regression of a tumefactive perivascular space is a very rare phenomenon with only two reported cases in the English medical literature. Spontaneous regression of a tumefactive perivascular space along with resolution of clinical symptoms, followed by spontaneous recurrence associated with symptom recurrence is an extremely rare occurrence, which to the best of our knowledge, has not been reported in the medical literature. We describe a case of spontaneous regression of a tumefactive perivascular space, three years after its initial detection, followed by spontaneous recurrence after two years.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Prashant Raghavan
- Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine; Baltimore, MD, USA
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Differential effects of three canonical Toxoplasma strains on gene expression in human neuroepithelial cells. Infect Immun 2010; 79:1363-73. [PMID: 21149591 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00947-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Strain type is one of the key factors suspected to play a role in determining the outcome of Toxoplasma infection. In this study, we examined the transcriptional profile of human neuroepithelioma cells in response to representative strains of Toxoplasma by using microarray analysis to characterize the strain-specific host cell response. The study of neural cells is of interest in light of the ability of Toxoplasma to infect the brain and to establish persistent infection within the central nervous system. We found that the extents of the expression changes varied considerably among the three strains. Neuroepithelial cells infected with Toxoplasma type I exhibited the highest level of differential gene expression, whereas type II-infected cells had a substantially smaller number of genes which were differentially expressed. Cells infected with type III exhibited intermediate effects on gene expression. The three strains also differed in the individual genes and gene pathways which were altered following cellular infection. For example, gene ontology (GO) analysis indicated that type I infection largely affects genes related to the central nervous system, while type III infection largely alters genes which affect nucleotide metabolism; type II infection does not alter the expression of a clearly defined set of genes. Moreover, Ingenuity Pathways Analysis (IPA) suggests that the three lineages differ in the ability to manipulate their host; e.g., they employ different strategies to avoid, deflect, or subvert host defense mechanisms. These observed differences may explain some of the variation in the neurobiological effects of different strains of Toxoplasma on infected individuals.
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Mesencephalic enlarged Virchow-Robin spaces in a 6-year-old boy: a case-based update. Childs Nerv Syst 2010; 26:1155-60. [PMID: 20437240 DOI: 10.1007/s00381-010-1164-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2010] [Accepted: 04/22/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Perivascular spaces or Virchow-Robin spaces are normal anatomical structures within the brain, typically less than 5 mm in diameter. Rarely, they can reach much larger sizes and adopt bizarre single or multi-cystic configurations, as was the case in the patient that we report on. When there is such markedly gross dilatation, the phenomenon is known as Giant or tumefactive perivascular space enlargement. CASE REPORT We report a 6-year-old boy with a multi-cystic mesencephalic lesions presenting with obstructive hydrocephalus secondary to obstruction of the aqueduct of Sylvius due to tumefactive dilatation of Virchow-Robin spaces. The patient underwent an endoscopic fenestration and biopsy of the cystic portion abutting into the ventricular system. CONCLUSION In this paper, we discuss the phenomenon of perivascular (Virchow-Robin) spaces and their treatment options and review the relevant literature. To our knowledge, this is the first pediatric case of tumefactive dilatation of the Virchow-Robin spaces causing obstructive hydrocephalus that were directly fenestrated using neuroendoscopy.
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Deretzi G, Kountouras J, Grigoriadis N, Zavos C, Chatzigeorgiou S, Koutlas E, Tsiptsios I. From the "little brain" gastrointestinal infection to the "big brain" neuroinflammation: a proposed fast axonal transport pathway involved in multiple sclerosis. Med Hypotheses 2009; 73:781-7. [PMID: 19467574 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2009.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2009] [Revised: 04/04/2009] [Accepted: 04/08/2009] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The human central nervous system (CNS) is targeted by different pathogens which, apart from pathogens' intranasal inoculation or trafficking into the brain through infected blood cells, may use a distinct pathway to bypass the blood-brain barrier by using the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) retrograde axonal transport through sensory or motor fibres. The recent findings regarding the enteric nervous system (often called the "little brain") similarities with CNS and GIT axonal transport of infections resulting in CNS neuroinflammation are mainly reviewed in this article. We herein propose that the GIT is the vulnerable area through which pathogens (such as Helicobacter pylori) may influence the brain and induce multiple sclerosis pathologies, mainly via the fast axonal transport by the afferent neurones connecting the GIT to brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Deretzi
- Department of Neurology, Papageorgiou Regional General Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
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