The dietary flavonoid Kaempferol mediates anti-inflammatory responses via the Src, Syk, IRAK1, and IRAK4 molecular targets

Upregulation of NK cell activity, cytokine expression, and NF-κB pathway by ginsenoside concentrates from Panax ginseng berries in healthy mice and macrophage cell lines

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panax ginseng (P. ginseng) C.A. Meyer. Has been studied for decades for its various biological activities, especially in terms of immune-regulatory properties. Traditionally, it has been known that root, leaves, and fruits of P. ginseng were eaten for improving body's Qi and homeostasis. Also, these were used to protect body from various types of infectious diseases. However, molecular mechanisms of immunomodulatory activities of ginseng berries have not been systemically studied as often as other parts of the plant.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this research is to discover the regulatory effects of P. ginseng berries, more importantly, their ginsenosides, on innate immune responses and to elucidate the molecular mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ginseng berry concentrate (GBC) was orally injected into BALB/c mice for 30 days, and spleens were extracted for evaluation of immune-regulatory effects. Murine macrophage RAW264.7 cells were used for detailed molecular mechanism studies. Splenic natural killer (NK) cells were isolated using the magnetic-activated cell sorting (MACS) system, and the cytotoxic activity of isolated NK cells was measured using a lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release assay. The splenic immune cell population was determined by flow-cytometry. NF-κB promoter activity was assessed by in vitro luciferase assay. Expression of inflammatory proteins and cytokines of the spleen and RAW264.7 cells were evaluated using western blotting and real-time PCR, respectively.

RESULTS

The GBC enhanced cytotoxic activity of NK cells and the immune-regulation-related splenic cell population. Moreover, GBC promoted NF-κB promoter activity and stimulated the NF-κB signaling cascade. In spleen and RAW264.7 cells, expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines was increased upon GBC application, while expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines decreased.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that P. ginseng berry can stimulate innate immune responses and help maintain a balanced immune condition, mostly due to the action of its key ginsenoside Re, along with other protopanaxadiol- and protopanaxatriol-type ginsenosides. Such finding will provide a new insight into the field of well-being diet research as well as non-chemical immune modulator, by providing nature-derived and plant-based bioactive materials.

Targeting NLRP3 Inflammasomes: A Trojan Horse Strategy for Intervention in Neurological Disorders

Recently, a growing focus has been on identifying critical mechanisms in neurological diseases that trigger a cascade of events, making it easier to target them effectively. One such mechanism is the inflammasome, an essential component of the immune response system that plays a crucial role in disease progression. The NLRP3 (nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine-rich repeat, and pyrin domain containing 3) inflammasome is a subcellular multiprotein complex that is widely expressed in the central nervous system (CNS) and can be activated by a variety of external and internal stimuli. When activated, the NLRP3 inflammasome triggers the production of proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-18 (IL-18) and facilitates rapid cell death by assembling the inflammasome. These cytokines initiate inflammatory responses through various downstream signaling pathways, leading to damage to neurons. Therefore, the NLRP3 inflammasome is considered a significant contributor to the development of neuroinflammation. To counter the damage caused by NLRP3 inflammasome activation, researchers have investigated various interventions such as small molecules, antibodies, and cellular and gene therapy to regulate inflammasome activity. For instance, recent studies indicate that substances like micro-RNAs (e.g., miR-29c and mR-190) and drugs such as melatonin can reduce neuronal damage and suppress neuroinflammation through NLRP3. Furthermore, the transplantation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells resulted in a significant reduction in the levels of pyroptosis-related proteins NLRP3, caspase-1, IL-1β, and IL-18. However, it would benefit future research to have an in-depth review of the pharmacological and biological interventions targeting inflammasome activity. Therefore, our review of current evidence demonstrates that targeting NLRP3 inflammasomes could be a pivotal approach for intervention in neurological disorders.

Kaempferol: Paving the path for advanced treatments in aging-related diseases

Aging-related diseases (ARDs) are a major global health concern, and the development of effective therapies is urgently needed. Kaempferol, a flavonoid found in several plants, has emerged as a promising candidate for ameliorating ARDs. This comprehensive review examines Kaempferol's chemical properties, safety profile, and pharmacokinetics, and highlights its potential therapeutic utility against ARDs. Kaempferol's therapeutic potential is underpinned by its distinctive chemical structure, which confers antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties. Kaempferol counteracts reactive oxygen species (ROS) and modulates crucial cellular pathways, thereby combating oxidative stress and inflammation, hallmarks of ARDs. Kaempferol's low toxicity and wide safety margins, as demonstrated by preclinical and clinical studies, further substantiate its therapeutic potential. Compelling evidence supports Kaempferol's substantial potential in addressing ARDs through several mechanisms, notably anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic actions. Kaempferol exhibits a versatile neuroprotective effect by modulating various proinflammatory signaling pathways, including NF-kB, p38MAPK, AKT, and the β-catenin cascade. Additionally, it hinders the formation and aggregation of beta-amyloid protein and regulates brain-derived neurotrophic factors. In terms of its anticancer potential, kaempferol acts through diverse pathways, inducing apoptosis, arresting the cell cycle at the G2/M phase, suppressing epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related markers, and affecting the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B signaling pathways. Subsequent studies should focus on refining dosage regimens, exploring innovative delivery systems, and conducting comprehensive clinical trials to translate these findings into effective therapeutic applications.

Efficacy of Tounongsan decoction on pyogenic liver abscess: network pharmacology and clinical trial validation

OBJECTIVE

To elucidate the molecular mechanisms governing the effect of Tounongsan decoction (, TNS) on the pyogenic liver abscess.

METHODS

Based on oral bioavailability and drug-likeness, the main active components of TNS were screened using the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology platform. The GeneCard and UniProt databases were used to establish a database of pyogenic liver abscess targets. The interactive network map of drug-ingredients-target-disease was constructed using Cytoscape software (Version 3.7.2). A protein-protein interaction network was constructed using the STRING database, and the related protein interaction relationships were analyzed. biological process of gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses were performed for the core targets. Finally, a clinical trial was performed to verify the reliability of the network pharmacology.

RESULTS

Forty active components of TNS decoction were obtained, and 61 potential targets and 11 proteins were identified. Pathways involved in the treatment of pyogenic liver abscess include the phosphatidylinositide 3-kinases-protein kinase B (PI3K-AKT), advanced glycation end products-receptor for advanced glycation end products (AGE-RAGE), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signaling pathways. The results of network pharmacology analysis combined with clinical trials validated that TNS decoction could alleviate the inflammatory response of pyogenic liver abscesses by decreasing interleukin 6 (IL-6) levels.

CONCLUSIONS

TNS decoction has the characteristics of being multi-system, multi-component, and multi-target. Active ingredients in TNS, such as quercetin, kaempferol, fisetin, and β-sitosterol, have strong potential to be candidate drugs for treating pyogenic liver abscesses. The possible mechanism of TSN decoction includes regulating immune and inflammatory responses and reducing IL-6 production to control inflammatory development.

Kaempferol Alleviates Mitochondrial Damage by Reducing Mitochondrial Reactive Oxygen Species Production in Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Prostate Organoids

Common prostate diseases such as prostatitis and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) have a high incidence at any age. Cellular stresses, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and chronic inflammation, are implicated in prostate enlargement and cancer progression and development. Kaempferol is a flavonoid found in abundance in various plants, including broccoli and spinach, and has been reported to exhibit positive biological activities, such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In the present study, we introduced prostate organoids to investigate the protective effects of kaempferol against various cellular stresses. The levels of COX-2, iNOS, p-IκB, a pro-inflammatory cytokine, and ROS were increased by LPS treatment but reversed by kaempferol treatment. Kaempferol activated the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2(Nrf2)-related pathway and enhanced the mitochondrial quality control proteins PGC-1α, PINK1, Parkin, and Beclin. The increase in mitochondrial ROS and oxygen consumption induced by LPS was stabilized by kaempferol treatment. First, our study used prostate organoids as a novel evaluation platform. Secondly, it was demonstrated that kaempferol could alleviate the mitochondrial damage in LPS-induced induced prostate organoids by reducing the production of mitochondrial ROS.

Targeting NF-κB pathway for the anti-inflammatory potential of Bhadradarvadi kashayam on stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages

Macrophage-arbitrated inflammation is associated with the regulation of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Low risk and better efficiency are steered herbal drugs more credible than conventional medicines in RA management. Bhadradarvadi (BDK) concoction has been traditionally used for rheumatism in Ayurveda. However, the mechanisms at the molecular level are still elusive. This study was designed to inspect the process of immunomodulation and anti-inflammatory properties of BDK in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages for the first time. BDK concoction was prepared and evaluated with the stimulated murine macrophage-like RAW 264.7 cell lines. TNF-α, IL6, and PGE2 were quantified by ELISA. The normalization of the fold change in the expression of the target gene mRNA was done by comparing the values of the β-actin housekeeping gene using the 2-ΔΔCt comparative cycle threshold. The expression of TNF-α, IL6, iNOS, and COX-2 in the RAW 264.7 macrophage cells was analyzed using flow cytometry. Our results showed that BDK (150-350 μl/ml) treatment significantly decreased the inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, and IL-6) and inflammatory mediators (PGE2) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. The pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) expression, inflammatory enzymes (iNOS and COX-2), and NF-κBp65 were significantly downregulated at transcriptome level in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. The flow cytometry analysis revealed that BDK treatment diminished the TNF-α, IL-6, iNOS, and COX-2 expression at the proteome level, as well as obstruction of NF-κB-p65 nuclear translocation was observed by immunofluorescence analysis in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. Collectively, BDK can intensely augment the anti-inflammatory activities via inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway trigger for treating autoimmune disorders including RA.

Anti-inflammatory activities of flavonoid derivates

Background and purpose

Flavonoids are a group of phytochemicals found abundantly in various plants. Scientific evidence has revealed that flavonoids display potential biological activities, including their ability to alleviate inflammation. This activity is closely related to their action in blocking the inflammatory cascade and inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory factors. However, as flavonoids typically have poor bioavailability and pharmacokinetic profile, it is quite challenging to establish these compounds as a drug. Nevertheless, progressive advancements in drug delivery systems, particularly in nanotechnology, have shown promising approaches to overcome such challenges.

Review approach

This narrative review provides an overview of scientific knowledge about the mechanism of action of flavonoids in the mitigation of inflammatory reaction prior to delivering a comprehensive discussion about the opportunity of the nanotechnology-based delivery system in the preparation of the flavonoid-based drug.

Key results

Various studies conducted in silico, in vitro, in vivo, and clinical trials have deciphered that the anti-inflammatory activities of flavonoids are closely linked to their ability to modulate various biochemical mediators, enzymes, and signalling pathways involved in the inflammatory processes. This compound could be encapsulated in nanotechnology platforms to increase the solubility, bioavailability, and pharmacological activity of flavonoids as well as reduce the toxic effects of these compounds.

Conclusion

In Summary, we conclude that flavonoids and their derivates have given promising results in their development as new anti-inflammatory drug candidates, especially if they formulate in nanoparticles.

Regulatory Roles of Flavonoids in Caspase-11 Non-Canonical Inflammasome-Mediated Inflammatory Responses and Diseases

Inflammasomes are multiprotein complexes that activate inflammatory responses by inducing pyroptosis and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Along with many previous studies on inflammatory responses and diseases induced by canonical inflammasomes, an increasing number of studies have demonstrated that non-canonical inflammasomes, such as mouse caspase-11 and human caspase-4 inflammasomes, are emerging key players in inflammatory responses and various diseases. Flavonoids are natural bioactive compounds found in plants, fruits, vegetables, and teas and have pharmacological properties in a wide range of human diseases. Many studies have successfully demonstrated that flavonoids play an anti-inflammatory role and ameliorate many inflammatory diseases by inhibiting canonical inflammasomes. Others have demonstrated the anti-inflammatory roles of flavonoids in inflammatory responses and various diseases, with a new mechanism by which flavonoids inhibit non-canonical inflammasomes. This review discusses recent studies that have investigated the anti-inflammatory roles and pharmacological properties of flavonoids in inflammatory responses and diseases induced by non-canonical inflammasomes and further provides insight into developing flavonoid-based therapeutics as potential nutraceuticals against human inflammatory diseases.

Regulatory mechanisms of kaempferol on iNOS expression in RINm5F β-cells under exposure to interleukin-1β

Proinflammatory cytokines and NO play crucial roles in islet β-cells dysfunction. Though anti-inflammatory effects of kaempferol were revealed in several studies, the detailed mechanisms remain unclear. This study explored protective actions of kaempferol in interleukin-1β-treated RINm5F β-cells. Kaempferol significantly inhibited NO generation, iNOS protein, and iNOS mRNA level. Promoter study, EMSA, and κB-dependent reporter assay showed that kaempferol inhibited NF-κB-mediated iNOS gene transcription. Also, we found that kaempferol accelerated iNOS mRNA instability in iNOS 3'-UTR construct and actinomycin D chase studies. Additionally, kaempferol reduced iNOS protein stability in cycloheximide chase study and it inhibited NOS enzyme activity. Kaempferol inhibited ROS generation and preserved cell viability, and it improved insulin release. These findings suggest that kaempferol appears to be helpful in protecting islet β-cells, thereby supports kaempferol as a supplementary therapeutic candidate in inhibiting the incidence and progression of diabetes mellitus.

Hyptis obtusiflora C. Presl ex Benth Methanolic Extract Exhibits Anti-Inflammatory and Anti-Gastritis Activities via Suppressing AKT/NF-κB Pathway

Inflammation is an indispensable part of the human body's self-defense mechanism against external stimuli. The interactions between Toll-like receptors and microbial components trigger the innate immune system via NF-κB signaling, which regulates the overall cell signaling including inflammatory responses and immune modulations. The anti-inflammatory effects of Hyptis obtusiflora C. Presl ex Benth, which has been used as a home remedy for gastrointestinal disorders and skin disease in rural areas of Latin America, have not yet been studied. Here, we investigate the medicinal properties of Hyptis obtusiflora C. Presl ex Benth methanol extract (Ho-ME) for inflammatory response suppression. Nitric oxide secretion in RAW264.7 cells triggered by TLR2, 3, or 4 agonists was reduced by Ho-ME. Reduction of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, and interleukin (IL)-1b mRNA expression was observed. Decreased transcriptional activity in TRIF- and MyD88-overexpressing HEK293T cells was detected with a luciferase assay. Additionally, serially downregulated phosphorylation of kinase in the NF-κB pathway by Ho-ME was discovered in lipopolysaccharide-treated RAW264.7 cells. Together with the overexpression of its constructs, AKT was identified as a target protein of Ho-ME, and its binding domains were reaffirmed. Moreover, Ho-ME exerted gastroprotective effects in an acute gastritis mouse model generated by the administration of HCl and EtOH. In conclusion, Ho-ME downregulates inflammation via AKT targeting in the NF-κB pathway, and the combined results support Hyptis obtusiflora as a new candidate anti-inflammatory drug.

Hepatoprotective Effect of Kaempferol: A Review of the Dietary Sources, Bioavailability, Mechanisms of Action, and Safety

The liver is the body's most critical organ that performs vital functions. Hepatic disorders can affect the physiological and biochemical functions of the body. Hepatic disorder is a condition that describes the damage to cells, tissues, structures, and functions of the liver, which can cause fibrosis and ultimately result in cirrhosis. These diseases include hepatitis, ALD, NAFLD, liver fibrosis, liver cirrhosis, hepatic failure, and HCC. Hepatic diseases are caused by cell membrane rupture, immune response, altered drug metabolism, accumulation of reactive oxygen species, lipid peroxidation, and cell death. Despite the breakthrough in modern medicine, there is no drug that is effective in stimulating the liver function, offering complete protection, and aiding liver cell regeneration. Furthermore, some drugs can create adverse side effects, and natural medicines are carefully selected as new therapeutic strategies for managing liver disease. Kaempferol is a polyphenol contained in many vegetables, fruits, and herbal remedies. We use it to manage various diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, and cancers. Kaempferol is a potent antioxidant and has anti-inflammatory effects, which therefore possesses hepatoprotective properties. The previous research has studied the hepatoprotective effect of kaempferol in various hepatotoxicity protocols, including acetaminophen (APAP)-induced hepatotoxicity, ALD, NAFLD, CCl₄, HCC, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute liver injury. Therefore, this report aims to provide a recent brief overview of the literature concerning the hepatoprotective effect of kaempferol and its possible molecular mechanism of action. It also provides the most recent literature on kaempferol's chemical structure, natural source, bioavailability, and safety.

Therapeutic Importance of Kaempferol in the Treatment of Cancer through the Modulation of Cell Signalling Pathways

Plant-derived flavonoids are considered natural nontoxic chemo-preventers and have been widely studied for cancer treatment in recent decades. Mostly all flavonoid compounds show significant anti-inflammatory, anticancer and antioxidant properties. Kaempferol (Kmp) is a well-studied compound and exhibits remarkable anticancer and antioxidant potential. Kmp can regulate various cancer-related processes and activities such as cell cycle, oxidative stress, apoptosis, proliferation, metastasis, and angiogenesis. The anti-cancer properties of Kmp primarily occur via modulation of apoptosis, MAPK/ERK1/2, P13K/Akt/mTOR, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) signalling pathways. The anti-cancer property of Kmp has been recognized in several in-vivo and in-vitro studies which also includes numerous cell lines and animal models. This flavonoid possesses toxic activities against only cancer cells and have restricted toxicity on healthy cells. In this review, we present extensive research investigations about the therapeutic potential of Kmp in the management of different types of cancers. The anti-cancer properties of Kmp are discussed by concentration on its capability to target molecular-signalling pathway such as VEGF, STAT, p53, NF-κB and PI3K-AKT signalling pathways. The anti-cancer property of Kmf has gained a lot of attention, but the accurate action mechanism remains unclear. However, this natural compound has a great pharmacological capability and is now considered to be an alternative cancer treatment.

The Dietary Flavonol Kaempferol Inhibits Epstein-Barr Virus Reactivation in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Cells

Kaempferol (KP, 3,4',5,7-tetrahydroxyflavone), a dietary flavonol, has anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antimutagenic functions. However, it is unknown whether kaempferol possesses anti-Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) activity. Previously, we demonstrated that inhibition of EBV reactivation represses nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) tumourigenesis, suggesting the importance of identifying EBV inhibitors. In this study, Western blotting, immunofluorescence staining, and virion detection showed that kaempferol repressed EBV lytic gene protein expression and subsequent virion production. Specifically, kaempferol was found to inhibit the promoter activities of Zta and Rta (Zp and Rp) under various conditions. A survey of the mutated Zp constructs revealed that Sp1 binding regions are critical for kaempferol inhibition. Kaempferol treatment repressed Sp1 expression and decreased the activity of the Sp1 promoter, suggesting that Sp1 expression was inhibited. In conclusion, kaempferol efficiently inhibits EBV reactivation and provides a novel choice for anti-EBV therapy and cancer prevention.

Kaempferol and atherosclerosis: From mechanism to medicine

Natural products possess pleiotropic cardiovascular protective effects owing to their anti-oxidation, anti-inflammation and anti-thrombotic properties. Kaempferol, (3,5,7-trihydroxy-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one), is a kind of naturally occurring flavonoid existing in many common fruits and vegetables (e.g., onions, broccoli, strawberries and grapes) and particularly in traditional Chinese medicine as exemplified by Ginkgo biloba. Epidemiological, preclinical and clinical studies have revealed an inverse association between the consumption of kaempferol-containing foods and medicines and the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases. Numerous translational studies in experimental animal models and cultured cells have demonstrated a wide range of pharmacological activities of kaempferol. In this article, we reviewed the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and cardio-protective activities of kaempferol and elucidated the potential molecular basis of the therapeutic capacity of kaempferol by focusing on its anti-atherosclerotic effects. Overall, the review presents the health benefits of kaempferol-containing plants and medicines and reflects on the potential of kaempferol as a possible drug candidate to prevent and treat atherosclerosis, the underlying pathology of most cardiovascular diseases.

Inhibition of the Akt/NF-κB pathway is involved in the anti-gastritis effects of an ethanolic extract of the rhizome of Atractylodes macrocephala

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Gastritis can lead to ulcers and the development of gastric cancer. The rhizome of Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. (Asteraceae), a traditional Chinese medicinal herb, is prescribed for the treatment of gastric disorders, hepatitis and rheumatism. Its bio-active compounds are considered to be particularly effective in this regard. However, the molecular processes of the herb's anti-inflammatory activity remain obscure. This study elucidates a mechanism upon which an ethanolic extract of this herb (Am-EE) exerts anti-inflammation effects in RAW264.7 macrophage cells (RAW cells) stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment and HCl Ethanol-stimulated gastritis rats.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the anti-gastritis activities of Am-EE and explore the mode of action.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethanol (95%) was used to prepare Am-EE. The quality of the extract was monitored by HPLC analysis. The in vivo effects of this extract were examined in an HCl Ethanol-stimulated gastritis rat model, while LPS-stimulated RAW cells were used for in vitro assays. Cell viability and nitric oxide (NO) production were observed by MTT and Griess assays. Real-time PCR was used to examine mRNA expression. The PGE₂ ELISA kit was employed to detect prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂). Enzyme activities and protein contents were examined by immunoblotting. Luciferase reporter gene assays (LRA) were employed to observe nuclear transcription factor (NF)-κB activity. The SPSS (SPSS Inc., Chicago, Illinois, United States) application was used for statistical examination.

RESULTS

HPLC analysis indicates that Am-EE contains atractylenolide-1 (AT-1, 1.33%, w/w) and atractylenolide-2 (AT-2, 1.25%, w/w) (Additional Figure. A1). Gastric tissue damage (induced by HCl Ethanol) was significantly decreased in SD rats following intra-gastric application of 35 mg/kg Am-EE. Indistinguishable to the anti-inflammation effects of 35 mg/kg ranitidine (gastric medication). Am-EE treatment also reduced LPS-mediated nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) production. The mRNA and protein synthesis of inducible cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and NO synthase (iNOS) was down-regulated following treatment in RAW cells. Am-EE decreased NF-κB (p50) nuclear protein levels and inhibited NF-κB-stimulated LRA activity in RAW cells. Lastly, Am-EE decreased the up-regulated levels of phosphorylated IκBα and Akt proteins in rat stomach lysates and in LPS challenged RAW cell samples.

CONCLUSION

Our study illustrates that Am-EE suppresses the Akt/IκBα/NF-κB pathway and exerts an anti-inflammatory effect. These novel conclusions provide a pharmacological basis for the clinical use of the A. macrocephala rhizome in the treatment and prevention of gastritis and gastric cancer.

Anti-Inflammatory Medicinal Plants of Bangladesh—A Pharmacological Evaluation

Inflammatory diseases are considered major threats to human health worldwide. In Bangladesh, a number of medicinal plants have been used in traditional medicine from time immemorial in the treatment of diverse diseases, including inflammatory disorders. This assignment aims at providing the status of the medicinal plants of Bangladesh which are traditionally used in the management of inflammatory disorders and are investigated for their anti-inflammatory prospects using different preclinical studies and future research directions. The information of medicinal plants assembled in this review was obtained from a literature search of electronic databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and ScienceDirect up to December, 2020 from publications on plants investigated for their anti-inflammatory activities, in which the place of plant sample collection was identified as Bangladesh. Keywords for primary searches were “anti-inflammatory,” “Bangladeshi,” and “medicinal plants.” Criteria followed to include plant species were plants that showed significant anti-inflammatory activities in 1) two or more sets of experiments in a single report, 2) same or different sets of experiments in two or more reports, and, 3) plants which are traditionally used in the treatment of inflammation and inflammatory disorders. In this study, 48 species of medicinal plants have been reviewed which have been used in traditional healing practices to manage inflammatory disorders in Bangladesh. The mechanistic pathways of the in vivo and in vitro study models used for the evaluation of anti-inflammatory properties of plant samples have been discussed. Selected plants were described in further detail for their habitat, anti-inflammatory studies conducted in countries other than Bangladesh, and anti-inflammatory active constituents isolated from these plants if any. Medicinal plants of Bangladesh have immense significance for anti-inflammatory activity and have potential to contribute toward the discovery and development of novel therapeutic approaches to combat diseases associated with inflammation. However, the plants reviewed in this article had chiefly undergone preliminary screening and require substantial investigations including identification of active molecules, understanding the mechanism of action, and evaluation for safety and efficacy to be followed by the formulation of safe and effective drug products.

Research on the Mechanism of Kaempferol for Treating Senile Osteoporosis by Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking

Kaempferol (KP), as a natural anti-inflammatory compound, has been reported to have curative effects on alleviating senile osteoporosis (SOP), which is an inflammation-related musculoskeletal disease, but the molecular mechanisms remain unclear due to scanty relevant studies. We predicted the targets of KP and SOP, and the common targets of them were subsequently used to carry out PPI analysis. Moreover, we adopted GO and KEGG enrichment analysis and molecular docking to explore potential mechanisms of KP against SOP. There were totally 152 KP-related targets and 978 SOP-related targets, and their overlapped targets comprised 68 intersection targets. GO enrichment analysis showed 1529 biological processes (p < 0.05), which involved regulation of inflammatory response, oxidative stress, regulation of bone resorption and remodeling, osteoblast and osteoclast differentiation, etc. Moreover, KEGG analysis revealed 146 items including 44 signaling pathways (p < 0.05), which were closely linked to TNF, IL-17, NF-kappa B, PI3K-Akt, MAPK, estrogen, p53, prolactin, VEGF, and HIF-1 signaling pathways. By means of molecular docking, we found that kaempferol is bound with the key targets' active pockets through some connections such as hydrogen bond, pi-alkyl, pi-sigma, pi-pi Stacked, pi-pi T-shaped, and van der Waals, illustrating that kaempferol has close combination with the key targets. Collectively, various targets and pathways involve in the process of kaempferol treatment against SOP through regulating inflammatory response, oxidative stress, bone homeostasis, etc. Moreover, our study first reported that kaempferol may regulate core targets' expression with involvement of inflammatory response, oxidative stress, and bone homeostasis, thus treating SOP.

Anti-Liver Fibrosis Activity and the Potential Mode of Action of Ruangan Granules: Integrated Network Pharmacology and Metabolomics

Ruangan granules (RGGs) have been used to treat liver fibrosis with good clinical efficacy for many years. However, the potential mechanism of action of RGGs against liver fibrosis is still unclear. In this study, we evaluated the quality and safety of this preparation and aimed to explore the anti-liver fibrosis activity and potential mode of action of RGGs using network pharmacology and metabolomics. The results showed that RGGs contained abundant ferulic acid, salvianolic acid B and paeoniflorin, and at the given contents and doses, RGGs were safe and presented anti-liver fibrosis activity. They presented anti-liver fibrosis activity by improving liver function (ALT and AST, p < 0.01) and pathology and decreasing fibrosis markers in the serum of rats caused by CCl₄, including HA, LN, PC III, HYP, CoII-V, and α-SMA, and the oxidant stress and inflammatory response were also alleviated in a dose-dependent manner, especially for high-dose RGGs (p < 0.01). Further studies showed that RGGs inhibited the activation of the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway in rats induced by CCl₄, regulated pyrimidine metabolism, improved oxidative stress and the inflammatory response by regulating mitochondrial morphology, and alleviated liver fibrosis. Luteolin, quercetin, morin and kaempferol were active compounds and presented the cytotoxicity toward to LX-02 cells. This study provides an overall view of the mechanism underlying the action of RGGs protecting against liver fibrosis.

Anti-Inflammatory Activities of the Ethanol Extract of Prasiola japonica, an Edible Freshwater Green Algae, and Its Various Solvent Fractions in LPS-Induced Macrophages and Carrageenan-Induced Paw Edema via the AP-1 Pathway

Prasiola japonica possesses several biological activities. However, reports on the anti-inflammatory activities and molecular mechanisms of its different solvent fractions remain limited. In this study, we investigated the potential anti-inflammatory activities of P. japonica ethanol extract (Pj-EE) and four solvent fractions of Pj-EE made with hexane (Pj-EE-HF), chloroform (Pj-EE-CF), butanol (Pj-EE-BF), or water (Pj-EE-WF) in both in vitro (LPS-induced macrophage-like RAW264.7 cells) and in vivo (carrageenan-induced acute paw edema mouse models) experiments. The most active solvent fraction was selected for further analysis. Various in vitro and in vivo assessments, including nitric oxide (NO), cytokines, luciferase assays, real-time polymerase chain reactions, and immunoblotting analyses were performed to evaluate the underlying mechanisms. In addition, the phytochemical constituents were characterized by Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. In in vitro studies, the highest inhibition of NO production was observed in Pj-EE-CF. Further examination revealed that Pj-EE-CF decreased the expression of inflammation-related cytokines in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells and suppressed subsequent AP-1-luciferase activity by inhibition of phosphorylation events in the AP-1 signaling pathway. Pj-EE-CF treatment also demonstrated the strongest reduction in thickness and volume of carrageenan-induced paw edema, while Pj-EE-BF showed the lowest activity. Furthermore, Pj-EE-CF also reduced gene expression and cytokines production in tissue lysates of carrageenan-induced paw edema. These findings support and validate the evidence that Pj-EE, and especially Pj-EE-CF, could be a good natural source for an anti-inflammatory agent that targets the AP1 pathway.

Anti-inflammatory effect of Barringtonia angusta methanol extract is mediated by targeting of Src in the NF-κB signalling pathway

CONTEXT

Among the plants in the genus Barringtonia (Lecythidaceae) used as traditional medicines to treat arthralgia, chest pain, and haemorrhoids in Indonesia, Barringtonia racemosa L. and Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn. have demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity in systemic inflammatory models.

OBJECTIVE

The anti-inflammatory activity of Barringtonia angusta Kurz has not been investigated. We prepared a methanol extract of the leaves and stems of B. angusta (Ba-ME) and systemically evaluated its anti-inflammatory effects in vitro and in vivo.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

RAW264.7 cells stimulated with LPS or Pam3CSK4 for 24 h were treated with Ba-ME (12.5, 25, 50, 100, and 150 µg/mL), and NO production and mRNA levels of inflammatory genes were evaluated. Luciferase reporter gene assay, western blot analysis, overexpression experiments, and cellular thermal shift assay were conducted to explore the mechanism of Ba-ME. In addition, the anti-gastritis activity of Ba-ME (50 and 100 mg/kg, administered twice per day for two days) was evaluated using an HCl/EtOH-induced gastritis mouse model.

RESULTS

Ba-ME dose-dependently suppressed NO production [IC₅₀ = 123.33 µg/mL (LPS) and 46.89 µg/mL (Pam3CSK4)] without affecting cell viability. Transcriptional expression of iNOS, IL-1β, COX-2, IL-6, and TNF-α and phosphorylation of Src, IκBα, p50/105, and p65 were inhibited by Ba-ME. The extract specifically targeted the Src protein by binding to its SH2 domain. Moreover, Ba-ME significantly ameliorated inflammatory lesions in the HCl/EtOH-induced gastritis model.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The anti-inflammatory activity of Ba-ME is mediated by targeting of the Src/NF-κB signalling pathway, and B. angusta has potential as an anti-inflammatory drug.

Investigation on the mechanisms of guiqi huoxue capsule for treating cervical spondylosis based on network pharmacology and molecular docking

BACKGROUND

Guiqi huoxue capsule (GQHXC) is a patented Chinese medicine used for treating a liver and kidney deficiency and blood stasis syndrome due to qi deficiency. It is caused by cervical spondylosis (cervical spondylotic radiculopathy (CSR), mixed cervical spondylosis mainly composed of nerve root type). Its underlying mechanisms need, however, to be further clarified.

METHODS

In this study, collecting compounds, predicting therapeutic targets, constructing networks, and analyzing biological functions and pathways were based on network pharmacology analysis. In addition, molecular docking verification was engaged to assess the binding potential of selected target-compound pairs.

RESULTS

We established 5 networks: compound-putative target network of GQHXC, protein-protein interaction (PPI) network related to CSR, compound-CSR target network, potential therapeutic targets PPI network, and herb-compound-target-pathway network. Network analysis indicated that 7 targets (tumor necrosis factor [TNF], interleukin 6 [IL6], nitric oxide synthase 3 [NOS3], Interleukin-8 [CXCL8], prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 [PTGS2], vascular endothelial growth factor A [VEGFA], and AP-1 transcription factor subunit [JUN]) might be the therapeutic targets of GQHXC in CSR. Moreover, molecular docking verification showed that TNF, IL6, NOS3, CXCL8, PTGS2, VEGFA, and JUN had a good is interaction with the corresponding compounds. Furthermore, enrichment analysis indicated that GQHXC might exert a curative role in CSR by regulating some important pathways, such as TNF signaling pathway, NF-kappa B signaling pathway, AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications, and so on.

CONCLUSION

Our study preliminarily explained the underlying mechanisms of GQHXC for treating CSR, and molecular docking verification was adopted as an additional verification. These findings laid a valuable foundation for experimental research and further application of GQHXC in the clinical treatment of CSR.

Natural flavone tricin exerted anti-inflammatory activity in macrophage via NF-κB pathway and ameliorated acute colitis in mice

BACKGROUND

Ulcerative colitis is a subtype of inflammatory bowel disease, characterized by relapsing inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract with limited treatment options. Previous studies suggested that the natural compound tricin, a flavone isolated from rice bran, could suppress chemically-induced colitis in mice, while our recent study also demonstrated the anti-metastatic effect of tricin in colon tumor-bearing mice.

HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE

Here we further investigated the underlying mechanism of the inhibitory effects of tricin on lipopolysaccharides-activated macrophage RAW264.7 cells and explored the efficacy of tricin in acute colitis mouse model induced by 4.5% dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) for 7 days.

METHODS

Tricin (75, 100, and 150 mg/kg) or the positive control drug sulfasalazine (200 mg/kg) were orally administered to mice for 7 days. Stool consistency scores, stool blood scores, and body weight were recorded daily. Disease activity index (DAI) was examined on day 7, and colon tissues were collected for biochemical analyses. The fecal microbiome of colitis mice after tricin treatment was characterized for the first time in this study using 16S rDNA amplicon sequencing.

RESULTS

Results showed that tricin (50 µM) remarkably reduced nitric oxide production in lipopolysaccharides-activated RAW264.7 cells and the anti-inflammatory activity of tricin was shown to act through the NF-κB pathway. Besides, tricin treatment at 150 mg/kg significantly reversed colon length reduction, reduced myeloperoxidase activities and DAI scores, as well as restored the elevated myeloid-derived suppressive cells population in acute colitis mice. The influence from DSS on gut microbiota, such as the increased population of Proteobacteria phylum and Ruminococcaceae family, was shown to be relieved after tricin treatment.

CONCLUSION

Our present study firstly demonstrated that tricin ameliorated acute colitis by improving colonic inflammation and modulating gut microbiota profile, which supports the potential therapeutic use of tricin for colitis treatment.

Approved drugs ezetimibe and disulfiram enhance mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake and suppress cardiac arrhythmogenesis

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Treatment of cardiac arrhythmia remains challenging due to severe side effects of common anti-arrhythmic drugs. We previously demonstrated that mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake in cardiomyocytes represents a promising new candidate structure for safer drug therapy. However, druggable agonists of mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake suitable for preclinical and clinical studies are still missing.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Herewe screened 727 compounds with a history of use in human clinical trials in a three-step screening approach. As a primary screening platform we used a permeabilized HeLa cell-based mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake assay. Hits were validated in cultured HL-1 cardiomyocytes and finally tested for anti-arrhythmic efficacy in three translational models: a Ca²⁺ overload zebrafish model and cardiomyocytes of both a mouse model for catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT) and induced pluripotent stem cell derived cardiomyocytes from a CPVT patient.

KEY RESULTS

We identifiedtwo candidate compounds, the clinically approved drugs ezetimibe and disulfiram, which stimulate SR-mitochondria Ca²⁺ transfer at nanomolar concentrations. This is significantly lower compared to the previously described mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake enhancers (MiCUps) efsevin, a gating modifier of the voltage-dependent anion channel 2, and kaempferol, an agonist of the mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uniporter. Both substances restored rhythmic cardiac contractions in a zebrafish cardiac arrhythmia model and significantly suppressed arrhythmogenesis in freshly isolated ventricular cardiomyocytes from a CPVT mouse model as well as induced pluripotent stem cell derived cardiomyocytes from a CPVT patient.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Taken together we identified ezetimibe and disulfiram as novel MiCUps and efficient suppressors of arrhythmogenesis and as such as, promising candidates for future preclinical and clinical studies.

Flavonoids and cellular stress: a complex interplay affecting human health

Flavonoid consumption has beneficial effects on human health, however, clinical evidence remains often inconclusive due to high interindividual variability. Although this high interindividual variability has been consistently observed in flavonoid research, the potential underlying reasons are still poorly studied. Especially the knowledge on the impact of health status on flavonoid responsiveness is limited and merits more investigation. Here, we aim to highlight the bidirectional interplay between flavonoids and cellular stress. First, the state-of-the-art concerning inflammatory stress and mitochondrial dysfunction is reviewed and a comprehensive overview of recent in vitro studies investigating the impact of flavonoids on cellular stress, induced by tumor necrosis factor α, lipopolysaccharide and mitochondrial stressors, is given. Second, we critically discuss the influence of cellular stress on flavonoid uptake, accumulation, metabolism and cell responses, which has, to our knowledge, never been extensively reviewed before. Next, we advocate the innovative insight that stratification of the general population based on health status can reveal subpopulations that benefit more from flavonoid consumption. Finally, suggestions are given for the development of future cell models that simulate the physiological micro-environment, including interindividual variability, since more mechanistic research is needed to establish scientific-based personalized food recommendations for specific subpopulations.

Variations in natural polyphenols determine the anti-inflammatory potential of virgin coconut oils

Virgin coconut oil (VCO), an edible oil prepared from fresh coconut kernel by natural or mechanical means without undergoing chemical refining, has been in the limelight of research as functional food oil. The phenolic components in VCO have been accredited with these pharmacological benefits. The present study compared the phenolic constituents of freshly prepared fermentation processed (FVCO) and hot-pressed VCO (HVCO) and their anti-inflammatory efficacies. The biochemical analysis documented quantitative variation in the phenolic content, being higher in HVCO than FVCO (40.03 ± 5.8 µg and 25.55 ± 5.8 µg/mL of oil, respectively). In vitro studies observed nitric oxide radical scavenging efficacy (IC₅₀ value of 14.84 ± 0.81 µg/mL) for HVCO polyphenols, which shows higher inhibition efficacy than FVCO (29.41 ± 1.7 µg/mL). In dextran and formalin mediated acute and chronic inflammation in mice, HVCO displayed more protective efficacy (40.5 and 46.4% inhibition) than FVCO (33.3 and 43.8% inhibition), which is similar to the standard diclofenac (55.6 and 59.8% inhibition). The study, thus, concludes that compared to FVCO, HVCO is a more active anti-inflammatory agent. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Virgin coconut oil, a widely used edible oil in South Asian countries, has been shown to have health benefits possibly exerted by the natural phenolics it contains. However, different modes of preparations of VCO determine the phenolic combinations and efficacy as well. Our study compared two different VCO preparations and suggests that the VCO prepared by the traditional way (HVCO) is pharmacologically potent than that prepared by simple fermentation process (FVCO) in reducing inflammation. The efficacy is attributed to the variations in phenolic profile revealed by LC-MS analysis. Hence, the current study suggests HVCO as a potential food supplement that can reduce the incidence of degenerative diseases.

Kinase inhibition in autoimmunity and inflammation

Despite recent advances in the treatment of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, unmet medical needs in some areas still exist. One of the main therapeutic approaches to alleviate dysregulated inflammation has been to target the activity of kinases that regulate production of inflammatory mediators. Small-molecule kinase inhibitors have the potential for broad efficacy, convenience and tissue penetrance, and thus often offer important advantages over biologics. However, designing kinase inhibitors with target selectivity and minimal off-target effects can be challenging. Nevertheless, immense progress has been made in advancing kinase inhibitors with desirable drug-like properties into the clinic, including inhibitors of JAKs, IRAK4, RIPKs, BTK, SYK and TPL2. This Review will address the latest discoveries around kinase inhibitors with an emphasis on clinically validated autoimmunity and inflammatory pathways.

Unmet medical needs in the treatment of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases still exist. This Review discusses the activity of kinases that regulate production of inflammatory mediators and the recent advances in developing inhibitors to target such kinases.

Modulation of reproductive dysfunctions associated with streptozocin-induced diabetes by Artemisia judaica extract in rats fed a high-fat diet

We investigated the palliative effect of Artemisia judaica extract (AjE) on testicular deterioration induced by DM in high-fat diet/streptozocin (HFD/STZ)-injected rats. Forty rats were allocated to the following five groups: control, AjE, HFD/STZ, HFD/STZ-AjE, and HFD/STZ-metformin. HFD/STZ-diabetic rats showed a marked decrease in testicular weight and male sex hormones. There was significant suppression of testicular antioxidant enzymes and glutathione content in HFD/STZ-diabetic rats. However, rats that had received the STZ injection and the high-fat diet displayed increased malondialdehyde content and nitric oxide levels as well as tumour necrosis factor-alpha. High levels of Bax and low levels of Bcl-2 were detected after the STZ injection. Obvious pathological alterations were found in the testicular tissue of the HFD/STZ-diabetic rats. Thus, the administration of AjE attenuated the biochemical, molecular, and histopathological changes in the testes of the diabetic rats. The obtained findings showed that AjE treatment attenuated the diabetes-induced reprotoxicity in male rats via its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic properties.

Lavender and dodder combined herbal syrup versus citalopram in major depressive disorder with anxious distress: A double-blind randomized trial

BACKGROUND

Major depressive disorder (MDD) accompanied by anxious distress is a chronic and disabling disorder. Its conventional drug therapies often have low patient compliance due to drug-related side effects. In Persian medicine, lavender-dodder syrup is one formula often recommended for such disorders.

OBJECTIVE

This study compares the effects of lavender-dodder syrup to the standard drug, citalopram, for treating MDD with anxious distress.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTION

This six-week, double-blind, randomized, clinical trial was carried out in a psychiatric outpatient clinic. During the six-week intervention period, patients in citalopram group received citalopram tablets 20 mg/d plus 5 mL placebo syrup every 12 h; patients in group B received placebo tablets once daily plus 5 mL of lavender-dodder herbal syrup every 12 h.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Primary outcome measures, depression and anxiety, were evaluated using the Hamilton Depression/Anxiety Rating Scales, and were scored at the beginning of the study and at weeks three and six. Secondary outcome measures including response to treatment and remission rates were also compared between the two groups.

RESULTS

Fifty-six participants with MDD and anxious distress were randomly assigned to two groups. Mean depression scores significantly decreased in citalopram and herbal groups at weeks three and six (time effect: P < 0.001), although the observed changes were not significantly different between the groups (intervention effect: P = 0.61). Mean anxiety scores were not significantly different between the two groups at week three (P = 0.75). However, at the end of week six, the observed decrease was significantly higher in the herbal syrup group than the citalopram group (intervention effect: P = 0.007).

CONCLUSION

The herbal syrup is an effective and tolerable supplement for treating MDD with anxious distress.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

IRCT2016102430459N1 on Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials.

Kaempferol Regulates miR-15b/Bcl-2/TLR4 to Alleviate OGD-Induced Injury in H9c2 Cells

Ischemic heart disease (IHD) is one of the world's leading causes of human death. Kaempferol (Kae) was proved to have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer effects. Such properties suggested that it might play protective roles in IHD. In this study, we have attempted to disclose the potential regulating mechanisms of Kae in primary cardiomyocytes and H9c2 cells.Cells were first stimulated by oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) and then exposed to Kae. CCK-8 assay and flow cytometry were used to examine cell characteristics. Quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction was utilized to test the expression levels of miR-15b and TLR4. Afterward, cell transfection, dual-luciferase activity assay, and western blot were used to explore the potential mechanisms.OGD treatment suppressed cell viability, whereas it enhanced cell apoptosis. Besides, OGD treatment enhanced the expression of apoptosis-associated proteins. Kae exposure, however, attenuated the effects that OGD-induced. Further experiments showed that Kae exposure promoted down-regulation of miR-15b, Bcl-2 and TLR4 were a target of miR-15b. Moreover, Kae enhanced the expression of key factors involved in PI3K/AKT and Wnt/β-catenin pathways, whereas miR-15b mimic reversed the Kae-triggered effects.This investigation revealed that Kae diminished OGD-triggered cell damage through down-regulating miR-15b expression via activating PI3K/AKT and Wnt3a/β-catenin pathways.

Sorbaria kirilowii Ethanol Extract Exerts Anti-Inflammatory Effects In Vitro and In Vivo by Targeting Src/Nuclear Factor (NF)-κB

Inflammation is a fundamental process for defending against foreign antigens that involves various transcriptional regulatory processes as well as molecular signaling pathways. Despite its protective roles in the human body, the activation of inflammation may also convey various diseases including autoimmune disease and cancer. Sorbaria kirilowii is a plant originating from Asia, with no anti-inflammatory activity reported. In this paper, we discovered an anti-inflammatory effect of S. kirilowii ethanol extract (Sk-EE) both in vivo and in vitro. In vitro effects of Sk-EE were determined with lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, while ex vivo analysis was performed using peritoneal macrophages of thioglycollate (TG)-induced mice. Sk-EE significantly reduced the nitric oxide (NO) production of induced macrophages and inhibited the expression of inflammation-related cytokines and the activation of transcription factors. Moreover, treatment with Sk-EE also decreased the activation of proteins involved in nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling cascade; among them, Src was a prime target of Sk-EE. For in vivo assessment of the anti-inflammatory effect of Sk-EE, HCl/EtOH was given by the oral route to mice for gastritis induction. Sk-EE injection dose-dependently reduced the inflammatory lesion area of the stomach in gastritis-induced mice. Taking these results together, Sk-EE exerts its anti-inflammatory activity by regulating intracellular NF-κB signaling pathways and also shows an authentic effect on reducing gastric inflammation.

Modulation of cell signaling pathways by Phyllanthus amarus and its major constituents: potential role in the prevention and treatment of inflammation and cancer

The causal and functional connection between inflammation and cancer has become a subject of much research interest. Modulation of cell signaling pathways, such as those involving mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs), nuclear factor kappa β (NF-κB), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt), and Wnt, and their outcomes play a fundamental role in inflammation and cancer. Activation of these cell signaling pathways can lead to various aspects of cancer-related inflammation. Hence, compounds able to modulate inflammation-related molecular targets are sought after in anticancer drug development programs. In recent years, plant extracts and their metabolites have been documented with potential in the prevention and treatment of cancer and inflammatory ailments. Plants possessing anticancer and anti-inflammatory properties due to their bioactive constituents have been reported to modulate the molecular and cellular pathways which are related to inflammation and cancer. In this review we focus on the flavonoids (astragalin, kaempferol, quercetin, rutin), lignans (phyllanthin, hypophyllanthin, and niranthin), tannins (corilagin, geraniin, ellagic acid, gallic acid), and triterpenes (lupeol, oleanolic acid, ursolic acid) of Phyllanthus amarus, which exert various anticancer and anti-inflammatory activities via perturbation of the NF-κB, MAPKs, PI3K/Akt, and Wnt signaling networks. Understanding the underlying mechanisms involved may help future research to develop drug candidates for prevention and new treatment for cancer and inflammatory diseases.

Anti-inflammatory activities of Canarium subulatum Guillaumin methanol extract operate by targeting Src and Syk in the NF-κB pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Canarium subulatum Guillaumin is an herbal medicinal plant native to Southeast Asia. Ethnopharmacological evidence suggests that plants of the genus Canarium cure a variety of inflammatory diseases.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The pharmacological mechanisms of C. subulatum Guillaumin remain poorly understood. In this study, we investigate inflammatory mechanisms and target molecules using C. subulatum Guillaumin methanol extract (Cs-ME) in inflammatory reactions managed by macrophages.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To identify the anti-inflammatory activities of Cs-ME, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages and a murine HCl/EtOH-induced gastritis model were chosen. The luciferase reporter gene assay, Western blot analysis, overexpression strategy, and the cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA) were employed to investigate the molecular mechanisms and target enzymes of Cs-ME. The active ingredients of this extract were also determined by HPLC.

RESULTS

Released levels of nitric oxide (NO) and mRNA expression levels of iNOS and IL-6 were downregulated by Cs-ME without exhibiting cytotoxicity. This extract inhibited MyD88-induced promoter activity and the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB. Moreover, we found that Cs-ME reduced the phosphorylation of NF-κB upstream signaling molecules including IκBα, IKKα/β, Src, and Syk in LPS-stimulated macrophage-like RAW264.7 cells. The results of Western blot and CETSA confirmed that Src and Syk are anti-inflammatory targets of Cs-ME. In addition, orally injected Cs-ME alleviated HCl/EtOH-induced gastric ulcers in mice. HPLC analysis indicated that quercetin, luteolin, and kaempferol are major active components of this extract with anti-inflammatory activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Cs-ME exhibits anti-inflammatory effects in vitro and in vivo by targeting Src and Syk in the NF-κB signaling pathway. Consequently, Cs-ME could be developed as an anti-inflammatory herbal medicine.

Protium javanicum Burm. Methanol Extract Attenuates LPS-Induced Inflammatory Activities in Macrophage-Like RAW264.7 Cells

Protium javanicum Burm. f. is a medicinal plant used in traditional medicine. Gum and oleoresins from this plant have been used as anti-inflammatory agents for treating ulcers, headaches, eyelid inflammation, and rheumatic pain. However, its anti-inflammatory mechanism of action is still unknown. To better understand the mechanism, we used lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) treated RAW264.7 cells to measure inflammatory mediators with the Griess assay and to identify target signaling molecules by immunoblot analysis. In this study, we report that the Protium javanicum methanol extract (Pj-ME) plays an important role in suppressing nitric oxide (NO) levels without cytotoxicity. The effect of Pj-ME in LPS-induced expression leads to reduced inflammatory cytokine expression, specifically inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase (COX-2), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α). Pj-ME significantly inhibited LPS-induced protein expression of the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway in a time-dependent manner. Syk and Src were identified as putative signaling molecules of Pj-ME-mediated anti-inflammatory activity, which were inhibited by Pj-ME. We demonstrated that Pj-ME controls the STAT3 signaling pathway by suppressing STAT3 and JAK phosphorylation and also downregulates the gene expression of IL-6. Therefore, these results elucidate Pj-ME as a novel anti-inflammatory naturally derived drug with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties which may be subject to therapeutic and prognostic relevance.

Mycetia cauliflora methanol extract exerts anti-inflammatory activity by directly targeting PDK1 in the NF-κB pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Mycetia cauliflora Reinw. (Rubiaceae) has been used as a traditional remedy to ameliorate clinical signs of inflammatory diseases, including pain, inflammation, ulcers, and wounds. Among the Mycetia subfamilies, the molecular and cellular mechanisms of Mycetia longifolia (Rubiaceae) have been studied. However, those of Mycetia cauliflora are not clearly understood. Comprehensive investigation of this plant is necessary to evaluate its potential for ethnopharmacological use.

MATERIALS

and methods: The activities of Mycetia cauliflora methanol extract (Mc-ME) on the secretion of inflammatory mediators, the mRNA expression of proinflammatory cytokines, and identification of its molecular targets were elucidated using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced macrophage-like cells. Moreover, the suppressive actions of Mc-ME were examined in an LPS-induced peritonitis mouse model.

RESULTS

At nontoxic concentrations, Mc-ME downregulated the release of nitric oxide (NO), the mRNA expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and the mRNA expression of interleukin (IL)-1β from LPS-activated RAW264.7 cells. This extract also inhibited the nuclear translocation of p65 and p50 and the phosphorylation of IκBα, IKK, and AKT. Western blot analysis and in vitro kinase assays confirmed that phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1 (PDK1) is the direct immunopharmacological target of Mc-ME effect. In addition, Mc-ME significantly reduced inflammatory signs in an animal model of acute peritonitis. These effects were associated with decreased NO production and decreased AKT phosphorylation.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that Mc-ME displays anti-inflammatory actions in LPS-treated macrophage-like cells and in an animal model of acute inflammatory disease. These actions are preferentially managed by targeting PDK1 in the nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling pathway.

Effect of Kaempferol Pretreatment on Myocardial Injury in Rats

The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of kaempferol in isoprenaline (ISP)-induced myocardial injury in rats. ISP was administered subcutaneously for two subsequent days to induce myocardial injury. Assessment of myocardial injury was done by estimation of hemodynamic functions, myocardial infarcted area, cardiac injury markers, lipid profile, oxidative stress, pro-inflammatory cytokines and histopathology of heart and liver. Rats pretreated with kaempferol showed reduction in the myocardial infarcted area and heart rate. However, no improvement was observed in change in body weight, mean arterial, systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Kaempferol showed significant decrease in serum LDH, CK-MB, troponin-I and lipid profile. However, highest dose of kaempferol did not reduce the serum triglyceride level. Further, antioxidant enzymes, SOD and catalase, were also higher. However, reduced glutathione, serum SGOT and creatinine did not show any improvement. Kaempferol showed reduction in MDA level. Kaempferol at highest dose showed reduction in pro-MMP-2 expression and MMP-9 level. mRNA expression level of TNF-α was not different in kaempferol-pretreated myocardial injured rats with ISP-alone group. Pretreatment with kaempferol at highest dose showed mild mononuclear infiltration and degenerative changes in heart tissue section of myocardial injured rats. Rats pretreated with kaempferol at higher concentration showed normal cordlike arrangement of hepatocytes with moderate swelling of hepatocytes (vacuolar degeneration) around the central vein. Study suggests that kaempferol attenuated lipid profile, infarcted area and oxidative stress in ISP-induced myocardial injury in rats.

Recent advances in topical delivery of flavonoids: A review

Flavonoids are one of the vital classes of bioactive chemicals, abundantly found in plants. These are natural polyphenolic compounds derived from plant metabolites. Their lipophilic nature and poor solubility lead to variable and limited oral bioavailability. The substantial pharmacological properties of flavonoids include antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, photoprotective, depigmentation, anti-aging which are very promising in the treatment of several skin disorders. Thus, various topical delivery systems of flavonoids have been extensively studied. Mostly, colloidal carriers of flavonoids were reported which are very efficient for topical route with good encapsulation potential, reduced toxicity, and overcome the limitations of conventional dosage forms. This review focuses on various formulations aspects, in vitro characterization and in vivo studies of different classes of flavonoids administered by topical route. Although flavonoids offer tremendous potential in healing the skin conditions categorically, its clinical translation needs in depth safety and efficacy data, meeting established regulatory standards.

An ethanol extract of the rhizome of Atractylodes chinensis exerts anti-gastritis activities and inhibits Akt/NF-κB signaling

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The rhizome of Atractylodes chinensis (DC.) kodiz (Compositae) has traditionally been used to treat inflammatory disorders such as arthritis and stomach ache, but scanted report has been issued on its anti-inflammatory mechanisms.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Here, we investigated the anti-gastritis activities and explored the mechanism of action of an ethanolic extract of the herb (Ac-EE).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ac-EE was prepared with 95% ethanol. To determine its in vivo effects, we employed an HCl/EtOH-induced gastritis rat model. We used a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage model for in vitro assays. Griess and MTT assays were used to measure nitric oxide (NO) production and cell viability, respectively. We used real-time PCR to determine mRNA levels. To measure prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) production we used a PGE₂ EIA kit. To estimate protein levels and enzyme activities, we employed immunoblotting. Luciferase assays were used to examine nuclear transcription factor (NF)-κB activities.

RESULTS

Intragastric administration of Ac-EE (30 mg/kg) ameliorated HCl/EtOH-induced stomach tissue damages in SD rats. Ac-EE inhibited the levels of NO and PGE_2, down regulated mRNA and protein levels of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2. Ac-EE suppressed the nuclear level of NF-κB (p50), and inhibited NF-κB luciferase activity. The Phosphorylation of Akt and IκBα was also inhibited by Ac-EE both in vivo and in vitro.

CONCLUSION

Ac-EE treatment exerts an anti-gastritis effect in rats. Inhibition of the Akt/IκBα/NF-κB signaling pathway is associated with this effect, providing a pharmacological basis for the clinical application of the rhizome of A. chinensis in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

The activation of BDNF reduced inflammation in a spinal cord injury model by TrkB/p38 MAPK signaling

The aim of the present study was to investigate the pro-inflammation effects of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling in promoting inflammation following spinal cord injury (SCI) in rats. Reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to detect the expression of BDNF in SCI rats. The Basso, Beattie and Bresnahan (BBB) test was used and the water content of spinal cord were assessed to determine the effects of BDNF on SCI. BDNF expression was increased in SCI rats. In an in vitro model, overexpression of BDNF induced the protein expression of tyrosine kinase receptor B (TrkB) and suppressed that of phosphorylated (p-)p38, and reduced inflammation, as indicated by tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-18, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 levels. Conversely, the TrkB inhibitor ANA-12 suppressed the protein expression of TrkB and induced that of p-p38, and promoted inflammation (as indicated by TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-18, iNOS and COX-2 levels) in an in vitro model of SCI by BDNF overexpression. In addition, the p38 inhibitor TA-0, suppressed p38 protein expression and reduced inflammation in an in vitro model of SCI by BDNF overexpression. Together, these data suggest that the pro-inflammation effects of BDNF/TrkB promoted inflammation in SCI through p38 signaling in rats.

Anti-obesity effects of kaempferol by inhibiting adipogenesis and increasing lipolysis in 3T3-L1 cells

Kaempferol is a natural flavonoid widely found in fruits, vegetables, and tea. Kaempferol possesses beneficial biological properties such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. Positive energy balance during obesity correlates with a pro-inflammatory chronic state. In this context, we hypothesized that kaempferol might promote anti-obesity effects by modulating adipogenesis and lipolytic pathways. Adipocyte viability at 24, 48, and 72 h was measured by an ATP-based assay. Pre-adipocytes (day 0) or mature adipocytes (day 12) were treated with 60 μM kaempferol until day 21 to evaluate its potential anti-adipogenic and lipolytic effect, respectively. Total lipid accumulation was assessed using Oil Red O staining assay. Gene expression was measured by RT-qPCR to evaluate the effect of kaempferol on adipogenesis and lipolysis gene expression. Our results showed a dose-dependent effect of kaempferol treatment on cell viability promoting cell death at higher than 60 μM concentration. Pre-adipocytes stimulation by 60 μM kaempferol resulted in 62% adipogenesis inhibition whereas in mature adipocytes, it reduced 39% intracellular lipid accumulation. Also, 60 μM kaempferol treatment decreased Cebpa mRNA expression when compared to control cells. In contrast, Pnpla2 and Lipe gene expression were upregulated in 3T3-L1 cells incubated with 60 μM kaempferol. In summary, our results showed that kaempferol modulates adipogenic differentiation in 3T3-L1 cells by promoting downregulation of Cebpa gene expression and decreasing lipid accumulation in mature adipocytes by its positive effects on Pnpla2 and Lipe mRNA levels. Kaempferol might display an anti-obesity effect.

Phosphatidylinositide 3-Kinase Contributes to the Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Abutilon crispum L. Medik Methanol Extract

Abutilon crispum L. Medik, better known as bladdermallow, is used as a traditional remedy in India, for its anti-inflammatory effect due to its high content of flavonoids. However, research about its anti-inflammatory effect at the molecular level has not been performed. In this study, we aimed to investigate the mechanism of Abutilon crispum methanol extract (Ac-ME) in inhibiting the inflammatory response by conducting several experiments including cellular and molecular assays. Ac-ME inhibited the production of nitric oxide (NO) in RAW264.7 cells during treatment of LPS and Pam3CSK4 without exhibiting cytotoxicity. Ac-ME also suppressed the mRNA expression of inducible nitric oxide (iNOS) and proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6. Moreover, Ac-ME was shown to inhibit the NF-κB pathway, according to the luciferase reporter gene assay performed with a NF-κB-Luc construct containing NF-κB-binding promoter regions under MyD88 and TRIF overexpression conditions, and immunoblotting analysis by determining the phospho-form levels of IκBα, IKKα/β, and p85, a regulatory domain of phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase (PI3K). Finally, we observed that the level of phospho-p85 induced by the overexpression of spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk) and Src was decreased by Ac-ME at 200 μg/ml. Therefore, these results suggest that Ac-ME has an anti-inflammatory effect by targeting PI3K in the NF-κB signaling pathway.

Chemo-preventive and therapeutic effect of the dietary flavonoid kaempferol: A comprehensive review

Kaempferol, a natural flavonoid present in several plants, possesses a wide range of therapeutic properties such as antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory. It has a significant role in reducing cancer and can act as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of diseases and ailments such as diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular diseases, oxidative stress, asthma, and microbial contamination disorders. Kaempferol acts through different mechanisms: It induces apoptosis (HeLa cervical cancer cells), decreases cell viability (G2/M phase), downregulates phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT (protein kinase B) and human T-cell leukemia/lymphoma virus-I (HTLV-I) signaling pathways, suppresses protein expression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related markers including N-cadherin, E-cadherin, Slug, and Snail, and metastasis-related markers such as matrix metallopeptidase 2 (MMP-2). Accordingly, the aim of the present review is to collect information pertaining to the effective role of kaempferol against various degenerative disorders, summarize the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, and antiaging effects of kaempferol and to review the progress of recent research and available data on kaempferol as a protective and chemotherapeutic agent against several ailments.

Alisma canaliculatum ethanol extract suppresses inflammatory responses in LPS-stimulated macrophages, HCl/EtOH-induced gastritis, and DSS-triggered colitis by targeting Src/Syk and TAK1 activities

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Alisma canaliculatum A.Braun & C.D.Bouché, distributed in Korea, Japan, China, and Taiwan, is a traditional medicine. In particular, the stem and root of Alisma canaliculatum A.Braun & C.D.Bouché are prescribed to relieve various inflammatory symptoms resulting from nephritis, cystitis, urethritis, and dropsy.

AIM OF STUDY

However, the curative mechanism of Alisma canaliculatum A.Braun & C.D.Bouché with respect to inflammatory symptoms is poorly understood. In this study, the curative roles of this plant in various inflammatory conditions as well as its inhibitory mechanism were aimed to examine using an ethanol extract (Ac-EE).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Anti-inflammatory effects of Ac-EE were evaluated in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced macrophages in vitro and HCl/EtOH-stimulated mouse model of gastritis and DSS-treated mouse model of colitis. To determine the potentially active anti-inflammatory components in this extracts, we employed HPLC. We also used kinase assays, reporter gene assay, immunoprecipitation analysis and target enzyme overexpressing cell analysis to analyze the molecular mechanisms and the target molecules.

RESULTS

This extract dose-dependently inhibited the production of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) from RAW264.7 cells and peritoneal macrophages activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Additionally, Ac-EE ameliorated inflammatory symptoms resulting from gastritis and colitis. Ac-EE down-regulated the mRNA levels of inducible NO synthase (iNOS), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Ac-EE also blocked the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB and activator protein (AP)- 1 in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. By analyzing the target signaling molecules activating these transcription factors, we found that Src and Syk, as well as molecular association between TAK1 and mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 4/7 (MKK4/7), were targeted by Ac-EE.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that the Ac-EE NF-κB/AP-1-targeted anti-inflammatory potential is mediated by suppression of Src and Syk as well as the complex formation between TAK1 and its substrate proteins MKK4/7.

miRNA-29a inhibits colon cancer growth by regulation of the PTEN/Akt/GSK3β and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways

In the present study, the effects of microRNA-29a (miRNA-29a) on colon cancer cell viability and the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects were investigated. The expression of miRNA-29a in colon cancer serum samples was notably downregulated, compared with in the normal group. First, miRNA-29a mimic was used to increase the expression of miRNA-29a in HCT-116 cells. Furthermore, upregulation of miRNA-29a suppressed cell viability, increased lactate dehydrogenase levels and apoptosis, and promoted caspase-3/9 activities and B-cell lymphoma 2-associated X protein and phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) protein expression in colon cancer cells. Furthermore, upregulation of miRNA-29a decreased phosphoinositide 3-kinase, phosphorylated (p)-protein kinase B (Akt) and p-glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) protein expression and suppressed the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway in colon cancer cells. The results of the present study verified that the protective effects of miRNA-29a suppress the PTEN/Akt/GSK3β and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways in colon cancer.

Kudzu Leaf Extract Suppresses the Production of Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase, Cyclooxygenase-2, Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha, and Interleukin-6 via Inhibition of JNK, TBK1 and STAT1 in Inflammatory Macrophages

Kudzu (Pueraria montana var. lobata (Willd.) Sanjappa & Pradeep) is a perennial leguminous vine, and its root and flower have been used for herbal medicine in Asia for a long time. Most dietary flavonoids are reported to be concentrated in its root, not in its aerial parts including leaves. In this study, we investigated whether kudzu leaf and its major constituent, robinin (kaempferol-3-O-robinoside-7-O-rhanmoside) possessed anti-inflammatory activity. To test this hypothesis, we used peritoneal macrophages isolated from BALB/c mice and stimulated the cells with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or LPS plus interferon (IFN)-γ. Compared with kudzu root extract, its leaf extract was more potent in inhibiting the production of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleukin-6. Kudzu leaf extract decreased LPS-induced activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and TANK-binding kinase 1(TBK1) with no effects on nuclear factor-κB and activator protein 1 transcriptional activity. Also, kudzu leaf extract inhibited LPS/IFN-γ-induced signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) activation partly via an altered level of STAT1 expression. Robinin, being present in 0.46% of dry weight of leaf extract, but almost undetected in the root, decreased iNOS protein involving modulation of JNK and STAT1 activation. However, robinin showed no impact on other inflammatory markers. Our data provide evidence that kudzu leaf is an excellent food source of as yet unknown anti-inflammatory constituents.

Kaempferol attenuates hyperglycemia-induced cardiac injuries by inhibiting inflammatory responses and oxidative stress

PURPOSE

Suppression of inflammation and oxidative stress is an attractive strategy to against diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM). Kaempferol (KPF) exerts both anti-inflammatory and antioxidant pharmacological properties. However, little is known about the effect of KPF on protecting myocardial injury in diabetes. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of KPF on DCM and underlying mechanism.

METHODS

Anti-inflammation and anti-oxidative stress activities of KPF were evaluated in H9c2 cells or primary cardiomyocytes by real-time quantitate PCR, immunoblotting, immunofluorescence, ELISA, and FACS. Streptozotocin (STZ)-induced type 1 diabetes mellitus mice were constructed. Corresponding to experiments in vitro, the therapeutic effect of KPF was also assessed using heart tissues from mice.

RESULTS

KPF significantly inhibited high glocose (HG) induced expression of inflammatory cytokines and generation of ROS, leading to reduced fibrotic responses and cell apoptosis in vitro. KPF mediated DCM protective effects through inhibiting nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) nucleus translocation and activating nuclear factor-erythroid 2 p45-related factor-2 (Nrf-2). In STZ-induced type 1 diabetic mouse model, KPF prevented diabetes-induced cardiac fibrosis and apoptosis. These changes were also accompanied by reducing inflammation and oxidative stress in diabetic mice hearts.

CONCLUSION

KPF is a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of DCM, mechanically linked to inhibition of NF-κB and Nrf-2 activation.

Gastro-protective effect of edible plant Artemisia argyi in ethanol-induced rats via normalizing inflammatory responses and oxidative stress

PHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Artemisia argyi, a kind of ethnic drug, has a long-term use on gastric diseases and syndromes.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the study is to validate the traditional uses of A. argyi scientifically and to discover more efficient nature derived gastro-protective ethnomedicine and further elucidate the possible mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sixty rats were randomly divided into control, model (ethanol-induced), reference (omeprazole-treated) and A. argyi extract (AT) (0.3, 0.1, 0.033g/mL) treated groups, respectively. The levels of biochemical indexes in tissues and serum and the activities of pepsin in gastric contents were measured after the sacrifice of rats. Moreover, the anti-inflammatory effects in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells of the isolated compounds were determined.

RESULTS

The studies indicated that A. argyi extract could exert strong protective effects on gastric mucosa in ethanol-induced rat model by regulating the levels of inflammatory factors, superoxide dismutase, and malonaldehyde, which were superior to those of positive control at 0.3g/mL. The isolated flavonoids could down-regulate the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines on LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophage cells and eliminate free radicals in the anti-oxidative tests. The effects of eupatilin and jaceosidin, which were substituted by additional methoxy groups, were predominant, indicting the importance of methoxy to the activities.

CONCLUSION

The results confirmed that A. argyi can protect ethanol-induced rats from gastric mucosal injury through inhibiting inflammatory responses and ameliorating oxidative stress. A. argyi is suitable for people with gastric mucosal injuries or unhealthy dietary habits as a necessary dietary supplement, which will promote the planting and application of A. argyi in both agriculture and food industry.

Kaempferol 7-O-β-D-glucoside isolated from the leaves of Cudrania tricuspidata inhibits LPS-induced expression of pro-inflammatory mediators through inactivation of NF-κB, AP-1, and JAK-STAT in RAW 264.7 macrophages

Kaempferol 7-O-β-D-glucoside (KPG), a natural flavonol isolated from Cudrania tricuspidata, has been reported to exert anti-cancer effects; however, its anti-inflammatory effects have not yet been reported. In this study, we demonstrate the suppressive effect of KPG on the production of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages and mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages. KPG downregulated the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) at the protein level and iNOS, COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 at the mRNA level in LPS-treated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Moreover, we elucidated the underlying molecular mechanism, demonstrating that KPG attenuated LPS-induced nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation by decreasing p65 nuclear translocation, inhibiting κBα (IκBα) phosphorylation/degradation and IκB kinaseα/β (IKKα/β) phosphorylation. KPG additionally reduced LPS-induced activator protein-1 (AP-1) activity by inhibiting c-Fos expression in the nucleus, though c-Jun was not affected. Furthermore, we revealed that KPG significantly abrogated the LPS-induced phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 1 (Ser 727, Tyr 701) and STAT3 (Tyr 705) through inhibiting the phosphorylation of Janus kinase (JAK) 1 and JAK2, its upstream activating proteins. Taken together, our data suggest that KPG induces anti-inflammatory activity by blocking NF-κB, AP-1, and JAK-STAT signaling pathways in LPS-treated RAW 264.7 macrophages, thus suppressing inflammatory mediators.

Anti-inflammatory effect of torilidis fructus ethanol extract through inhibition of Src

CONTEXT

Torilidis fructus, fruits of Torilis japonica Decadolle (Umbelliferae), is a medicinal herb traditionally used as a pesticide, an astrictive, or a medicine for various inflammatory diseases.

OBJECTIVES

Due to the lack of pharmacological studies on this herbal medicine, we explored the inhibitory activity of torilidis fructus on the macrophage-mediated inflammatory response using its ethanol extract (Tf-EE).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The Griess assay and prostaglandin (PGE₂) ELISA assay were conducted with Tf-EE (0-75 µg/mL) and LPS (1 µg/mL) treated RAW264.7 cells in cultured media. Tf-EE pretreated RAW264.7 cells were incubated with LPS for 6 h and semi-quantitative PCR was performed. Reporter gene assays, overexpression of target enzymes and immunoblotting were performed on macrophages to determine the molecular targets of Tf-EE.

RESULTS

Tf-EE markedly suppressed the inflammatory response of macrophages, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide (NO) and PGE₂ production with IC₅₀ values of 35.66 and 62.47 µg/mL, respectively. It was also found that Tf-EE reduced the expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 by 80%. Nuclear translocation and activation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB (p65 and p50) were declined by 60% and 30% respectively, and their regulatory events including the phosphorylation of AKT, IκBα, Src, and the formation of complexes between Src and p-p85 were also recognized to be diminished.

CONCLUSIONS

The signalling events managed by Src and p85 complex seemed to be critically involved in Tf-EE-mediated anti-inflammatory response. This might suggest that Tf-EE exhibited anti-inflammatory effects through Src-targeted inhibition of NF-κB.