Intimate Partner Violence among Pregnant Women and Postpartum Depression in Vietnam: A Longitudinal Study

The effect of physical and emotional partner violence exerted during pregnancy on prenatal attachment and depression levels in pregnant women

Exposure of pregnant women to physical and emotional violence during pregnancy adversely affects the health of the mother and the fetus. This study aimed to assess the effects of emotional and physical partner violence on prenatal attachment and depression levels in pregnant women. Five-hundred and ten pregnant women in the second and third trimesters were included in the study. A personal information form, the Epidemiological Research Center Depression Scale, and the prenatal attachment inventory (PAI) were used for data collection. Although 7.5% of the pregnant women were exposed to physical partner violence during pregnancy, 24.3% were exposed to emotional partner violence. Depression was observed in 86.9% of the pregnant women, whereas the mean PAI score was 37.29 ± 10.504. There was a statistically significant relationship between the pregnant women's exposure to physical (p = .046) and emotional partner violence (p < .001) and depression. In this study, it was determined that pregnant women's exposure to emotional partner violence poses a risk for depression during pregnancy (p < .002; odds ratio = .143). As professionals working with pregnant women, obstetricians and maternity nurses should inquire about the exposure of pregnant women to partner violence during antenatal follow-ups.

The impact of intimate partner violence on adverse birth outcomes in public health facilities. A prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

During pregnancy, intimate partner violence (IPV) is a health problem associated with severe adverse birth outcomes. The Ethiopian Demographic Health Survey showed that more than one-third of married women faced IPV. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of IPV during pregnancy on adverse birth outcomes.

METHODS

A prospective cohort study was conducted from September 1st, 2021 to April 30th, 2022. Using a systematic random sampling technique, participants were enrolled from 20 to 24 weeks of gestation at antenatal visits at the selected public health institutions. The validated and modified standards of the World Health Organization Domestic Violence Questionnaire were used to screen for IPV. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression models were used in this study. The relative risk was also calculated to predict the occurrence of adverse birth outcomes.

RESULTS

Overall, 701 pregnant women were followed from 20 to 24 weeks of gestation until delivery in a 1:2 ratio (244 exposed to 457 non-exposed). Preterm birth increased by 1.02 times (RR=1.02, 95 CI; 0.979-1.047), low birth weight with RR= 2.023, 95% CI; 1.201-3.407 and stillbirth (RR= 1.124, 95%CI; 0.43-3.055). Among the exposed groups, 167(23.8%), 83 (11.8%), and 51 (7.3%) had emotional, physical, and sexual violence, respectively. The odds of developing adverse birth outcomes from IPV exposure were [AOR=1.63,95% CI: [1.23, 3.75], emotional violence [AOR= 1.70:95% CI: [1.24, 4.24], and physical violence [AOR= 3.99:95% CI: [1.51, 10.52] times higher than those of their counterparts. No significant association was observed between sexual violence and adverse birth outcomes. Being unsupported by the husband and having previous adverse birth outcomes increased IPV by nearly four-fold [AOR=3.80:95% CI; 1.19, 12.09] and [AOR= 3.70:95% CI:1.49, 9.17], respectively. The odds of mothers with a 2nd visit MUAC measurement of < 23 cm were [AOR=2.81:95% CI; 1.20, 6.61].

CONCLUSION

The incidence of adverse birth outcomes was significantly higher in the physically IPV-exposed group than in the non-exposed group. Therefore, pregnant women should be screened for IPV during their antenatal period. Thus, IPV-exposed pregnant women should be counseled and closely followed up.

Prevalence of sexual violence and associated factors among women attending antenatal care in Debre Markos at public health institutions in north-west Ethiopia, 2021

Background

Sexual violence refers to being forced to perform any unwanted sexual act. Due to the negative effects on both the mother and the fetus, sexual assault during pregnancy is a public health concern. Knowing the prevalence of sexual violence during pregnancy helps policymakers understand the extent of the problem and can be considered the first step toward implementing interventions for prevention and treatment. This study was done to determine the prevalence of sexual violence and its associated factors during pregnancy in public hospitals in Debre Markos.

Methods

An institution-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 306 pregnant women in Debre Markos, north west Ethiopia from May 1 to June 30, 2021, 2021. A systematic random sampling procedure was used to select study participants. Data were collected using a structured and interviewer-administered questionnaire, and a pre-test was done. Both bi-variable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were undertaken to identify significantly associated variables with sexual violence. The adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with its 95% confidence interval (CI) at a p-value of ≤ 0.05 was used to claim statistical association.

Results

There were 304 interviewed respondents with a response rate of 99.3%. In this study, the overall prevalence of sexual violence among pregnant mothers during the current pregnancy was 19.4%. A husband who had no formal education {AOR = 3.48; 95% CI: 1.06, 11.39}, pregnant mothers who had no formal education {AOR =  6.1; 95% CI: 1.50-18.11}, pregnant mothers who had secondary education {AOR = 2.80, 95% CI: 1.15, 6.81}, being a housewife {AOR = 3.87, 95 CI:1.21, 12.37}, and being a governmental employee {AOR = 4.49, 95% CI: 1.22, 16.40} were factors associated with sexual violence at the value of p ≤ 0.05.

Conclusions and recommendations

In this study, approximately one-fifth of the study participants experienced sexual violence during their current pregnancy. To reduce this, interventions should focus on the education of women as well as their partner about violence against women and on initiatives to economically empower women.

Intimate Partner Violence and Perinatal Post-Traumatic Stress and Depression Symptoms: A Systematic Review of Findings in Longitudinal Studies

The link between maternal violence exposure and adverse obstetric outcomes is well-documented, but less is understood about the relationship between intimate partner violence (IPV) exposure and perinatal post-traumatic stress symptoms(PTSS) and depression in women around the world. A systematic review was conducted to synthesize empirical literature on the associations between IPV (e.g., before pregnancy, during pregnancy, postpartum) and post-traumatic stress and depression symptoms in the perinatal period. This review acknowledged the effects of IPV exposure timing, timing of assessment, and IPV subtypes. Forty-seven longitudinal studies met inclusion criteria and were reviewed to determine the effects of IPV exposure on perinatal mental health. Findings suggested a strong relationship between IPV exposure and perinatal mental health. Results were more consistent between perinatal mental health and IPV sustained close to or during the perinatal period than for lifetime IPV exposure. In general, physical, sexual, and psychological IPV were independently associated with perinatal depression and PTSS. Findings underscore the importance of theoretically driven research and the development of treatment protocols for women worldwide.

Intimate partner violence in the postpartum period and its associated factors among women attending a postnatal clinic in Central Ethiopia

Objective:

Intimate partner violence may affect women at any stage of their lives, including during pregnancy and after childbirth, and can have major health consequences for both the mother and the child. Therefore, the study was aimed to assess Intimate partner violence against postpartum women and its associated factors among women attending the postpartum clinic in Central Ethiopia, 2021.

Methods:

The hospital based cross-sectional study design was implemented among postpartum women attending Sendafa Beke Hospital from September to October 2021. Systematic random sampling procedure was used to select 414 eligible postpartum women. Data were collected using a structured interviewer administered questionnaire. The data were entered into Epi Info and exported to SPSS version 24 for analysis. All variables with p-value < 0.05 under adjusted odds ratio were taken as statistical significant associated factors with postpartum intimate partner violence.

Results:

A total of 414 postpartum women participated in the study with a 97% of response rate. The prevalence of postpartum intimate partner violence was 31.4%. The study identified that monthly income 1000–5000 birr (adjusted odds ratio = 3.4; 95% confidence interval = 1.08, 10.5), partners’ alcohol consumption (adjusted odds ratio = 0.17, 95% confidence interval = 0.06, 0.45), decision-maker of household affairs (adjusted odds ratio = 4.8; 95% confidence interval = 1.5, 15.1), and infant’s sex (adjusted odds ratio = 0.03; 95% confidence interval = 0.02, 0.063) were significantly associated with postpartum intimate partner violence.

Conclusion:

According to the findings of this study, nearly one-third of postpartum women were violated by their intimate partner after childbirth. Postpartum intimate partner violence was found to be associated with monthly income, partners’ alcohol intake, decision-maker of household affairs, and infant’s sex. To reduce the magnitude of the problem, different efforts should require from health professional, community, and government. The policy makers, planners and other concerned bodies establish appropriate strategy to prevent and control violence against women.

Landscaping the evidence of intimate partner violence and postpartum depression: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To assess the evidence of the association between exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) and postpartum depression. IPV during pregnancy can have immediate and long-term physical and mental health consequences for the family. Therefore, it has been hypothesised that IPV may affect the risk of developing postpartum depression.

METHODS

A systematic review was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. PubMed, Embase, Global Health Library, Scopus and Google scholar were searched for published studies without restrictions on language, time or study design (up to May 2020). Studies were included if they assessed postpartum depression using the Edinburg Postnatal Depression Scale (cut-off≥10), among women who had been exposed to IPV (emotional, physical and/or sexual abuse). The quality of studies was judged according to the Newcastle-Ottawa scale.

RESULTS

A total of 33 studies were included in the review (participants n=131 131). The majority of studies found an association between exposure to IPV and the development of signs of postpartum depression. Overall, studies measured both exposure and outcome in various ways and controlled for a vast number of different confounders. Thirty percent of the studies were set in low-income and lower-middle-income countries while the rest were set in upper-middle-income and high-income countries and the association did not differ across settings. Among the studies reporting adjusted OR (aOR) (n=26), the significant aOR ranged between 1.18 and 6.87 (95% CI 1.12 to 11.78). The majority of the studies were judged as 'good quality' (n=20/33).

CONCLUSION

We found evidence of an association between exposure to IPV and the development of signs of postpartum depression. Meta-analysis or individual patient data meta-analysis is required to quantify the magnitude of the association between IPV and postpartum depression.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42020209435.

Intimate partner violence during pregnancy and maternal and child health outcomes: a scoping review of the literature from low-and-middle income countries from 2016 - 2021

BACKGROUND

Intimate partner violence (IPV) during pregnancy is significantly associated with negative outcomes for both mother and child. Current evidence indicates an association between low levels of social support and IPV, however there is less evidence from low-and-middle income countries (LMIC) than high-income countries. Globally, the COVID-19 pandemic has radically altered how women can access social support. Hence since 2020, studies investigating IPV and pregnancy have occurred within the changing social context of the pandemic.

OBJECTIVE

This scoping review summarizes the evidence from LMICs about the effects of IPV during pregnancy on maternal and child health. The review includes the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on social support as mentioned in studies conducted since 2020.

DESIGN

Library databases were used to identify papers from 2016 to 2021. These studies reported the maternal and child health outcomes of IPV during pregnancy, and described how social support during pregnancy, and the COVID-19 pandemic, were associated with rates of IPV during pregnancy. Observational study designs, qualitative and mixed methods studies were included.

RESULTS

Twenty - six studies from 13 LMICs were included. Half (n = 13) were cross sectional studies which only collected data at one time-point. IPV during pregnancy was significantly associated with higher odds of postpartum depression, low birth weight, preterm birth and less breastfeeding in the year after birth. Lower levels of social support increased the odds of experiencing IPV during pregnancy, whilst higher levels of social support reduced antenatal anxiety and depression in women experiencing IPV during pregnancy. Of the four studies that investigated IPV during pregnancy throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, only one compared prevalence before and after the pandemic and unexpectedly reported a lower prevalence.

CONCLUSIONS

Further research on the impact of IPV during pregnancy on maternal and child outcomes in LMICs is required, especially evidence from longitudinal studies investigating a wider range of outcomes. To date, there is limited evidence on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on IPV during pregnancy in LMICs, and this should be prioritized as the pandemic continues to affect women's access to social support globally.

Prevalence and Determinants of Physical Violence and Its Impact on Birth Outcomes During Pregnancy in India: Evidence From a Nationally Representative Survey

Physical violence during pregnancy can have negative impact on health status of mother and fetus. Hence, the current study was done to determine the prevalence and determinants of physical violence and its impact on birth outcomes during pregnancy in India. We have analyzed the most recent National Family Health Survey 4 data (NFHS-4) gathered from Demographic Health Survey (DHS) program. Stratification (urban/rural) and clustering (villages/census enumeration blocks [CEBs]) in the sample design was accounted using svyset command. In total, 62,165 ever pregnant women aged 15 to 49 years were included. Prevalence of physical violence during pregnancy in India was 3.3%. Husband/partner (2.7%) was the person most commonly responsible. Women who were widowed/separated/divorced (aPR = 1.88), belonging to the poorest quantile (aPR = 2.32), women who were employed (aPR = 1.42), women in the Southern states (aPR = 3.24), and women whose husband/partner has lesser educational qualification (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR] = 2.02) had significantly higher prevalence of physical violence during pregnancy (p < .001). Women who faced physical violence had significantly higher proportion of miscarriage (4.3%), abortion (3.3%), and stillbirth (1.1%) when compared with women who did not face any violence (4.1% had miscarriage, 1.8% had abortion, and 0.5% had stillbirth; p < .001). These findings show the importance of providing general supportive measures and strengthen the existing punitive legislations to prevent the violence during pregnancy.

The Rate and Risk Factors of Postpartum Depression in Vietnam From 2010 to 2020: A Literature Review

Background: Postpartum depression (PPD) is commonly seen in women after birth and can lead to adverse effects on both the health of mothers and child(ren) development. In Vietnam, there have been a number of studies examining the rate and risk factors of PPD, but none has provided a systematic review.

Aim: This current literature review aims to summarize and synthesize the current state of knowledge of studies conducted in Vietnam to provide a comprehensive understanding of the PPD phenomena during the last 10 years.

Data Sources: A literature search was conducted relying on the most common online databases—MEDLINE/PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar, which included articles if they (i) examined prevalence or risk factors of PPD; (ii) were conducted among Vietnamese participants using either quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method, and (iii) were published from 2010 to 2020. After the filtering process, 18 articles were eligible to be reviewed.

Results: Research studies in Vietnam on PPD are conducted among women at and after 1-month delivery. The rate of PPD reported in Vietnam among mothers at postnatal time points from 1 to 12 months ranged from 8.2 to 48.1%. Risk factors can be clustered into three groups: personal factors, family factors, and environmental factors.

Recommendation: Further research studies should focus on examining PPD at an earlier stage within the first month after birth. The investigation of risk factors in a comprehensive manner for Vietnamese mothers would also be recommended.

Intergenerational effects of violence on women's perinatal wellbeing and infant health outcomes: evidence from a birth cohort study in Central Vietnam

BACKGROUND

Girls exposed to violence have a high risk of being victimized as adults and are more likely than non-abused women to have children who are treated violently. This intergenerational transmission may be especially serious when women suffer violence during pregnancy and early motherhood, as it impairs maternal wellbeing and infant health and development. This study examined the intergenerational effects of being exposed to childhood maltreatment (CM) and prenatal intimate partner violence (p-IPV) on perinatal mental distress and birth outcomes in central Vietnam.

METHODS

A birth cohort study in Hue City, Vietnam was conducted with 150 women in the third trimester of pregnancy (Wave 1) and 3 months after childbirth (Wave 2). Using multivariable logistic regression models, augmented inverse-probability-weighted estimators and structural equation modelling (SEM), we analyzed a theoretical model by evaluating adjusted risk differences and pathways between CM, p-IPV and subsequent perinatal adversity and indicators of infant health problems.

RESULTS

One in two pregnant women experienced at least one form of CM (55.03%) and one in ten pregnant women experienced both CM and p-IPV (10.67%). Mothers who experienced p-IPV or witnessed IPV as a child were approximately twice as likely to experience poor mental health during pregnancy [ARR 1.94, 95% CI (1.20-3.15)]. Infants had a two-fold higher risk of adverse birth outcomes (low birth weight, preterm birth, admission to neonatal intensive care) [ARR 2.45 95% CI (1.42, 4.25)] if their mothers experienced any form of p-IPV, with greater risk if their mothers were exposed to both CM and p-IPV [ARR 3.45 95% CI (1.40, 8.53)]. Notably, significant pathways to p-IPV were found via adverse childhood experience (ACE) events (β = 0.13), neighborhood disorder (β = 0.14) and partner support (β = - 1.3).

CONCLUSION

These results emphasize the detrimental and prolonged nature of the effect of violence during childhood and pregnancy. Exposure to childhood maltreatment and violence during pregnancy increases the risk of maternal mental health difficulties and adverse birth outcomes. Antenatal care systems need to be responsive to women's previous experiences of violence and maternal mental health. The significant protective role of partner support and social support should also be considered when designing tailored interventions to address violence during pregnancy.

Violence and depression among pregnant women in Egypt

BACKGROUND

Depression is a serious mental health disorder that might affect women in the childbearing period. Incidences increase during pregnancy as well as after delivery. Its association with intimate partner violence (defined as physical, sexual, or psychological harm by a current or former partner) has been reported in many countries. Data about this sensitive issue are lacking in Egypt. The aim of the study was to determine the relation between intimate partner violence and depression during pregnancy.

METHODS

This was a case control study conducted at the outpatient clinics in Suez Canal University hospital, from January 2019 to March 2020. The study included two groups, the study group included women exposed to violence during the current pregnancy and a control one included women with no history of violence. Both groups were recruited according to the predetermined inclusion criteria (women aged 18-45 years, continuous marital relationship, no history of depression in current or previous pregnancies, and singleton pregnancy). Women were asked to complete the Arabic validated NorVold Domestic Abuse Questionnaire (measuring four types of abuse: emotional, physical, sexual, and violence in the health care system, the last one being excluded). Depression was evaluated using the Arabic validated form of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (comprises 10 questions that represent patients' feelings in the last 7 days). The main outcome measure was to assess the association between intimate partner violence and depression.

RESULTS

We recruited 158 women in each group. Both groups were matched in their demographic characters. Although emotional violence was reported prominently among women exposed to IPV 87.9% (139/158), it was not significantly reported in depressed women (P value 0.084). Physical and sexual violence were significantly reported among depressed women (P value 0.022 and 0.001, respectively). There was a significant difference between women exposed to violence and those who were not exposed to violence in the total depression scores (13.63 ± 5.47 and 10.65 ± 5.44, respectively with a p value < 0.001). Emotional (p value < 0.001) and sexual violence (mild and severe with p value of 0.026 and 0.002 respectively) had significant roles as risk factors for depression during pregnancy in single regression and after control of other confounders.

CONCLUSION

There was a strong association between intimate partner violence and depression during pregnancy.

Evaluation of the clinical application of the Postpartum Depression Predictors Inventory-Revised for postpartum women in China

AIM

This study was designed to assess the clinical applicability of the Postpartum Depression Predictors Inventory-Revised (PDPI-R) during the 1st month following delivery among women in China and to survey the prevalence of postpartum depression (PPD)-related risk factors included in the PDPI-R in this population.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study which recruited 447 women from the People's Liberation Army Hospital in Hefei of Anhui province. All participants completed the Chinese version of the PDPI-R (PDPI-R-C) and the Chinese version of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (C-EPDS) within 1 month of delivery. The predictive ability of the PDPI-R was then evaluated through receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses.

RESULTS

The PDPI-R-C was able to accurately predict 73.2% of PPD cases (area under the ROC curve = 0.732; 95% CI 0.69-0.78) using a cut-off score of 5.5, as defined by a C-EPDS score of ≥10 (sensitivity = 62.8%; specificity = 73.5%; positive predictive value = 74.5%; negative predictive value = 61.5%). All 13 risk factors in the PDPI-R-C other than socioeconomic status and marital status were associated with the risk of PPD.

CONCLUSIONS

The PDPI-R-C was found to be an effective and easy-to-implement tool that has promise as a means of screening for PPD in Chinese populations.

Intimate partner violence during pregnancy in Vietnam: role of husbands

Intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetrators are often husbands. Understanding factors pertaining to women's male partners is essential for programming interventions against IPV. The objective of the study was to describe husband-related social and behavioural risk factors and assess how they are associated with IPV during pregnancy. Cross-sectional data were collected among 1309 pregnant women with husbands in Dong Anh district, Vietnam. Information on sociodemographic characteristics of husbands, the husband's behaviour and the husband's involvement in pregnancy care was indirectly collected via women's report at first antenatal care visit. Data on exposure to intimate partner violence during pregnancy were collected when the women returned for antenatal care in 30-34 gestational weeks. Logistic regression analyses were used to measure the relationships between IPV during pregnancy and risk factors from the husband. Pregnant women who had husbands who were younger or blue-collar worker/farmer/unemployed had more likelihood to be exposed to IPV. Women with husbands who drank alcohol before sexual intercourse and gambled were more likely to be exposed to IPV repeated times. Those with husbands who had intentions of having a child had over three times increased OR to be exposed to IPV once (AOR = 3.2, 95% CI 1.1-9.7). If the husband had a preference for sons, the woman had 1.5 times increased OR (AOR = 1.5; 95% CI 1.1-1.9) to be exposed to IPV repeated times during pregnancy. This study highlights significant associations between IPV and maternal perceptions of husbands' behaviours and involvement in pregnancy. Findings may help to identify at-risk pregnant women to IPV and guide the development of targeted interventions to prevent IPV from husbands.

The role of intimate partner violence victimization during pregnancy on maternal postpartum depression in Eastern Ethiopia

Background:

Intimate partner violence during pregnancy is a strong predictor of maternal postpartum depression. In Ethiopia, evidence on the association of intimate partner violence during pregnancy with postpartum depression is very limited. To design appropriate intervention, it is thus important to understand how postpartum depression varies as a function of the type and severity of intimate partner violence victimization during pregnancy. The aim of this study is to explore the association of different types of intimate partner violence during pregnancy and its severity with postpartum depression in Eastern Ethiopia.

Method:

A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted from January to October 2018. The study included a sample of 3015 postpartum women residing in Eastern Ethiopia. The cutoff point for postpartum depression was defined as ⩾13 points according to the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. The prevalence ratio with 95% confidence intervals was calculated, and the association between the main predictor (i.e. intimate partner violence during pregnancy) and the outcome variable (postpartum depression) was determined using log binomial regression model.

Results:

16.3% (95% confidence interval: 14.9–17.7) of women experienced postpartum depression. After controlling potential confounding factors, the prevalence of postpartum depression among women exposed to severe physical intimate partner violence during pregnancy was 1.98 times higher as compared to those not exposed to physical intimate partner violence during pregnancy (adjusted prevalence ratio = 1.98; 95% confidence interval: 1.53–2.54). Exposure to psychological intimate partner violence during pregnancy was found to increase the prevalence of postpartum depression by 1.79 as compared to non-exposure to psychological intimate partner violence during pregnancy (adjusted prevalence ratio = 1.79; 95% confidence interval: 1.48–2.18).

Conclusion:

The study provides evidence that psychological and severe physical intimate partner violence during pregnancy were significantly associated with maternal postpartum depression. Screening of pregnant women for intimate partner violence and providing them the necessary support can minimize the risk to postpartum depression.

Depression and its associated factors among pregnant women in central Vietnam

To date, little attention has been given to prenatal depression, especially in low and middle-income countries. The aim of this research was to assess the prevalence of depression and its associated factors amongst pregnant women in a central Vietnamese city. This cross-sectional study included 150 pregnant women from 29 to 40 weeks of gestation, from eight wards of Hue city, via quota sampling from February to May 2019. We employed the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) to assess depression. Findings suggest the need to provide routine screening of pregnant women in primary care for depressive symptoms and other mental health problems.

Depression and Domestic Violence Experiences Among Asian Women: A Systematic Review

Purpose

To determine the association of postpartum depression with domestic violence experiences among women in Asia.

Background

Postpartum depression (PPD) is an important cause of maternal morbidity as well as mortality. There is increasing evidence that domestic violence (DV) increases the risk of PPD.

Methods

We performed literature searches using the databases PUBMED, SCOPUS, Web of Science and Google Scholar, for studies published between January 2010 and May 2019. The keywords “postpartum”, “postnatal”, “depression”, and “violence” were used. Observational studies conducted within Asia, and written in the English language, were included.

Results

In the 38 studies included in this review (with 37,087 participants), the prevalence of PPD ranged between 8.2% to 70% and that of DV between 6.1% to 67.4%. There were 1.6 to 7.1 higher odds of PPD among sufferers of DV. Intimate partner violence (IPV) was the most relevant factor that women experiencing psychological abuse (which was the most prevalent form of IPV) were more at risk for, and violence/intimidation by other family members was also associated with PPD. Domestic violence increased the risk of suicidal ideation in PPD.

Discussion

The findings of the review unequivocally shows the association between domestic violence and PPD. Maternal mental health is a neglected area of healthcare in many parts of Asia. Likewise, domestic violence is a readily recognized, but inadequately addressed social issue. We recommend that healthcare workers be trained to recognize and support the women who are vulnerable to violence and depression during pregnancy and postpartum. Policies need to be developed at national and global levels to tackle these issues with utmost urgency.