1
|
Islam MS, Chowdhury AI, Shill LC, Reza S, Alam MR. Heavy metals induced health risk assessment through consumption of selected commercially available spices in Noakhali district of Bangladesh. Heliyon 2023; 9:e21746. [PMID: 37954396 PMCID: PMC10638016 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023] Open
Abstract
There are growing concerns for food safety due to the risks associated with heavy metal contamination of culinary herbs and spices in developing countries like Bangladesh. The objective of the present cross-sectional study is to determine the concentrations of the heavy metals Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), and Iron (Fe) in the branded and non-branded spices collected from the Noakhali district by Atomic absorption spectrophotometry method, as well as to assess the health hazard risk associated with heavy metals intake via consumption of spices. The findings revealed that the greatest concentrations of Pb (15.47 ± 1.93), Cd (1.65 ± 0.011), Cr (31.99 ± 3.97), Cu (18.84 ± 1.97), and Fe (9.29 ± 1.71) were found in Cardamom, Coriander leaf, Bay leaf, Dried chili, and Black pepper respectively. Around 37 % of Cr and 5 % of Fe Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) were greater than reference doses (RfD). All spices had Total Hazard Quotient (THQ) values for Pb, Cd, Cu, and Fe that were below acceptable, and 37 % of all spices had Total Target Hazard Quotient (TTHQ) values for Pb, Cd, Cu, and Fe that were over the standard range, suggesting adverse health impacts for consumers. Green chili, ginger, coriander leaf, and all kinds of chili powder and turmeric powder have been reported to have exceptionally high TTHQ levels of Cr. The estimated carcinogenic risk for chromium in non-branded coriander leaf was found to be higher than safe levels. This study provides valuable insights into the commonly consumed spices in Bangladesh and their potential health risks associated with heavy metal contamination. The findings of this study can be used by regulatory authorities to develop effective strategies and actions to mitigate these risks and safeguard public health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Md Shahedul Islam
- Department of Food Technology and Nutrition Science, Noakhali Science and Technology University, Noakhali, Bangladesh
| | - Akibul Islam Chowdhury
- Department of Food Technology and Nutrition Science, Noakhali Science and Technology University, Noakhali, Bangladesh
- Department of Nutrition and Food Engineering, Daffodil International University, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Lincon Chandra Shill
- Department of Food Technology and Nutrition Science, Noakhali Science and Technology University, Noakhali, Bangladesh
| | - Sompa Reza
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Mohammad Rahanur Alam
- Department of Food Technology and Nutrition Science, Noakhali Science and Technology University, Noakhali, Bangladesh
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Nyero A, Achaye I, Upoki Anywar G, Malinga GM. Inorganic nutrients and heavy metals in some wild edible plants consumed by rural communities in Northern Uganda: Implications for human health. Heliyon 2023; 9:e18999. [PMID: 37636347 PMCID: PMC10447991 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
For centuries, wild edible plant species have sustained local communities across Africa by supplementing households' diets in seasons of food shortage. Wild edible plants contain inorganic nutrients, which are essential for the proper functioning of organisms. However, their nutritional contents have not been well researched and are generally poorly understood. This study aimed to quantify the levels of inorganic micro-and macronutrients as well as heavy metals (Mg, Ca, K, Fe, Zn, Cd, Hg and Pb) in selected wild edible plants traditionally consumed among the Acholi communities in northern Uganda, and associated health risks of consuming them. The leaves and young stems of 12 wild edible plants, viz: Acalypha rhomboidea, Asystacia gangetica, Crassocephalum sacrobasis, Crotalaria ochroleuca, Heterotis rotundifolia, Hibiscus cannabinus, Hibiscus sp., Hibiscus surattensis, Ipomoea eriocarpa, Maerua angolensis, Senna obtusifolia and Vigna membranacea were air-dried and crushed to powder. The powders were then macerated using aqua regia solution and analyzed in triplicates using the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS). The target hazard quotient (THQ) of Pb was calculated for non-carcinogenic health risks. Mg, Ca, K, Fe, Zn and Pb were detectable in all the wild edible plants sampled. All inorganic nutrients (mg/100gdw), were below the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA); Mg (9.4 ± 0.19 to 10.4 ± 0.15), Ca (119 ± 5.82 to 1265 ± 14.9), Fe (3.29 ± 0.02 to 11.2 ± 0.09), Zn (0.52 ± 0.02 to 2.36 ± 0.03). Hg and Cd were below detectable limits in all the samples tested. The content of Pb (0.69 ± 0.11 to1.22 ± 0.07) was higher than the CODEX and EU limits of 0.1 ppm (0.001 mg/g) but was below the recommended threshold of 1. The health risk assessment revealed no potential hazards both in children and adults. However, there is a need to study the bioavailability of Pb when the vegetables are consumed due to factors such as indigestion and antinutritional compounds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alfred Nyero
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Gulu University, P.O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda
| | - Innocent Achaye
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Gulu University, P.O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda
| | - Godwin Upoki Anywar
- Department of Plant Sciences, Microbiology and Biotechnology, College of Natural Sciences, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Kasozi KI, Otim EO, Zirintunda G, Tamale A, Otim O. Multivariate analysis of heavy metals content of beef from Soroti, Uganda. Toxicol Rep 2023; 10:400-408. [PMID: 37007219 PMCID: PMC10060145 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2023.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/19/2023] [Indexed: 04/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Information about food hygiene and quality in the sub-Saharan African countries remains scarce at a time when many of their citizenry are beginning to acquire the much coveted middle income status. Confounding this are challenges linked to monitoring on a continuous basis the safety of food produced by such lucrative industries as the beef industry. The objective of the current study was to initiate a process of encouraging changes in the status quo, by showing how a first step in that direction might look like. Using heavy metal contents of representative beef samples from butcheries in Soroti, Uganda, typical of a sub-Saharan country, we demonstrate how relationships and common sources of metals in food could be identified in a multivariate space. Beef samples from 40 sites were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry for iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co) and cadmium (Cd). The study showed that all beef samples contained these metals, the extent of which were in the order: Fe > Zn >> Ni, Cr > Pb > Cu, Co > Cd. By correlation analysis, the pairs Ni and Cr, Cd and Co, Ni and Fe or Cr and Fe were found to be most likely coming from similar sources. At least three distinct characteristics of beef consumed in Soroti were also found, a distinction perhaps arising from three major categories of feedlots used to raise donor cattle. The incremental risk of children or adults developing cancer over a lifetime was estimated and found to fall into three categories, two of which are separately explained by the presence of Cr or Ni. The sources of these metals remain a matter of speculation on our part. More studies are needed to determine these sources and to understand the nature of cancer risk in the three categories of beef identified here.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Eric Oloya Otim
- College of Engineering and Sciences, Purdue University Northwestern, IN, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Gulu University, Gulu, Uganda
| | - Gerald Zirintunda
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University, Box 236, Tororo, Uganda
| | - Andrew Tamale
- Department of Wildlife Resources, School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Ochan Otim
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Gulu University, Gulu, Uganda
- Department of Humanities and Sciences, University of California – Los Angeles, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Tap versus Bottled Water in Kampala, Uganda: Analyses of Consumers’ Perception alongside Bacteriological and Physicochemical Quality. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 2022:9336247. [PMID: 35712041 PMCID: PMC9197662 DOI: 10.1155/2022/9336247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In Uganda, tap water is always ensured to be potable. However, people are not sure whether tap water is generally safe for drinking without being boiled. Conversely, bottled water consumption is on the increase in Uganda. The main problem lies in the cost of energy for boiling tap water or purchasing bottled water. This study analyzed results of laboratory tests and consumers’ perception for comparison of tap and bottled water in Nakawa division, Kampala. Tap water was sampled at four representative locations. At least 16 different brands of bottled water were considered. The top four most consumer-preferred bottled water brands were selected for further analysis. In our study, 28.8%, 6.06%, and 13.64% of the 142 respondents indicated that bottled water had taste, color, and smell, respectively. However, 27.5%, 25.4%, and 34.5% of the respondents agreed that tap water had taste, color, and smell, respectively. Both tap and bottled water met the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for pH, total dissolved solids, chloride, copper, sodium, sulfate, and nitrate. However, a tap water sample was found to contain Coliform bacteria. In this line, affected communities need to thoroughly boil the raw tap water to kill the pathogens. All tap water samples yielded iron concentrations above the WHO recommended limit. Student's t-tests showed that tap and bottled water samples were significantly
different with respect to total dissolved solids, pH, chloride, calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium, sulfate, and nitrate. We emphasize the need for routine maintenance of the water distribution system to check for leakages which can be potential source of contaminations.
Collapse
|
5
|
Liu X, Yang H, Yan X, Xu S, Fan Y, Xu H, Ma Y, Hou W, Javed R, Zhang Y. Co-exposure of polystyrene microplastics and iron aggravates cognitive decline in aging mice via ferroptosis induction. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2022; 233:113342. [PMID: 35228028 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.113342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of co-exposure of iron and microplastics (MPs) on the cognitive function of aged humans and animals. It was already known that individual iron or MPs exposure can initiate potential neurotoxicity. However, the combined effect of MPs and iron remained to be elucidated. In this study, the toxicity of iron, MPs, co-treatment of MPs & iron, and the underlying mechanisms were evaluated in vivo. Our findings suggest that 5 µm MPs could enter the aging mice brain and accumulate in cortex and hippocampus. In addition, MPs and iron have a good binding ability, therefore, co-exposure of MPs & iron cause significant iron overload and cognitive deficits as compared to control and individual treatments of iron and MPs. Moreover, the lipid peroxidation and inflammation, which are involved in ferroptosis, get significantly elevated by co-exposure of iron and MPs. Taken together, our results provide compelling evidence that co-exposure of iron and MPs could aggravate the cognitive impairment via disturbing brain iron homeostasis and inducing ferroptosis in cognitive-related brain areas, what's more, the results warn that MPs may act as vectors of pollutants (mostly heavy metals) increasing the health burden on body.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiu Liu
- The First Clinical College, China Medical University, 77 Puhe Avenue, Shenbei New District, Shenyang 110122, China
| | - Hekai Yang
- The First Clinical College, China Medical University, 77 Puhe Avenue, Shenbei New District, Shenyang 110122, China
| | - Xinzhu Yan
- Department of Tissue Engineering, School of Intelligent Medicine, China Medical University, 77 Puhe Avenue, Shenbei New District, Shenyang 110122, China
| | - Shuangfeng Xu
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, No.195, Chuangxin Road, Hunnan District, Shenyang 110169, China
| | - Yonggang Fan
- Institute of Health Sciences, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang 110122, China
| | - He Xu
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Medicine, Shenzhen University, 1066 Xueyuan Road, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Yue Ma
- Institute of Health Sciences, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang 110122, China
| | - Weijian Hou
- Department of Tissue Engineering, School of Intelligent Medicine, China Medical University, 77 Puhe Avenue, Shenbei New District, Shenyang 110122, China
| | - Rabia Javed
- Department of Tissue Engineering, School of Intelligent Medicine, China Medical University, 77 Puhe Avenue, Shenbei New District, Shenyang 110122, China
| | - Yanhui Zhang
- Department of Tissue Engineering, School of Intelligent Medicine, China Medical University, 77 Puhe Avenue, Shenbei New District, Shenyang 110122, China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
A water-stable 3-fold parallel interpenetrated Cd(II) coordination polymer as multi-responsive luminescent sensor for detecting Fe3+, Cr2O72− and FZD in aqueous media. J Mol Struct 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2021.131792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
|
7
|
Xu Z, Liu J, Wang E, Zhao C, Hu X, Chu KH, Wang L. Detoxification and recovery after cadmium exposure in the freshwater crab Sinopotamon henanense. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:58050-58067. [PMID: 34101120 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-14528-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Cadmium (Cd) is a common pollutant in the aquatic environment, which puts the health and safety of aquatic organisms and humans at risk. In the present study, the freshwater crab Sinopotamon henanense was exposed to Cd (0, 50, 100, and 500 μg·L-1) for 14 d (0-14th d), followed by 21 d (14-35th d) of depuration. The changes in Cd bioaccumulation, microstructure, biomacromolecules (polysaccharides, neutral lipids, DNA and total proteins), and biochemical parameters (SOD, CAT, GR, TrxR, MDA and AChE) in the gills and hepatopancreas were tested. The injured microstructure, activated antioxidant system, increased MDA, and inhibited AChE of the gills and hepatopancreas responded with progressive bioaccumulation of Cd. Meanwhile, the polysaccharides and neutral lipids in the hepatopancreas reduced and DNA synthesis enhanced. During depuration, more than 58.80 ± 8.53% and 13.84 ± 12.11% of Cd was excreted from the gills and hepatopancreas, respectively. Recovery of microstructure and biomacromolecules as well as alleviated oxidative damage and neurotoxicity were also found in these two organs. Additionally, based on PCA, Ihis, GR and MDA were identified as the optimal biomarkers indicating the health status of crabs. In conclusion, S. henanense could resist Cd stress through antioxidant defence and self-detoxification.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zihan Xu
- School of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, Shanxi Province, China
| | - Jing Liu
- School of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, Shanxi Province, China
| | - Ermeng Wang
- School of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, Shanxi Province, China
| | - Chenyun Zhao
- School of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, Shanxi Province, China
| | - Xuelei Hu
- School of Biology and Food Engineering, Guangdong University of Education, Guangzhou, 510303, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Ka Hou Chu
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Lan Wang
- School of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, Shanxi Province, China.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Perin M, Dallegrave A, Suchecki Barnet L, Zanchetti Meneghini L, de Araújo Gomes A, Pizzolato TM. Pharmaceuticals, pesticides and metals/metalloids in Lake Guaíba in Southern Brazil: Spatial and temporal evaluation and a chemometrics approach. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 793:148561. [PMID: 34175608 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Compiling and reporting data related to the presence of pharmaceuticals and pesticides are crucial means of assessing the risk those chemicals pose to human health and environment. Data sets from different sources were combined using a data fusion approach to produce a spatial and temporal variation of contaminants presents in water from Lake Guaíba (29°55'-30°24' S; 51°01'-51°20' W). Lake Guaíba is a 496 km2 water body situated in the geological depression of Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil; that is fed by several rivers from the metropolitan area, the 5th largest metro area in Brazil, with approximately 5 million inhabitants. Analytical methodology to quantify pharmaceuticals and pesticides by LC-QTOF-MS and GC-MS/MS was validated for 41 pharmaceutical and 62 pesticides. Furthermore, 27 chemical elements were analyzed by ICP-MS, and physical chemical parameters were determined using established methodologies. All validation parameters were in accordance with the National Institute of Metrology, Standardization, and Industrial Quality. Thirty-five water samples were analyzed from January to August 2019, and 15 pharmaceuticals and 25 pesticides were present in concentrations ranging from 6.00 ng L-1 to 580.00 ng L-1. Twenty-seven elements were analyzed during the same period, and 18 were present in concentrations ranging from 0.2 μg L-1 to 7060 μg L-1. Samples were tagged according to the points and months of collection to identify temporal and spatial patterns. The main findings show that the compounds are distributed throughout the studied area without an apparent regular pattern, suggesting that events in a specific point affect the entire ecosystem. Conversely, temporal variations were well defined, as samples were grouped according to the climatic conditions of the months of collection. Considering the calculated quotient risks, atrazine, cyproconazole, diuron, and simazine showed the highest risk levels for algae; acetaminophen, diclofenac, and ibuprofen showed the highest risk levels for aquatics invertebrates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maurício Perin
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Química, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, 91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Alexsandro Dallegrave
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Química, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, 91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Lucas Suchecki Barnet
- Laboratório Federal de Defesa Agropecuária - LFDA, Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento do Brasil, Estrada da Ponta Grossa 3036, 91780-580 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Zanchetti Meneghini
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Química, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, 91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Adriano de Araújo Gomes
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Química, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, 91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Tânia Mara Pizzolato
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Química, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, 91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Omokpariola DO, Omokpariola PL. Health and exposure risk assessment of heavy metals in rainwater samples from selected locations in Rivers State, Nigeria. PHYSICAL SCIENCES REVIEWS 2021. [DOI: 10.1515/psr-2020-0090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Rainwater has being getting popularity in use due to lack of portable water sources in Nigeria. The study seeks to evaluate the health and exposure risk assessment of heavy metals from the usage of rainwater from inhabitants of four oil producing area of Rivers State, Nigeria. A total of 32 rainwater samples were collected from different sampling surfaces (ambient, zinc, aluminium, asbestos and stone-coated) to analyse for arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) using inductively coupled plasma – optical emission spectrophotometer. Analysed concentration (mg/L) showed varying results across different sampling surfaces converted to average concentration (mg/kg) was below WHO/FAO recommended guideline with no issue associated. Health and Exposure risk assessment were performed on analysed results from rainwater samples as non-carcinogenic risk assessment showed that HI value is less than 1.0 indicating no risk to population who consumes rainwater across different roofing surfaces in Rivers state. Carcinogenic risk assessment showed that chromium-VI were found to be the highest contributor to cancer risk across all sampling surfaces. Special treatment and regulations should be taken into consideration especially on stone-coated roof before administering to children, as they are prone to health issues due to developing immunity compared to adults.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Patrick Leonard Omokpariola
- Directorate of Chemical Evaluation and Regulation, National Agency for Food, Drug Administration and Control , Lagos , Nigeria
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Kasozi KI, Hamira Y, Zirintunda G, Alsharif KF, Altalbawy FMA, Ekou J, Tamale A, Matama K, Ssempijja F, Muyinda R, Kawooya F, Pius T, Kisakye H, Bogere P, Matovu H, Omadang L, Etiang P, Mbogua J, Ochieng JJ, Osuwat LO, Mujinya R, Batiha GES, Otim O. Descriptive Analysis of Heavy Metals Content of Beef From Eastern Uganda and Their Safety for Public Consumption. Front Nutr 2021; 8:592340. [PMID: 33644107 PMCID: PMC7905049 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2021.592340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we initiated an effort to generate information about beef safety in Uganda. Our entry point was to assess by atomic absorption spectrophotometry the levels of essential elements copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn), and non-essential elements lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), and cadmium (Cd) in 40 beef samples collected from within and around Soroti (Uganda). The information was used to evaluate the safety of consuming such beef against the World Health Organization (WHO) limits. The latter was accomplished by (i) estimating the daily intake (EDI) of each metal in the study area, (ii) modeling the non-cancer health risk using the target hazard quotient (THQ) and (iii) modeling the cancer risk using the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR). The study finds that the mean concentrations (±95% CI) and EDI were in the order of Fe > Zn > Cr > Ni > Pb > Co > Cu > Cd. Cancer risk was found to be due to Ni > Cr > Cd > Pb and significantly higher in children than adults. The latter particularly demonstrates the importance of Ni poisoning in the study area. Overall, while essential elements in our beef samples were below WHO limits (hence no health risks), non-essential elements had high health and cancer risks due to higher levels of Cr and Ni.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Keneth Iceland Kasozi
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda.,School of Medicine, Kabale University, Kabale, Uganda
| | - Yunusu Hamira
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Gerald Zirintunda
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Khalaf F Alsharif
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia
| | - Farag M A Altalbawy
- National Institute of Laser Enhanced Sciences, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Justine Ekou
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Andrew Tamale
- Department of Wildlife and Aquatic Animal Resources, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Kevin Matama
- School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Fred Ssempijja
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Robert Muyinda
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Francis Kawooya
- School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Theophilus Pius
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, School of Allied Health Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Hellen Kisakye
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Paul Bogere
- Faculty of Agriculture and Environmental Science, Muni University, Arua, Uganda
| | - Henry Matovu
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Leonard Omadang
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Patrick Etiang
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Joseph Mbogua
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Juma John Ochieng
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | | | - Regan Mujinya
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Gaber El-Saber Batiha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Damanhour, Egypt
| | - Ochan Otim
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Gulu University, Gulu, Uganda.,Department of Humanities and Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Kasozi KI, Otim EO, Ninsiima HI, Zirintunda G, Tamale A, Ekou J, Musoke GH, Muyinda R, Matama K, Mujinya R, Matovu H, Ssempijja F, Eze ED, Atino M, Udechukwu B, Kayima R, Etiang P, Ayikobua ET, Kembabazi S, Usman IM, Sulaiman SO, Natabo PC, Kyeyune GN, Batiha GES, Otim O. An analysis of heavy metals contamination and estimating the daily intakes of vegetables from Uganda. TOXICOLOGY RESEARCH AND APPLICATION 2021. [DOI: 10.1177/2397847320985255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Environmental contamination with elevated levels of copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), chromium (Cr6+), cadmium (Cd), and nickel (Ni)—all states of which are found in Uganda—raises health risk to the public. Pb, Cr6+, Cd, and Ni for instance are generally considered nonessential to cellular functions, notwithstanding the importance of the oxidative state of the metals in bioavailability. As such, we aimed in this study (i) to evaluate heavy metal concentrations in four vegetables from a typical open-air market in Uganda, (ii) to assess the safety of consuming these vegetables against the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended limits of heavy metals consumption, and (iii) to formulate a model of estimated daily intake (EDI) among consumers in the country. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study conducted in five georeferenced markets of Bushenyi district in January 2020. Amaranthus, cabbages, scarlet eggplants, and tomatoes were collected from open markets, processed, and analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry. Modeled EDI, principal component (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA) were conducted to identify relationships in the samples. Results: The levels of essential elements in the four vegetables were found to fall from Co > Cu > Fe > Zn. Those of non-essential metals were significantly higher and followed the pattern Cd > Cr > Pb > Ni. The highest EDI values were those of Cu in scarlet eggplants, Zn in amaranthus, Fe in amaranthus, Co in amaranthus, Pb in cabbages, total Cr in scarlet eggplant, Cd in cabbages and tomatoes, and Ni in cabbages. In comparison to international limits, EDIs for Zn, Cu, Co and Fe were low while Ni in cabbages were high. PCA showed high variations in scarlet eggplant and amaranthus. The study vegetables were found to be related with each other, not according to the location of the markets from where they were obtained, but according to their species by CA. Conclusion: The presence of non-essential elements above WHO limits raises policy challenges for the consumption and marketing of vegetables in the study area. Furthermore, low EDIs of essential elements in the vegetables create demand for nutritious foods to promote healthy communities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Keneth Iceland Kasozi
- Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
- School of Medicine, Kabale University, Kabale, Uganda
| | - Eric Oloya Otim
- College of Engineering and Sciences, Purdue University Northwest, Hammond, IN, USA
| | | | - Gerald Zirintunda
- Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Andrew Tamale
- Department of Wildlife Resources, School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Justin Ekou
- Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Grace Henry Musoke
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Cavendish University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Robert Muyinda
- Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Kevin Matama
- School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Regan Mujinya
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Henry Matovu
- Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Fred Ssempijja
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | | | - Mauryn Atino
- School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Bede Udechukwu
- School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Ronald Kayima
- School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Patrick Etiang
- Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | | | - Stellamaris Kembabazi
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Ibe Michael Usman
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Sheu Oluwadare Sulaiman
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
- Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Phyllis Candy Natabo
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Grace Nambatya Kyeyune
- Directorate of Research, Natural Chemotherapeutics Research Institute, Ministry of Health, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Gaber El-Saber Batiha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Damanhour, AlBeheira, Egypt
| | - Ochan Otim
- Department of Humanities and Sciences, University of California – Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Gulu University, Gulu, Uganda
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Hung DT, Thi Cuc V, Thi Bich Phuong V, Thi Thanh Diu D, Thi Huyen Trang N, Phuong Thoa N, Thi Tuyet Chinh D, Manh Hung T, Manh Linh C, Van Long N. Evaluation of Drinking Water Quality in Schools in a District Area in Hanoi, Vietnam. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH INSIGHTS 2020; 14:1178630220959672. [PMID: 33013160 PMCID: PMC7513401 DOI: 10.1177/1178630220959672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Drinking water quality affects directly human health. Assessment and prevention of water-borne diseases are crucial for primary prevention, especially for children. OBJECTIVE The main aim of this study was to investigate the quality of drinking water from tap water in preschools and primary schools in a district area in Hanoi City, Vietnam. METHODS A cross-sectional study was performed from August to October 2019. Water samples from tap water of 154 schools in a district area of Hanoi were collected to determine the quality of drinking water. From each school, at least 2 bottles of water samples were collected on the basis of a standard operating procedure (SOP). Each water sample was analyzed for microbial and physicochemical parameters, including Color, Taste and Odor, Turbidity, pH, Nitrite, Nitrate, Ammonium, Total Iron, Permanganate, Chloride, Hardness, Total Manganese, Sulfate, Arsenic, Coliform, and E.coli, by analytical methods. The obtained values of each parameter were compared with the standard values set by WHO and National Technical Regulation on Domestic Water Quality of Vietnam. RESULTS All of the schools employed community water system as a main source for drinking water. The results showed that all tested samples were found to be within the standards for some physicochemical properties, including Color, Taste and Odor, Hardness, Chloride, Total Iron (Fe2+ và Fe3+), Total Manganese (Mn), Nitrate (NO3 -), Sulfate (SO4 2-), and Total Arsenic (As). On the other hand, some samples did not meet the allowable limits of the national standard, due to pH (3.9%), Turbidity (0.6%), Nitrite (3.2%), Permanganate (6.5%), and Ammonium (5.8%). Furthermore, the microbial data revealed that the substandard water samples from municipal water systems were contaminated by Coliform (9.7%) and/or E.coli (7.8%). CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Contaminants such as bacterial and chemical agents in to drinking water could be occurred during transport, storage and handling before using by the consumer without regular surveillance. A periodic treatment procedure and monitoring system to keep the level of microbial and chemical contamination of drinking water in schools under control should be performed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dang The Hung
- Laboratory Center, Hanoi University of
Public Health, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Vu Thi Cuc
- Laboratory Center, Hanoi University of
Public Health, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | | | - Dao Thi Thanh Diu
- Laboratory Center, Hanoi University of
Public Health, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | | | | | | | - Ta Manh Hung
- National Institute of Drug Quality
Control, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Chu Manh Linh
- Laboratory Center, Hanoi University of
Public Health, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Nguyen Van Long
- Laboratory Center, Hanoi University of
Public Health, Hanoi, Vietnam
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Bwire G, Sack DA, Kagirita A, Obala T, Debes AK, Ram M, Komakech H, George CM, Orach CG. The quality of drinking and domestic water from the surface water sources (lakes, rivers, irrigation canals and ponds) and springs in cholera prone communities of Uganda: an analysis of vital physicochemical parameters. BMC Public Health 2020; 20:1128. [PMID: 32680495 PMCID: PMC7368733 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-020-09186-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Water is the most abundant resource on earth, however water scarcity affects more than 40% of people worldwide. Access to safe drinking water is a basic human right and is a United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6. Globally, waterborne diseases such as cholera are responsible for over two million deaths annually. Cholera is a major cause of ill-health in Africa and Uganda. This study aimed to determine the physicochemical characteristics of the surface and spring water in cholera endemic communities of Uganda in order to promote access to safe drinking water. METHODS A longitudinal study was carried out between February 2015 and January 2016 in cholera prone communities of Uganda. Surface and spring water used for domestic purposes including drinking from 27 sites (lakes, rivers, irrigation canal, springs and ponds) were tested monthly to determine the vital physicochemical parameters, namely pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity and turbidity. RESULTS Overall, 318 water samples were tested. Twenty-six percent (36/135) of the tested samples had mean test results that were outside the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended drinking water range. All sites (100%, 27/27) had mean water turbidity values greater than the WHO drinking water recommended standards and the temperature of above 17 °C. In addition, 27% (3/11) of the lake sites and 2/5 of the ponds had pH and dissolved oxygen respectively outside the WHO recommended range of 6.5-8.5 for pH and less than 5 mg/L for dissolved oxygen. These physicochemical conditions were ideal for survival of Vibrio. cholerae. CONCLUSIONS This study showed that surface water and springs in the study area were unsafe for drinking and had favourable physicochemical parameters for propagation of waterborne diseases including cholera. Therefore, for Uganda to attain the SDG 6 targets and to eliminate cholera by 2030, more efforts are needed to promote access to safe drinking water. Also, since this study only established the vital water physicochemical parameters, further studies are recommended to determine the other water physicochemical parameters such as the nitrates and copper. Studies are also needed to establish the causal-effect relationship between V. cholerae and the physicochemical parameters.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Godfrey Bwire
- Department of Community and Behavioral Sciences, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - David A Sack
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Dove Project, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Atek Kagirita
- Uganda National Health Laboratory Services (UNHS/CPHL), Ministry of Health, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Tonny Obala
- Department of Quality Control, Uganda National Drug Authority, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Amanda K Debes
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Dove Project, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Malathi Ram
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Dove Project, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Henry Komakech
- Department of Community and Behavioral Sciences, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Christine Marie George
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Dove Project, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Christopher Garimoi Orach
- Department of Community and Behavioral Sciences, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Kampala, Uganda
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Ssempijja F, Iceland Kasozi K, Daniel Eze E, Tamale A, Ewuzie SA, Matama K, Ekou J, Bogere P, Mujinya R, Musoke GH, Atusiimirwe JK, Zirintunda G, Kalange M, Lyada J, Kiconco R, Pius T, Nandala C, Kamugisha RM, Hamira Y, Fernandez EM, Musinguzi SP. Consumption of Raw Herbal Medicines Is Associated with Major Public Health Risks amongst Ugandans. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 2020:8516105. [PMID: 32565841 PMCID: PMC7291314 DOI: 10.1155/2020/8516105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 05/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Background Community consumption of herbal plants in developing countries is a common practice, however, scarcity of information on their physiochemical composition is a major public health concern. In Uganda, Vernonia amygdalina is of interest in rural communities due to its therapeutical action on both bacterial and protozoal parasites, however no studies have been conducted to assess the heavy metal concentrations in traditional plants used in alternative medicine. The aim of the study was to establish concentrations of heavy metals in Vernonia amygdalina, model the estimated daily intake (EDI), and assess both the non-cancer-related health risk using the target hazard quotient (THQ), and the risk related to cancer through the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for the Ugandan population. Methods Leaves of Vernonia amygdalina were collected from 20 georeferenced villages and processed into powder in the laboratory using standard methods. These were then analyzed in the laboratory using an atomic absorption spectrometer for lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), cobalt (Co), iron (Fe), cadmium (Cd), and nickel (Ni). Concentrations were compared against the World Health Organization (WHO) limits. The EDI, THQ, and ILCR were modelled and significance was measured at 95% confidence. Results The study showed that mean ± SEM concentrations of heavy metals were highest in the order of Cr, 121.8 ± 4.291 ppm > Ni, 84.09 ± 2.725 ppm > Zn, 53.87 ± 2.277 ppm > Pb, 40.61 ± 3.891 ppm > Cu, 28.75 ± 2.202 ppm > Fe, 14.15 ± 0.7271 ppm > Co, 7.923 ± 0.7674 ppm > Cd, 0.1163 ± 0.005714 ppm. Concentrations of Pb, Cr, Zn, Co, and Ni were significantly higher than the WHO limits. The EDI was significantly higher in children than in adults, demonstrating an increased risk of toxicity in children. The THQ and ILCR were over 1000 times higher in all Ugandans, demonstrating the undesirable health risks following oral consumption of Vernonia amygdalina due to very high Cr and Ni toxicities, respectively. Conclusion Consumption of raw Vernonia amygdalina was associated with a high carcinogenic risk, demonstrating a need to enact policies to promote physiochemical screening of herbal medicines used in developing countries against toxic compounds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fred Ssempijja
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Box 71, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Keneth Iceland Kasozi
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Box 71, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Ejike Daniel Eze
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Box 71, Bushenyi, Uganda
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Kabale University, Box 317, Kabale, Uganda
| | - Andrew Tamale
- Department of Wildlife and Aquatic Resources, School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
- Department of Public Health, School of Allied Health, Kampala International University Western Campus, Box 71, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Sylvia Anurika Ewuzie
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University Western Campus, Box 71, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Kevin Matama
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University Western Campus, Box 71, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Justine Ekou
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University, Arapai Campus, Box 203, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Paul Bogere
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University, Arapai Campus, Box 203, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Regan Mujinya
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Box 71, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Grace Henry Musoke
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Cavendish University, Box 33145, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Jovile Kasande Atusiimirwe
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Box 71, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Gerald Zirintunda
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University, Arapai Campus, Box 203, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Muhamudu Kalange
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Box 71, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Joel Lyada
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University Western Campus, Box 71, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Ritah Kiconco
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, School of Allied Health, Kampala International University Western Campus, Box 71, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Theophilus Pius
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, School of Allied Health, Kampala International University Western Campus, Box 71, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Christopher Nandala
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Box 71, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Roland Mugisha Kamugisha
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University Western Campus, Box 71, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Yunusu Hamira
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University, Arapai Campus, Box 203, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Edgar Mario Fernandez
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Box 71, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Simon Peter Musinguzi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Kabale University, Box 317, Kabale, Uganda
| |
Collapse
|