The WWOX gene modulates high-density lipoprotein and lipid metabolism

Genome-wide scans identify biological and metabolic pathways regulating carcass and meat quality traits in beef cattle

Genome association studies (GWAS) provides knowledge about the genetic architecture of beef-related traits that allow linking the target phenotype to genomic information aiding breeding decision. Thus, the present study aims to uncover the genetic mechanism involved in carcass (REA: rib eye area, BF: backfat thickness, and HCW: hot carcass weight) and meat quality traits (SF: shear-force, MARB: marbling score, and IMF: intramuscular fat content) in Nellore cattle. For this, 6910 young bulls with phenotypic information and 23,859 animals genotyped with 435 k markers were used to perform the weighted single-step GBLUP (WssGBLUP) approach, considering two iterations. The top 10 genomic regions explained 8.13, 11.81, and 9.58% of the additive genetic variance, harboring a total of 119, 143, and 95 positional candidate genes for REA, BF, and HCW, respectively. For meat quality traits, the top 10 windows explained a large proportion of the total genetic variance for SF (14.95%), MARB (17.56%), and IMF (21.41%) surrounding 92, 155, and 111 candidate genes, respectively. Relevant candidate genes (CAST, PLAG1, XKR4, PLAGL2, AQP3/AQP7, MYLK2, WWOX, CARTPT, and PLA2G16) are related to physiological aspects affecting growth, carcass, meat quality, feed intake, and reproductive traits by signaling pathways controlling muscle control, key signal metabolic molecules INS / IGF-1 pathway, lipid metabolism, and adipose tissue development. The GWAS results provided insights into the genetic control of the traits studied and the genes found are potential candidates to be used in the improvement of carcass and meat quality traits.

Mechanistic Investigation of WWOX Function in NF-kB-Induced Skin Inflammation in Psoriasis

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease characterized by epidermal hyperproliferation, aberrant differentiation of keratinocytes, and dysregulated immune responses. WW domain-containing oxidoreductase (WWOX) is a non-classical tumor suppressor gene that regulates multiple cellular processes, including proliferation, apoptosis, and migration. This study aimed to explore the possible role of WWOX in the pathogenesis of psoriasis. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that the expression of WWOX was increased in epidermal keratinocytes of both human psoriatic lesions and imiquimod-induced mice psoriatic model. Immortalized human epidermal keratinocytes were transduced with a recombinant adenovirus expressing microRNA specific for WWOX to downregulate its expression. Inflammatory responses were detected using Western blotting, real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In human epidermal keratinocytes, WWOX knockdown reduced nuclear factor-kappa B signaling and levels of proinflammatory cytokines induced by polyinosinic: polycytidylic acid [(poly(I:C)] in vitro. Furthermore, calcium chelator and protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors significantly reduced poly(I:C)-induced inflammatory reactions. WWOX plays a role in the inflammatory reaction of epidermal keratinocytes by regulating calcium and PKC signaling. Targeting WWOX could be a novel therapeutic approach for psoriasis in the future.

WWOX P47T partial loss-of-function mutation induces epilepsy, progressive neuroinflammation, and cerebellar degeneration in mice phenocopying human SCAR12

WWOX gene loss-of-function (LoF) has been associated with neuropathologies resulting in developmental, epileptic, and ataxic phenotypes of varying severity based on the level of WWOX dysfunction. WWOX gene biallelic germline variant p.Pro47Thr (P47T) has been causally associated with a new form of autosomal recessive cerebellar ataxia with epilepsy and intellectual disability (SCAR12, MIM:614322). This mutation affecting the WW1 protein binding domain of WWOX, impairs its interaction with canonical proline-proline-X-tyrosine motifs in partner proteins. We generated a mutant knock-in mouse model of Wwox P47T mutation that phenocopies human SCAR12. WwoxP47T/P47T mice displayed epilepsy, profound social behavior and cognition deficits, and poor motor coordination, and unlike KO models that survive only for 1 month, live beyond 1 year of age. These deficits progressed with age and mice became practically immobile, suggesting severe cerebellar dysfunction. WwoxP47T/P47T mice brains revealed signs of progressive neuroinflammation with elevated astro-microgliosis that increased with age. Cerebellar cortex displayed significantly reduced molecular and granular layer thickness and a strikingly reduced number of Purkinje cells with degenerated dendrites. Transcriptome profiling from various brain regions of WW domain LoF mice highlighted widespread changes in neuronal and glial pathways, enrichment of bioprocesses related to neuroinflammation, and severe cerebellar dysfunction. Our results show significant pathobiological effects and potential mechanisms through which WWOX partial LoF leads to epilepsy, cerebellar neurodegeneration, neuroinflammation, and ataxia. Additionally, the mouse model described here will be a useful tool to understand the role of WWOX in common neurodegenerative conditions in which this gene has been identified as a novel risk factor.

Identification of recurrent variants implicated in disease in bicuspid aortic valve patients through whole-exome sequencing

Bicuspid aortic valve (BAV) is the most common congenital heart defect in human beings, with an estimated prevalence in the general population of between 0.5 and 2%. Moreover, BAV is the most common cause of aortic stenosis in the pediatric population. Patients with BAV may have no symptoms for life, and some of them may progress to aortic stenosis. Genetic factors increase the susceptibility and development of BAV. However, the pathogenesis and BAV are still unclear, and more genetic variants are still needed for elucidating the molecular mechanism and stratification of patients. The present study carried out screening of variants implicated in disease in BAV patients. The whole-exome sequencing (WES) was performed in 20 BAV patients and identified 40 different heterozygous missense mutations in 36 genes (MIB2, FAAH, S100A1, RGS16, MAP3K19, NEB, TTN, TNS1, CAND2, CCK, KALRN, ATP10D, SLIT3, ROS1, FABP7, NUP205, IL11RA, NPR2, COL5A1, CUBN, JMJD1C, ANXA7, TRIM8, LGR4, TPCN2, APOA5, GPR84, LRP1, NCOR2, AKAP11, ESRRB, NGB, AKAP13, WWOX, KCNJ12, ARHGEF1). The mutations in these genes were identified as recurrent variants implicated in disease by in silico prediction tool analysis. Nine genes (MIB2, S100A1, TTN, CCK, NUP205, LGR4, NCOR2, ESRRB, and WWOX) among the 36 genes were identified as variants implicated in disease via unanimous agreement of in silico prediction tool analysis and sequenced in an independent cohort of 137 BAV patients to validate the results of WES. BAV patients carrying these variants demonstrated reduced left ventricular ejection fractions (LVEF) (63.8 ± 7.5% vs. 58.4 ± 5.2%, P < 0.001) and larger calcification volume [(1129.3 ± 154) mm³ vs. (1261.8 ± 123) mm³, P < 0.001]. The variants in TTN, NUP205 and NCOR2 genes are significantly associated with reduced LVEF, and the variants in S100A1, LGR4, ESRRB, and WWOX genes are significantly associated with larger calcification volume. We identified a panel of recurrent variants implicated in disease in genes related to the pathogenesis of BAV. Our data speculate that these variants are promising markers for risk stratification of BAV patients with increased susceptibility to aortic stenosis.

Novel Mutation With Literature Review WW Domain-Containing Oxidoreductase (WWOX) Gene

Genetic alterations in the WW domain-containing oxidoreductase (WWOX) gene cause autosomal recessive developmental and epileptic encephalopathy, characterized by the onset of refractory seizures in infants, along with severe axial hypotonia and profoundly impaired psychomotor development. It has also been expanded to include metabolism and endocrine systems. Despite its function as a tumor suppressor gene, genetic alterations in WWOX have been found in several metabolic disorders and neural diseases related to brain development. Whole-exome sequencing (WES) was performed on the patient sample. Genomic DNA was fragmented, and the exons of known genes in the human genome, as well as the corresponding exon-intron boundaries,were enriched using Roche KAPA capture technology (KAPA hyperExome Library, WES identifying the homozygous variant c.406A>G in WWOX (OMIM:605131). This variant of WWOX was also observed in the prenatal WES data, indicating that both parents were heterozygous carriers and the detected variant was homozygous. This study highlighted the importance of the human WWOX gene in brain development and the association between WWOX gene mutations and developmental delay. We recommend performing WES as a primary screening before the final diagnosis, particularly in populations with high rates of consanguinity and in clinically challenging cases.

EHBP1, TUBB, and WWOX SNPs, Gene-Gene and Gene-Environment Interactions on Coronary Artery Disease and Ischemic Stroke

The associations among the EH domain-binding protein 1 (EHBP1), tubulin beta class I (TUBB), and WW domain-containing oxidoreductase (WWOX) single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and coronary artery disease (CAD) and ischemic stroke (IS) are not yet understood. This study aimed to detect the associations of these SNPs, gene-gene and gene-environment interactions and CAD and IS in the Guangxi Han population. A total of 1853 unrelated subjects were recruited into normal control (n = 638), CAD (n = 622), and IS (n = 593) groups. Related genotypes were determined by high-throughput sequencing. The genotypic and minor allelic frequencies of rs2278075 were different between the CAD and control groups, and those of rs2710642, rs3130685, and rs2278075 were also different between the IS and control groups. The rs2278075T allele, rs3130685-rs2222896-rs2278075, rs3130685-rs2222896-diabetes, rs3130685-rs2222896-drinking, and haplotype rs2710642A-rs10496099C-diabetes interactions were associated with increased risk, while G-T-G-C-G-A and G-T-T-T-G-T-drinking were associated with reduced risk of CAD. The rs2278075T and rs2710642G alleles, rs2710642G-rs10496099C haplotype, rs3130685-rs2278075-rs2222896, and rs2710642-rs2278075-hypertension interactions aggravated the association with IS, whereas the rs3130685T allele, rs2710642A-rs10496099C haplotype and the interactions of H1 (s2710642A-rs10496099C)-H2 (rs2710642G-rs10496099C)-drinking and I1 (A-C-G-C-A-A)-I3 (A-C-G-T-A-A)-I4 (A-C-G-T-G-A)-I5 (G-T-G-C-G-A) diminished the association with IS. Carrying WWOX rs2278075T was strongly associated with CAD or IS, while EHBP1 rs2710642 and TUBB rs3130685 might alter the association of IS by modifying the serum lipid profile. This study demonstrates that the EHBP1, TUBB, and WWOX SNPs, gene-gene and gene-environment interactions are associated with the risk of CAD and IS in the Guangxi Han population.

The WWOX/HIF1A Axis Downregulation Alters Glucose Metabolism and Predispose to Metabolic Disorders

Recent reports indicate that the hypoxia-induced factor (HIF1α) and the Warburg effect play an initiating role in glucotoxicity, which underlies disorders in metabolic diseases. WWOX has been identified as a HIF1α regulator. WWOX downregulation leads to an increased expression of HIF1α target genes encoding glucose transporters and glycolysis’ enzymes. It has been proven in the normoglycemic mice cells and in gestational diabetes patients. The aim of the study was to determine WWOX’s role in glucose metabolism regulation in hyperglycemia and hypoxia to confirm its importance in the development of metabolic disorders. For this purpose, the WWOX gene was silenced in human normal fibroblasts, and then cells were cultured under different sugar and oxygen levels. Thereafter, it was investigated how WWOX silencing alters the genes and proteins expression profile of glucose transporters and glycolysis pathway enzymes, and their activity. In normoxia normoglycemia, higher glycolysis genes expression, their activity, and the lactate concentration were observed in WWOX KO fibroblasts in comparison to control cells. In normoxia hyperglycemia, it was observed a decrease of insulin-dependent glucose uptake and a further increase of lactate. It likely intensifies hyperglycemia condition, which deepen the glucose toxic effect. Then, in hypoxia hyperglycemia, WWOX KO caused weaker glucose uptake and elevated lactate production. In conclusion, the WWOX/HIF1A axis downregulation alters glucose metabolism and probably predispose to metabolic disorders.

WWOX and metabolic regulation in normal and pathological conditions

WW domain-containing oxidoreductase (WWOX) spans the common fragile site FRA16D. There is evidence that translocations and deletions affecting WWOX accompanied by loss of expression are frequent in many cancers and often correlate with a worse prognosis. Additionally, WWOX germline mutations were also found to be the cause of pathologies of brain development. Because WWOX binds to some transcription factors, it is a modulator of many cellular processes, including metabolic processes. Recently, studies have linked WWOX to familial dyslipidemias, osteopenia, metabolic syndrome, and gestational diabetes, confirming its role as a regulator of steroid, cholesterol, glucose, and normal bone metabolism. The WW domain of WWOX is directly engaged in the control of the activity of transcription factors such as HIF1α and RUNX2; therefore, WWOX gene alterations are associated with some metabolic abnormalities. Presently, most interest is devoted to the associations between WWOX and glucose and basic energy metabolism disturbances. In particular, its involvement in the initiation of the Warburg effect in cancer or gestational diabetes and type II diabetes is of interest. This review is aimed at systematically and comprehensively presenting the current state of knowledge about the participation of WWOX in the metabolism of healthy and diseased organisms.

Neonatal neuronal WWOX gene therapy rescues Wwox null phenotypes

WW domain-containing oxidoreductase (WWOX) is an emerging neural gene-regulating homeostasis of the central nervous system. Germline biallelic mutations in WWOX cause WWOX-related epileptic encephalopathy (WOREE) syndrome and spinocerebellar ataxia and autosomal recessive 12 (SCAR12), two devastating neurodevelopmental disorders with highly heterogenous clinical outcomes, the most common being severe epileptic encephalopathy and profound global developmental delay. We recently demonstrated that neuronal ablation of murine Wwox recapitulates phenotypes of Wwox-null mice leading to intractable epilepsy, hypomyelination, and postnatal lethality. Here, we designed and produced an adeno-associated viral vector (AAV9) harboring murine Wwox or human WWOX cDNA and driven by the human neuronal Synapsin I promoter (AAV-SynI-WWOX). Testing the efficacy of AAV-SynI-WWOX delivery in Wwox-null mice demonstrated that specific neuronal restoration of WWOX expression rescued brain hyperexcitability and seizures, hypoglycemia, myelination deficits, and the premature lethality and behavioral deficits of Wwox-null mice. These findings provide a proof-of-concept for WWOX gene therapy as a promising approach to curing children with WOREE and SCAR12.

WWOX-Related Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Models and Future Perspectives

The WW domain-containing oxidoreductase (WWOX) gene was originally discovered as a putative tumor suppressor spanning the common fragile site FRA16D, but as time has progressed the extent of its pleiotropic function has become apparent. At present, WWOX is a major source of interest in the context of neurological disorders, and more specifically developmental and epileptic encephalopathies (DEEs). This review article aims to introduce the many model systems used through the years to study its function and roles in neuropathies. Similarities and fundamental differences between rodent and human models are discussed. Finally, future perspectives and promising research avenues are suggested.

Insomnia affects the levels of plasma bilirubin and protein metabolism: an observational study and GWGEIS in UK Biobank cohort

STUDY OBJECTIVES

We aim to explore the mechanism of relationship between insomnia and liver metabolism by examining the gene × insomnia interactions.

METHODS

Individual level genotypic and phenotypic data were obtained from the UK Biobank cohort. Regression analysis was first conducted to test the association of insomnia with plasma total bilirubin (TBil; n = 186,793), direct bilirubin (DBil; n = 159,854) and total protein (TP; n = 171,574) in UK Biobank cohort. Second, genome-wide gene-environment interaction study (GWGEIS) was conducted by PLINK 2.0, and FUMA platform was used to identify enriched pathway terms.

RESULTS

In UK Biobank cohort, we found that TP (P < 2.00 × 10^-16), DBil (P = 1.72 × 10^-3) and TBil (P = 3.38 × 10^-5) were significantly associated with insomnia. GWGEIS of both DBil and TBil observed significant G × INSOMNIA effects between insomnia and UDP Glucuronosyltransferase Family 1 (rs6431558, P = 6.26 × 10^-11) gene. GWGEIS of TP also detected several significant genes interacting with insomnia, such as KLF15, (rs70940816, P = 6.77 × 10^-10) and DOK7, (rs2344205, P = 1.37 × 10^-9). Multiple gene ontology (GO) terms were identified for bilirubin, such as GO_URONIC_ACID_METABOLIC_PROCESS (adjusted P = 4.15 × 10^-26).

CONCLUSION

Our study results suggested negative associations between insomnia and DBil and TBil; and a positive association between insomnia and TP.

Molecular Biology of the WWOX Gene That Spans Chromosomal Fragile Site FRA16D

It is now more than 20 years since the FRA16D common chromosomal fragile site was characterised and the WWOX gene spanning this site was identified. In this time, much information has been discovered about its contribution to disease; however, the normal biological role of WWOX is not yet clear. Experiments leading to the identification of the WWOX gene are recounted, revealing enigmatic relationships between the fragile site, its gene and the encoded protein. We also highlight research mainly using the genetically tractable model organism Drosophila melanogaster that has shed light on the integral role of WWOX in metabolism. In addition to this role, there are some particularly outstanding questions that remain regarding WWOX, its gene and its chromosomal location. This review, therefore, also aims to highlight two unanswered questions. Firstly, what is the biological relationship between the WWOX gene and the FRA16D common chromosomal fragile site that is located within one of its very large introns? Secondly, what is the actual substrate and product of the WWOX enzyme activity? It is likely that understanding the normal role of WWOX and its relationship to chromosomal fragility are necessary in order to understand how the perturbation of these normal roles results in disease.

Associations between TUBB-WWOX SNPs, their haplotypes, gene-gene, and gene-environment interactions and dyslipidemia

In this study, we investigated associations between single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the tubulin beta class I (TUBB) and WW domain-containing oxidoreductase (WWOX) genes, gene-gene interactions, and gene-environment interactions and dyslipidemia in the Chinese Maonan ethnic group. Four SNPs (rs3132584, rs3130685, rs2222896, and rs2548861) were genotyped in unrelated subjects with normal lipid levels (864) or dyslipidemia (1129). While 5.0% of Maonan subjects carried the rs3132584TT genotype, none of the Chinese Han in Beijing subjects did. Allele and genotype frequencies differed between the normal and dyslipidemia groups for three SNPs (rs3132584, rs3130685, and rs2222896). rs2222896G allele carriers in the normal group had higher low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and lower high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels. The rs3132584GG, rs3130685CC+TT, and rs2222896GG genotypes as well as the rs2222896G-rs2548861G and rs2222896G-rs2548861T haplotypes were associated with an elevated risk of dyslipidemia; the rs2222896A-rs2548861T and rs2222896A-rs2548861G haplotypes were associated with a reduced risk of dyslipidemia. Among the thirteen TUBB-WWOX interaction types identified, rs3132584T-rs3130685T-rs2222896G-rs2548861T increased the risk of dyslipidemia 1.371-fold. Fourteen two- to four-locus optimal interactive models for SNP-SNP, haplotype-haplotype, gene-gene, and gene-environment interactions exhibited synergistic or contrasting effects on dyslipidemia. Finally, the interaction between rs3132584 and rs2222896 increased the risk of dyslipidemia 2.548-fold and predicted hypertension.

Cellular Expression and Subcellular Localization of Wwox Protein During Testicular Development and Spermatogenesis in Rats

A well-known putative tumor suppressor WW domain-containing oxidoreductase (Wwox) is highly expressed in hormonally regulated tissues and is considered important for the normal development and function of reproductive organs. In this study, we investigated the cellular and subcellular localization of Wwox in normal testes during postnatal days 0-70 using Western blotting and immunohistochemistry. Wwox is expressed in testes at all ages. Immunohistochemistry showed that fetal-type and adult-type Leydig cells, immature and mature Sertoli cells, and germ cells (from gonocytes to step 17 spermatids) expressed Wwox except peritubular myoid cells, step 18-19 spermatids, and mature sperm. Wwox localized diffusely in the cytoplasm with focal intense signals in all testicular cells. These signals gradually condensed in germ cells with their differentiation and colocalized with giantin for cis-Golgi marker and partially with golgin-97 for trans-Golgi marker. Biochemically, Wwox was detected in isolated Golgi-enriched fractions. But Wwox was undetectable in the nucleus. This subcellular localization pattern of Wwox was also confirmed in single-cell suspension. These findings indicate that Wwox is functional in most cell types of testis and might locate into Golgi apparatus via interaction with Golgi proteins. These unique localizations might be related to the function of Wwox in testicular development and spermatogenesis.

WWOX Loss of Function in Neurodevelopmental and Neurodegenerative Disorders

The WWOX gene was initially discovered as a putative tumor suppressor. More recently, its association with multiple central nervous system (CNS) pathologies has been recognized. WWOX biallelic germline pathogenic variants have been implicated in spinocerebellar ataxia type 12 (SCAR12; MIM:614322) and in early infantile epileptic encephalopathy (EIEE28; MIM:616211). WWOX germline copy number variants have also been associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). All identified germline genomic variants lead to partial or complete loss of WWOX function. Importantly, large-scale genome-wide association studies have also identified WWOX as a risk gene for common neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and multiple sclerosis (MS). Thus, the spectrum of CNS disorders associated with WWOX is broad and heterogeneous, and there is little understanding of potential mechanisms at play. Exploration of gene expression databases indicates that WWOX expression is comparatively higher in the human cerebellar cortex than in other CNS structures. However, RNA in-situ hybridization data from the Allen Mouse Brain Atlas show that specific regions of the basolateral amygdala (BLA), the medial entorhinal cortex (EC), and deep layers of the isocortex can be singled out as brain regions with specific higher levels of Wwox expression. These observations are in close agreement with single-cell RNA-seq data which indicate that neurons from the medial entorhinal cortex, Layer 5 from the frontal cortex as well as GABAergic basket cells and granule cells from cerebellar cortex are the specific neuronal subtypes that display the highest Wwox expression levels. Importantly, the brain regions and cell types in which WWOX is most abundantly expressed, such as the EC and BLA, are intimately linked to pathologies and syndromic conditions in turn associated with this gene, such as epilepsy, intellectual disability, ASD, and AD. Higher Wwox expression in interneurons and granule cells from cerebellum points to a direct link to the described cerebellar ataxia in cases of WWOX loss of function. We now know that total or partial impairment of WWOX function results in a wide and heterogeneous variety of neurodegenerative conditions for which the specific molecular mechanisms remain to be deciphered. Nevertheless, these observations indicate an important functional role for WWOX in normal development and function of the CNS. Evidence also indicates that disruption of WWOX expression at the gene or protein level in CNS has significant deleterious consequences.

Roles of Farnesyl-Diphosphate Farnesyltransferase 1 in Tumour and Tumour Microenvironments

Farnesyl-diphosphate farnesyltransferase 1 (FDFT1, squalene synthase), a membrane-associated enzyme, synthesizes squalene via condensation of two molecules of farnesyl pyrophosphate. Accumulating evidence has noted that FDFT1 plays a critical role in cancer, particularly in metabolic reprogramming, cell proliferation, and invasion. Based on these advances in our knowledge, FDFT1 could be a potential target for cancer treatment. This review focuses on the contribution of FDFT1 to the hallmarks of cancer, and further, we discuss the applicability of FDFT1 as a cancer prognostic marker and target for anticancer therapy.

Loss of Wwox Perturbs Neuronal Migration and Impairs Early Cortical Development

Mutations in the WWOX gene cause a broad range of ultra-rare neurodevelopmental and brain degenerative disorders, associated with a high likelihood of premature death in animal models as well as in humans. The encoded Wwox protein is a WW domain-containing oxidoreductase that participates in crucial biological processes including tumor suppression, cell growth/differentiation and regulation of steroid metabolism, while its role in neural development is less understood. We analyzed the exomes of a family affected with multiple pre- and postnatal anomalies, including cerebellar vermis hypoplasia, severe neurodevelopmental impairment and refractory epilepsy, and identified a segregating homozygous WWOX mutation leading to a premature stop codon. Abnormal cerebral cortex development due to a defective architecture of granular and molecular cell layers was found in the developing brain of a WWOX-deficient human fetus from this family. A similar disorganization of cortical layers was identified in lde/lde rats (carrying a homozygous truncating mutation which disrupts the active Wwox C-terminal domain) investigated at perinatal stages. Transcriptomic analyses of Wwox-depleted human neural progenitor cells showed an impaired expression of a number of neuronal migration-related genes encoding for tubulins, kinesins and associated proteins. These findings indicate that loss of Wwox may affect different cytoskeleton components and alter prenatal cortical development, highlighting a regulatory role of the WWOX gene in migrating neurons across different species.

Genetic Architecture of Carcass and Meat Quality Traits in Montana Tropical® Composite Beef Cattle

The Montana Tropical^® Composite is a recently developed beef cattle population that is rapidly expanding in Brazil and other tropical countries. This is mainly due to its improved meat quality and adaptation to tropical climate conditions compared to Zebu and Taurine cattle breeds, respectively. This study aimed to investigate the genetic architecture of ultrasound-based carcass and meat quality traits in Montana Tropical^® Composite beef cattle. Therefore, we estimated variance components and genetic parameters and performed genome-wide association studies using the weighted single-step Genomic Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (GBLUP) approach. A pedigree dataset containing 28,480 animals was used, in which 1,436 were genotyped using a moderate-density Single Nucleotide Polymorphism panel (30K; 30,105 SNPs). A total of 9,358, 5,768, 7,996, and 1,972 phenotypic records for the traits Longissimus muscle area (LMA), backfat thickness (BFT), rump fat thickness (RFT), and for marbling score (MARB), respectively, were used for the analyses. Moderate to high heritability estimates were obtained and ranged from 0.16 ± 0.03 (RFT) to 0.33 ± 0.05 (MARB). A high genetic correlation was observed between BFT and RFT (0.97 ± 0.02), suggesting that a similar set of genes affects both traits. The most relevant genomic regions associated with LMA, BFT, RFT, and MARB were found on BTA10 (5.4–5.8 Mb), BTA27 (25.2–25.5 Mb), BTA18 (60.6–61.0 Mb), and BTA21 (14.8–15.4 Mb). Two overlapping genomic regions were identified for RFT and MARB (BTA13:47.9–48.1 Mb) and for BFT and RFT (BTA13:61.5–62.3 Mb). Candidate genes identified in this study, including PLAG1, LYN, WWOX, and PLAGL2, were previously reported to be associated with growth, stature, skeletal muscle growth, fat thickness, and fatty acid composition. Our results indicate that ultrasound-based carcass and meat quality traits in the Montana Tropical^® Composite beef cattle are heritable, and therefore, can be improved through selective breeding. In addition, various novel and already known genomic regions related to these traits were identified, which contribute to a better understanding of the underlying genetic background of LMA, BFT, RFT, and MARB in the Montana Tropical Composite population.

Wwox deficiency leads to neurodevelopmental and degenerative neuropathies and glycogen synthase kinase 3β-mediated epileptic seizure activity in mice

Human WWOX gene resides in the chromosomal common fragile site FRA16D and encodes a tumor suppressor WW domain-containing oxidoreductase. Loss-of-function mutations in both alleles of WWOX gene lead to autosomal recessive abnormalities in pediatric patients from consanguineous families, including microcephaly, cerebellar ataxia with epilepsy, mental retardation, retinal degeneration, developmental delay and early death. Here, we report that targeted disruption of Wwox gene in mice causes neurodevelopmental disorders, encompassing abnormal neuronal differentiation and migration in the brain. Cerebral malformations, such as microcephaly and incomplete separation of the hemispheres by a partial interhemispheric fissure, neuronal disorganization and heterotopia, and defective cerebellar midline fusion are observed in Wwox^−/− mice. Degenerative alterations including severe hypomyelination in the central nervous system, optic nerve atrophy, Purkinje cell loss and granular cell apoptosis in the cerebellum, and peripheral nerve demyelination due to Schwann cell apoptosis correspond to reduced amplitudes and a latency prolongation of transcranial motor evoked potentials, motor deficits and gait ataxia in Wwox^−/− mice. Wwox gene ablation leads to the occurrence of spontaneous epilepsy and increased susceptibility to pilocarpine- and pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced seizures in preweaning mice. We determined that a significantly increased activation of glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) occurs in Wwox^−/− mouse cerebral cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum. Inhibition of GSK3β by lithium ion significantly abolishes the onset of PTZ-induced seizure in Wwox^−/− mice. Together, our findings reveal that the neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative deficits in Wwox knockout mice strikingly recapitulate the key features of human neuropathies, and that targeting GSK3β with lithium ion ameliorates epilepsy.

The WWOX Gene Influences Cellular Pathways in the Neuronal Differentiation of Human Neural Progenitor Cells

The brain is the most functionally organized structure of all organs. It manages behavior, perception and higher cognitive functions. The WWOX gene is non-classical tumor suppressor gene, which has been shown to have an impact on proliferation, apoptosis and migration processes. Moreover, genetic aberrations in WWOX induce severe neuropathological phenotypes in humans and rodents. The aim of the present study was to investigate in detail the impact of WWOX on human neural progenitor cell (hNPC) maintenance and how depletion of WWOX disturbs signaling pathways playing a pivotal role in neuronal differentiation and central nervous system (CNS) organogenesis. hNPC with a silenced WWOX gene exhibited lowered mitochondrial redox potential, enhanced adhesion to fibronectin and extracellular matrix protein mixture, downregulation of MMP2/9 expression and impaired 3D growth. Global transcriptome analysis using cap analysis of gene expression (CAGE) found that WWOX downregulation significantly changes the expression of multiple genes engaged in cytoskeleton organization, adhesion, cell signaling and chromatin remodeling. The massive changes in gene expression caused by WWOX silencing may strongly affect the differentiation and migration of neurons in organogenesis, brain injury, cancerogenesis or neurodifferentiation. WWOX gene appears to be an important regulator of neural tissue architecture and function.

WWOX somatic ablation in skeletal muscles alters glucose metabolism

OBJECTIVE

WWOX, a well-established tumor suppressor, is frequently lost in cancer and plays important roles in DNA damage response and cellular metabolism.

METHODS

We re-analyzed several genome-wide association studies (GWAS) using the Type 2 Diabetes Knowledge Portal website to uncover WWOX's association with metabolic syndrome (MetS). Using several engineered mouse models, we studied the effect of somatic WWOX loss on glucose homeostasis.

RESULTS

Several WWOX variants were found to be strongly associated with MetS disorders. In mouse models, somatic ablation of Wwox in skeletal muscle (WwoxΔSKM) results in weight gain, glucose intolerance, and insulin resistance. Furthermore, WwoxΔSKM mice display reduced amounts of slow-twitch fibers, decreased mitochondrial quantity and activity, and lower glucose oxidation levels. Mechanistically, we found that WWOX physically interacts with the cellular energy sensor AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and that its loss is associated with impaired activation of AMPK, and with significant accumulation of the hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF1α) in SKM.

CONCLUSIONS

Our studies uncover an unforeseen role of the tumor suppressor WWOX in whole-body glucose homeostasis and highlight the intimate relationship between cancer progression and metabolic disorders, particularly obesity and type-2 diabetes.

SUBJECT AREAS

Genetics, Metabolic Syndrome, Diabetes.

Identification of seven novel loci associated with amino acid levels using single-variant and gene-based tests in 8545 Finnish men from the METSIM study

Comprehensive metabolite profiling captures many highly heritable traits, including amino acid levels, which are potentially sensitive biomarkers for disease pathogenesis. To better understand the contribution of genetic variation to amino acid levels, we performed single variant and gene-based tests of association between nine serum amino acids (alanine, glutamine, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, and valine) and 16.6 million genotyped and imputed variants in 8545 non-diabetic Finnish men from the METabolic Syndrome In Men (METSIM) study with replication in Northern Finland Birth Cohort (NFBC1966). We identified five novel loci associated with amino acid levels (P = < 5×10-8): LOC157273/PPP1R3B with glycine (rs9987289, P = 2.3×10-26); ZFHX3 (chr16:73326579, minor allele frequency (MAF) = 0.42%, P = 3.6×10-9), LIPC (rs10468017, P = 1.5×10-8), and WWOX (rs9937914, P = 3.8×10-8) with alanine; and TRIB1 with tyrosine (rs28601761, P = 8×10-9). Gene-based tests identified two novel genes harboring missense variants of MAF <1% that show aggregate association with amino acid levels: PYCR1 with glycine (Pgene = 1.5×10-6) and BCAT2 with valine (Pgene = 7.4×10-7); neither gene was implicated by single variant association tests. These findings are among the first applications of gene-based tests to identify new loci for amino acid levels. In addition to the seven novel gene associations, we identified five independent signals at established amino acid loci, including two rare variant signals at GLDC (rs138640017, MAF=0.95%, Pconditional = 5.8×10-40) with glycine levels and HAL (rs141635447, MAF = 0.46%, Pconditional = 9.4×10-11) with histidine levels. Examination of all single variant association results in our data revealed a strong inverse relationship between effect size and MAF (Ptrend<0.001). These novel signals provide further insight into the molecular mechanisms of amino acid metabolism and potentially, their perturbations in disease.

Delineating WWOX Protein Interactome by Tandem Affinity Purification-Mass Spectrometry: Identification of Top Interactors and Key Metabolic Pathways Involved

It has become clear from multiple studies that WWOX (WW domain-containing oxidoreductase) operates as a "non-classical" tumor suppressor of significant relevance in cancer progression. Additionally, WWOX has been recognized for its role in a much wider array of human pathologies including metabolic conditions and central nervous system related syndromes. A myriad of putative functional roles has been attributed to WWOX mostly through the identification of various binding proteins. However, the reality is that much remains to be learned on the key relevant functions of WWOX in the normal cell. Here we employed a Tandem Affinity Purification-Mass Spectrometry (TAP-MS) approach in order to better define direct WWOX protein interactors and by extension interaction with multiprotein complexes under physiological conditions on a proteomic scale. This work led to the identification of both well-known, but more importantly novel high confidence WWOX interactors, suggesting the involvement of WWOX in specific biological and molecular processes while delineating a comprehensive portrait of WWOX protein interactome. Of particular relevance is WWOX interaction with key proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi, late endosomes, protein transport, and lysosomes networks such as SEC23IP, SCAMP3, and VOPP1. These binding partners harbor specific PPXY motifs which directly interact with the amino-terminal WW1 domain of WWOX. Pathway analysis of WWOX interactors identified a significant enrichment of metabolic pathways associated with proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids breakdown. Thus, suggesting that WWOX likely plays relevant roles in glycolysis, fatty acid degradation and other pathways that converge primarily in Acetyl-CoA generation, a fundamental molecule not only as the entry point to the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle for energy production, but also as the key building block for de novo synthesis of lipids and amino acids. Our results provide a significant lead on subsets of protein partners and enzymatic complexes with which full-length WWOX protein interacts with in order to carry out its metabolic and other biological functions while also becoming a valuable resource for further mechanistic studies.

Modeling WWOX Loss of Function in vivo: What Have We Learned?

The WW domain–containing oxidoreductase (WWOX) gene encompasses a common fragile sites (CFS) known as FRA16D, and is implicated in cancer. WWOX encodes a 46kDa adaptor protein, which contains two N-terminal WW–domains and a catalytic domain at its C–terminus homologous to short–chain dehydrogenase/reductase (SDR) family proteins. A high sequence conservation of WWOX orthologues from insects to rodents and ultimately humans suggest its significant role in physiology and homeostasis. Indeed, data obtained from several animal models including flies, fish, and rodents demonstrate WWOX in vivo requirement and that its deregulation results in severe pathological consequences including growth retardation, post–natal lethality, neuropathy, metabolic disorders, and tumorigenesis. Altogether, these findings set WWOX as an essential protein that is necessary to maintain normal cellular/physiological homeostasis. Here, we review and discuss lessons and outcomes learned from modeling loss of WWOX expression in vivo.

WWOX Tumor Suppressor Gene in Breast Cancer, a Historical Perspective and Future Directions

The WWOX tumor suppressor gene is located at 16q23. 1–23.2, which covers the region of FRA16D—a common fragile sites. Deletions within the WWOX coding sequence are observed in up to 80% of breast cancer cases, which makes it one of the most common genetic alterations in this tumor type. The WWOX gene is known to play a role in breast cancer: increased expression of WWOX inhibits cell proliferation in suspension, reduces tumor growth rates in xenographic transplants, but also enhances cell migration through the basal membrane and contributes to morphological changes in 3D matrix-based cell cultures. The WWOX protein may act in several ways, as it has three functional domains—two WW domains, responsible for protein-protein interactions and an SDR domain (short dehydrogenase/reductase domain) which catalyzes conversions of low molecular weight ligands, most likely steroids. In epithelial cells, WWOX modulates gene transcription through interaction with p73, AP-2γ, and ERBB4 proteins. In steroid hormone-regulated tissues like mammary gland epithelium, the WWOX SDR domain acts as a steroid dehydrogenase. The relationship between WWOX and hormone receptors was shown in an animal model, where WWOX(C3H)+/–mice exhibited loss of both ER and PR receptors. Moreover, in breast cancer specimens, a positive correlation was observed between WWOX expression and ER status. On the other hand, decreased WWOX expression was associated with worse prognosis, namely higher relapse and mortality rates in BC patients. Recently, it was shown that genomic instability might be driven by the loss of WWOX expression. It was reported that WWOX plays role in DNA damage response (DDR) and DNA repair by regulating ATM activation through physical interaction. A genome caretaker function has also been proposed for WWOX, as it was found that WWOX sufficiency decreases homology directed repair (HDR) and supports non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) repair as the dominant DSB repair pathway by Brca1-Wwox interaction. In breast cancer cells, WWOX was also found to modulate the expression of glycolysis pathway genes, through hypoxia-inducible transcription factor 1α (HIF1α) regulation. The paper presents the current state of knowledge regarding the WWOX tumor suppressor gene in breast cancer, as well as future research perspectives.

WWOX Phosphorylation, Signaling, and Role in Neurodegeneration

Homozygous null mutation of tumor suppressor WWOX/Wwox gene leads to severe neural diseases, metabolic disorders and early death in the newborns of humans, mice and rats. WWOX is frequently downregulated in the hippocampi of patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). In vitro analysis revealed that knockdown of WWOX protein in neuroblastoma cells results in aggregation of TRAPPC6AΔ, TIAF1, amyloid β, and Tau in a sequential manner. Indeed, TRAPPC6AΔ and TIAF1, but not tau and amyloid β, aggregates are present in the brains of healthy mid-aged individuals. It is reasonable to assume that very slow activation of a protein aggregation cascade starts sequentially with TRAPPC6AΔ and TIAF1 aggregation at mid-ages, then caspase activation and APP de-phosphorylation and degradation, and final accumulation of amyloid β and Tau aggregates in the brains at greater than 70 years old. WWOX binds Tau-hyperphosphorylating enzymes (e.g., GSK-3β) and blocks their functions, thereby supporting neuronal survival and differentiation. As a neuronal protective hormone, 17β-estradiol (E2) binds WWOX at an NSYK motif in the C-terminal SDR (short-chain alcohol dehydrogenase/reductase) domain. In this review, we discuss how WWOX and E2 block protein aggregation during neurodegeneration, and how a 31-amino-acid zinc finger-like Zfra peptide restores memory loss in mice.

WWOX controls hepatic HIF1α to suppress hepatocyte proliferation and neoplasia

Liver cancer is one of the most lethal malignancies with very poor prognosis once diagnosed. The most common form of liver cancer is hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The WW domain-containing oxidoreductase (WWOX) is a large gene that is often perturbed in a wide variety of tumors, including HCC. WWOX has been shown to act as a tumor suppressor modulating cellular metabolism via regulating hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) levels and function. Given that WWOX is commonly inactivated in HCC, we set to determine whether specific targeted deletion of murine Wwox affects liver biology and HCC development. WWOX liver-specific knockout mice (Wwox ΔHep ) showed more potent liver regeneration potential and enhanced proliferation as compared with their control littermates. Moreover, WWOX deficiency in hepatocytes combined with diethylnitrosamine treatment increased the tumor burden, which was associated with increased HIF1α levels and target gene transactivation. Inhibition of HIF1α by systemic treatment with digoxin significantly delayed HCC formation. Our work suggests that WWOX inactivation has a central role in promoting HCC through rewiring of cellular metabolism and modulating proliferation.

Expression-based GWAS identifies variants, gene interactions and key regulators affecting intramuscular fatty acid content and composition in porcine meat

The aim of this work is to better understand the genetic mechanisms determining two complex traits affecting porcine meat quality: intramuscular fat (IMF) content and its fatty acid (FA) composition. With this purpose, expression Genome-Wide Association Study (eGWAS) of 45 lipid-related genes associated with meat quality traits in swine muscle (Longissimus dorsi) of 114 Iberian × Landrace backcross animals was performed. The eGWAS identified 241 SNPs associated with 11 genes: ACSM5, CROT, FABP3, FOS, HIF1AN, IGF2, MGLL, NCOA1, PIK3R1, PLA2G12A and PPARA. Three expression Quantitative Trait Loci (eQTLs) for IGF2, ACSM5 and MGLL were identified, showing cis-acting effects, whereas 16 eQTLs had trans regulatory effects. A polymorphism in the ACSM5 promoter region associated with its expression was identified. In addition, strong candidate genes regulating ACSM5, FOS, PPARA, PIK3R1, PLA2G12A and HIF1AN gene expression were also seen. Notably, the analysis highlighted the NR3C1 transcription factor as a strong candidate gene involved in the regulation of the 45 genes analysed. Finally, the IGF2, MGLL, MC2R, ARHGAP6, and NR3C1 genes were identified as potential regulators co-localizing within QTLs for fatness and growth traits in the IBMAP population. The results obtained increase our knowledge in the functional regulatory mechanisms involved in these complex traits.

WW domain-containing oxidoreductase in neuronal injury and neurological diseases

The human and mouse WWOX/Wwox gene encodes a candidate tumor suppressor WW domain-containing oxidoreductase protein. This gene is located on a common fragile site FRA16D. WWOX participates in a variety of cellular events and acts as a transducer in the many signal pathways, including TNF, chemotherapeutic drugs, UV irradiation, Wnt, TGF-β, C1q, Hyal-2, sex steroid hormones, and others. While transiently overexpressed WWOX restricts relocation of transcription factors to the nucleus for suppressing cancer survival, physiological relevance of this regard in vivo has not been confirmed. Unlike many tumor suppressor genes, mutation of WWOX is rare, raising a question whether WWOX is a driver for cancer initiation. WWOX/Wwox was initially shown to play a crucial role in neural development and in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease and neuronal injury. Later on, WWOX/Wwox was shown to participate in the development of epilepsy, mental retardation, and brain developmental defects in mice, rats and humans. Up to date, most of the research and review articles have focused on the involvement of WWOX in cancer. Here, we review the role of WWOX in neural injury and neurological diseases, and provide perspectives for the WWOX-regulated neurodegeneration.

Tumor suppressor WWOX moderates the mitochondrial respiratory complex

Fragile site FRA16D exhibits DNA instability in cancer, resulting in diminished levels of protein from the WWOX gene that spans it. WWOX suppresses tumor growth by an undefined mechanism. WWOX participates in pathways involving aerobic metabolism and reactive oxygen species. WWOX comprises two WW domains as well as a short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase enzyme. Herein is described an in vivo genetic analysis in Drosophila melanogaster to identify functional interactions between WWOX and metabolic pathways. Altered WWOX levels modulate variable cellular outgrowths caused by genetic deficiencies of components of the mitochondrial respiratory complexes. This modulation requires the enzyme active site of WWOX, and the defective respiratory complex-induced cellular outgrowths are mediated by reactive oxygen species, dependent upon the Akt pathway and sensitive to levels of autophagy and hypoxia-inducible factor. WWOX is known to contribute to homeostasis by regulating the balance between oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis. Reduction of WWOX levels results in diminished ability to respond to metabolic perturbation of normal cell growth. Thus, the ability of WWOX to facilitate escape from mitochondrial damage-induced glycolysis (Warburg effect) is, therefore, a plausible mechanism for its tumor suppressor activity.

WWOX, large common fragile site genes, and cancer

WWOX is a gene that spans an extremely large chromosomal region. It is derived from within chromosomal band 16q23.2 which is a region with frequent deletions and other alterations in a variety of different cancers. This chromosomal band also contains the FRA16D common fragile site (CFS). CFSs are chromosomal regions found in all individuals which are highly unstable. WWOX has also been demonstrated to function as a tumor suppressor that is involved in the development of many cancers. Two other highly unstable CFSs, FRA3B (3p14.2) and FRA6E (6q26), also span extremely large genes, FHIT and PARK2, respectively, and these two genes are also found to be important tumor suppressors. There are a number of interesting similarities between these three large CFS genes. In spite of the fact that they are derived from some of the most unstable chromosomal regions in the genome, they are found to be highly evolutionarily conserved and the chromosomal region spanning the mouse homologs of both WWOX and FHIT are also CFSs in mice. Many of the other CFSs also span extremely large genes and many of these are very attractive tumor suppressor candidates. WWOX is therefore a member of a very interesting family of very large CFS genes.

The tumor suppressor WW domain-containing oxidoreductase modulates cell metabolism

The WW domain-containing oxidoreductase (WWOX) encodes a tumor suppressor that is frequently altered in cancer. WWOX binds several proteins and thus is postulated to be involved in a variety of cellular processes. Interestingly, Wwox-knockout mice develop normally in utero but succumb to hypoglycemia and other metabolic defects early in life resulting in their death by 3-4 weeks of age. Cumulative evidence has linked WWOX with cellular metabolism including steroid metabolism, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) metabolism, bone metabolism and, more recently, glucose metabolism. In this review, we discuss these evolving functions for WWOX and how its deletion affects cellular metabolism and neoplastic progression.

A novel whole exon deletion in WWOX gene causes early epilepsy, intellectual disability and optic atrophy

Recent studies have implicated the WW domain-containing oxidoreductase encoding gene (WWOX) in a severe form of autosomal recessive neurological disorder. This condition showed an overlapping spectrum of clinical features including spinocerebellar ataxia associated with generalized seizures and delayed psychomotor development to growth retardation, spasticity, and microcephaly. We evaluated a child from a consanguineous Emirati family that presented at birth with growth retardation, microcephaly, epileptic seizures, and later developed spasticity and delayed psychomotor development. Screening for deletions and duplications using whole-chromosomal microarray analysis identified a novel homozygous microdeletion encompassing exon 5 of the WWOX gene. Analysis of parental DNA indicated that this deletion was inherited from both parents and lies within a large region of homozygosity. Sanger sequencing of the cDNA showed that the deletion resulted in exon 5 skipping leading to a frame-shift and creating a premature stop codon at amino acid position 212. Quantification of mRNA revealed striking low level of WWOX expression in the child and moderate level of expression in the mother compared to a healthy control. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first homozygous germline structural variation in WWOX gene resulting in truncated transcripts that were presumably subject to NMD pathway. Our findings extend the clinical and genetic spectrum of WWOX mutations and support a crucial role of this gene in neurological development.

The role of gene regulatory factors in the evolutionary history of humans

Deciphering the molecular basis of how modern human phenotypes have evolved is one of the most fascinating challenges in biology. Here, we will focus on the roles of gene regulatory factors (GRFs), in particular transcription factors (TFs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) during human evolution. We will present examples of TFs and lncRNAs that have changed or show signs of positive selection in humans compared to chimpanzees, in modern humans compared to archaic humans, or within modern human populations. On the basis of current knowledge about the functions of these GRF genes, we speculate that they have been involved in speciation as well as in shaping phenotypes such as brain functions, skeletal morphology, and metabolic processes.

WWOX at the crossroads of cancer, metabolic syndrome related traits and CNS pathologies

WWOX was cloned as a putative tumor suppressor gene mapping to chromosomal fragile site FRA16D. Deletions affecting WWOX accompanied by loss of expression are frequent in various epithelial cancers. Translocations and deletions affecting WWOX are also common in multiple myeloma and are associated with worse prognosis. Metanalysis of gene expression datasets demonstrates that low WWOX expression is significantly associated with shorter relapse-free survival in ovarian and breast cancer patients. Although somatic mutations affecting WWOX are not frequent, analysis of TCGA tumor datasets led to identifying 44 novel mutations in various tumor types. The highest frequencies of mutations were found in head and neck cancers and uterine and gastric adenocarcinomas. Mouse models of gene ablation led us to conclude that Wwox does not behave as a highly penetrant, classical tumor suppressor gene since its deletion is not tumorigenic in most models and its role is more likely to be of relevance in tumor progression rather than in initiation. Analysis of signaling pathways associated with WWOX expression confirmed previous in vivo and in vitro observations linking WWOX function with the TGFβ/SMAD and WNT signaling pathways and with specific metabolic processes. Supporting these conclusions recently we demonstrated that indeed WWOX behaves as a modulator of TGFβ/SMAD signaling by binding and sequestering SMAD3 in the cytoplasmic compartment. As a consequence progressive loss of WWOX expression in advanced breast cancer would contribute to the pro-metastatic effects resulting from TGFβ/SMAD3 hyperactive signaling in breast cancer. Recently, GWAS and resequencing studies have linked the WWOX locus with familial dyslipidemias and metabolic syndrome related traits. Indeed, gene expression studies in liver conditional KO mice confirmed an association between WWOX expression and lipid metabolism. Finally, very recently the first human pedigrees with probands carrying homozygous germline loss of function WWOX mutations have been identified. These patients are characterized by severe CNS related pathology that includes epilepsy, ataxia and mental retardation. In summary, WWOX is a highly conserved and tightly regulated gene throughout evolution and when defective or deregulated the consequences are important and deleterious as demonstrated by its association not only with poor prognosis in cancer but also with other important human pathologies such as metabolic syndrome and CNS related pathologic conditions.