Optical Coherence Tomography: Future Applications in Cerebrovascular Imaging

Identification of symptomatic carotid artery plaque: a predictive model combining angiography with optical coherence tomography

Objective

Symptomatic carotid artery disease is indicative of an elevated likelihood of experiencing a subsequent stroke, with the morphology of plaque and its specific features being closely linked to the risk of stroke occurrence. Our study based on the characteristics of carotid plaque assessed by optical coherence tomography (OCT), the plaque morphology evaluated by digital subtraction angiography (DSA) and clinical laboratory indicators were combined, develop a combined predictive model to identify symptomatic carotid plaque.

Methods

Patients diagnosed with carotid atherosclerotic stenosis who underwent whole-brain DSA and OCT examination at the Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University from January 2021 to November 2023 were evaluated. Clinical features, as well as DSA and OCT plaque characteristics, were analyzed for differences between symptomatic and asymptomatic cohorts. An analysis of logistic regression was carried out to identify factors associated with the presence of symptomatic carotid plaque. A multivariate binary logistic regression equation was established with the odds ratio (OR) serving as the risk assessment parameter. The receiver operating characteristic curve was utilized to assess the combined predictive model and independent influencing factors.

Results

A total of 52 patients were included in the study (symptomatic: 44.2%, asymptomatic: 55.8%). Symptomatic carotid stenosis was significantly linked to four main factors: low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol >3.36 mmol/L [OR, 6.400; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.067-38.402; p = 0.042], irregular plaque (OR, 6.054; 95% CI, 1.016-36.083; p = 0.048), ruptured plaque (OR, 6.077; 95% CI, 1.046-35.298; p = 0.048), and thrombus (OR, 6.773; 95% CI, 1.194-38.433; p = 0.044). The combined predictive model generated using four indicators showed good discrimination (Area Under Curve, 0.924; 95% CI, 0.815-0. 979). The p value was <0.05 with 78.26% sensitivity and 93.10% specificity.

Conclusion

OCT is valuable in evaluating the plaque characteristics of carotid atherosclerotic stenosis. The combined predictive model comprising low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol >3.36 mmol/L, irregular plaque, ruptured plaque, and thrombus could help in the detection of symptomatic carotid plaque. Further research conducted on additional independent cohorts is necessary to confirm the clinical significance of the predictive model for symptomatic carotid plaque.

ARISE I Consensus Review on the Management of Intracranial Aneurysms

BACKGROUND

Intracranial aneurysms (IAs) remain a challenging neurological diagnosis associated with significant morbidity and mortality. There is a plethora of microsurgical and endovascular techniques for the treatment of both ruptured and unruptured aneurysms. There is no definitive consensus as to the best treatment option for this cerebrovascular pathology. The Aneurysm, Arteriovenous Malformation, and Chronic Subdural Hematoma Roundtable Discussion With Industry and Stroke Experts discussed best practices and the most promising approaches to improve the management of brain aneurysms.

METHODS

A group of experts from academia, industry, and federal regulators convened to discuss updated clinical trials, scientific research on preclinical system models, management options, screening and monitoring, and promising novel device technologies, aiming to improve the outcomes of patients with IA.

RESULTS

Aneurysm, Arteriovenous Malformation, and Chronic Subdural Hematoma Roundtable Discussion With Industry and Stroke Experts suggested the incorporation of artificial intelligence to capture sequential aneurysm growth, identify predictors of rupture, and predict the risk of rupture to guide treatment options. The consensus strongly recommended nationwide systemic data collection of unruptured IA radiographic images for the analysis and development of machine learning algorithms for rupture risk. The consensus supported centers of excellence for preclinical multicenter trials in areas such as genetics, cellular composition, and radiogenomics. Optical coherence tomography and magnetic resonance imaging contrast-enhanced 3T vessel wall imaging are promising technologies; however, more data are needed to define their role in IA management. Ruptured aneurysms are best managed at large volume centers, which should include comprehensive patient management with expertise in microsurgery, endovascular surgery, neurology, and neurocritical care.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinical and preclinical studies and scientific research on IA should engage high-volume centers and be conducted in multicenter collaborative efforts. The future of IA diagnosis and monitoring could be enhanced by the incorporation of artificial intelligence and national radiographic and biologic registries. A collaborative effort between academic centers, government regulators, and the device industry is paramount for the adequate management of IA and the advancement of the field.

Imaging diagnosis and research progress of carotid plaque vulnerability

Ischemic stroke (IS) exhibits a high disability rate, mortality, and recurrence rate, imposing a serious threat to human survival and health. Its occurrence is affected by various factors. Although the previous research has demonstrated that the occurrence of IS is mainly associated with lumen stenosis caused by carotid atherosclerotic plaque (AP), recent studies have revealed that many patients will still suffer from IS even with mild carotid artery lumen stenosis. Blood supply disturbance causes 10% of IS to the corresponding cerebral blood supply area caused by carotid vulnerable plaque. Thrombus blockage of distal branch vessels caused by rupture of vulnerable carotid plaque is the main cause of ischemic stroke. Therefore, how to accurately evaluate vulnerable plaque and intervene as soon as possible is a problem that needs to be solved in clinic. The vulnerability of plaque is determined by its internal components, including thin and incomplete fibrous cap, necrotic lipid core, intra-plaque hemorrhage, intra-plaque neovascularization, and ulcerative plaque formation. The development of imaging technology enables the routine detection of AP vulnerability. By analyzing the pathological changes, characteristics, and formation mechanism of carotid plaque vulnerability, this article aims to explore the modern imaging methods which can be used to identify plaque composition and plaque vulnerability to provide a reference basis for disease diagnosis and differential diagnosis.

Intracranial aneurysms in the infant population: an institutional case series and individual participant data meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Infantile intracranial aneurysms are exceedingly rare. The goal of this study was to evaluate an institutional case series of infantile intracranial aneurysms, as well as those reported in the contemporary literature, to determine their demographics, presentation, management, and long-term outcome.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature review from 1980 to 2020 was performed to identify individual cases of intracranial aneurysms in the infantile population ≤ 2 years of age. Additional cases from the authors' institution were identified during the same time period. An individual participant data meta-analysis (IPDMA) was performed, abiding by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Patient demographic, radiographic, and clinical information was obtained. Descriptive statistical data were recorded, and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Patient data were obtained for 133 patients from 87 articles in the literature. Ten additional patients at the authors' institution were also identified, for a total of 143 patients included in the IPDMA. The majority (72.7%) of this cohort consisted of idiopathic aneurysms, while 13.3% were posttraumatic pseudoaneurysms, 9.8% were infectious mycotic aneurysms, and 4.2% were aneurysms associated with a systemic connective tissue disorder or vasculitis. The mean age at presentation was 6.6 months. The majority of infants (97.9%) harbored only 1 aneurysm, and hemorrhage was the most common presenting feature (78.3%). The mean aneurysm size was 14.4 mm, and giant aneurysms ≥ 25 mm comprised 12.9% of the cohort. Most aneurysms occurred in the anterior circulation (80.9%), with the middle cerebral artery (MCA) being the most commonly affected vessel (51.8%). Management strategies included open surgical aneurysm ligation (54.0%), endovascular treatment (35.0%), surgical decompression without aneurysm treatment (4.4%), and medical supportive management only (13.9%). Surgical aneurysm ligation was more commonly performed for MCA and anterior cerebral artery aneurysms (p = 0.004 and p = 0.015, respectively), while endovascular techniques were favored for basilar artery aneurysms (p = 0.042). The mean follow-up period was 29.9 months; 12.4% of the cohort died, and 67.0% had a favorable outcome (Glasgow Outcome Scale score of 5).

CONCLUSIONS

This study is, to the authors' knowledge, the largest analysis of infantile intracranial aneurysms to date. The majority were idiopathic aneurysms involving the anterior circulation. Surgical and endovascular techniques yielded equally favorable outcomes in this cohort. Long-term outcomes in the infantile population compared favorably to outcomes in adults.

Advanced high resolution three-dimensional imaging to visualize the cerebral neurovascular network in stroke

As an important method to accurately and timely diagnose stroke and study physiological characteristics and pathological mechanism in it, imaging technology has gone through more than a century of iteration. The interaction of cells densely packed in the brain is three-dimensional (3D), but the flat images brought by traditional visualization methods show only a few cells and ignore connections outside the slices. The increased resolution allows for a more microscopic and underlying view. Today's intuitive 3D imagings of micron or even nanometer scale are showing its essentiality in stroke. In recent years, 3D imaging technology has gained rapid development. With the overhaul of imaging mediums and the innovation of imaging mode, the resolution has been significantly improved, endowing researchers with the capability of holistic observation of a large volume, real-time monitoring of tiny voxels, and quantitative measurement of spatial parameters. In this review, we will summarize the current methods of high-resolution 3D imaging applied in stroke.

Carotid Artery Stiffness: Imaging Techniques and Impact on Cerebrovascular Disease

Arterial stiffness is an important measure of vascular aging and atherosclerosis. Though it is measured in many well-known epidemiologic cohort studies, arterial stiffness is often overlooked in routine clinical practice for a number of reasons including difficulties in measurement, variations in definition, and uncertainties surrounding treatment. Central arterial stiffness, a surrogate for aortic stiffness, is the most commonly measured marker of arterial stiffness. In addition to central stiffness, there are also a number of ultrasound based techniques to measure local vascular stiffness, including carotid stiffness. There is evidence that both local carotid stiffness and central arterial stiffness measures are associated with multiple cerebrovascular processes, including stroke and cognitive dysfunction. Mechanistic explanations supporting this association include increased flow load experienced by the cerebral microvasculature leading to cerebral parenchymal damage. In this article, we review definitions of carotid artery stiffness measures and pathophysiologic mechanisms underpinning its association with plaque development and downstream cerebral pathology. We will review the evidence surrounding the association of carotid stiffness measures with downstream manifestations including stroke, cerebral small vessel disease detected on brain MR such as white matter hyperintensities and covert brain infarctions, brain atrophy, and cognitive dysfunction. With consistent definitions, measurement methods, and further scientific support, carotid stiffness may have potential as an imaging-based risk factor for stroke and cognitive decline.

Overview of Imaging Modalities in Stroke

PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW

This article reviews common imaging modalities used in diagnosis and management of acute stroke. Each modality is discussed individually and clinical scenarios are presented to demonstrate how to apply these modalities in decision-making.

RECENT FINDINGS

Advances in neuroimaging provide unprecedented accuracy in determining tissue viability as well as tissue fate in acute stroke. In addition, advances in machine learning have led to the creation of decision support tools to improve the interpretability of these studies.

SUMMARY

Noncontrast head computed tomography (CT) remains the most commonly used initial imaging tool to evaluate stroke. Its exquisite sensitivity for hemorrhage, rapid acquisition, and widespread availability make it the ideal first study. CT angiography (CTA), the most common follow-up study after noncontrast head CT, is used primarily to identify intracranial large vessel occlusions and cervical carotid or vertebral artery disease. CTA is highly sensitive and can improve accuracy of patient selection for endovascular therapy through delineations of ischemic core. CT perfusion is widely used in endovascular therapy trials and benefits from multiple commercially available machine-learning packages that perform automated postprocessing and interpretation. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) can provide valuable insights for outcomes prognostication as well as stroke etiology. Optical coherence tomography (OCT), positron emission tomography (PET), single-photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT) offer similar insights. In the clinical scenarios presented, we demonstrate how multimodal imaging approaches can be tailored to gain mechanistic insights for a range of cerebrovascular pathologies.

Theranostic applications of optical coherence tomography in neurosurgery?

In light of our own experiences, we value the existing literature to critically point out possible “near” future applications of optical coherence tomography (OCT) as an intraoperative neurosurgical guidance tool. “Pub Med”, “Cochrane Library”, “Crossref Metadata Search”, and “IEEE Xplore” databases as well as the search engine “Google Scholar” were screened for “optical coherence tomography + neurosurgery”, “optical coherence tomography + intraoperative imaging + neurosurgery”, and “microscope integrated optical coherence tomography + neurosurgery”. n = 51 articles related to the use of OCT as an imaging technique in the field of neurosurgery or neurosurgical research. n = 7 articles documented the intraoperative use of OCT in patients. n = 4 articles documented the use of microscope-integrated optical coherence tomography as a neurosurgical guidance tool. The Results demonstrate that OCT is the first imaging technique to study microanatomy in vivo. Postoperative analysis of intraoperative scans holds promise to enrich our physiological and pathophysiological understanding of the human brain. No data exists to prove that OCT-guided surgery minimizes perioperative morbidity or extends tumor resection. But results suggest that regular use of microscope-integrated OCT could increase security during certain critical microsurgical steps like, e.g., dural dissection at cavernous sinus, transtentorial approaches, or aneurysm clip placement. Endoscopy integration could aid surgery in regions which are not yet accessible to real-time imaging modalities like the ventricles or hypophysis. Theranostic instruments which combine OCT with laser ablation might gain importance in the emerging field of minimal invasive tumor surgery. OCT depicts vessel wall layers and its pathologies uniquely. Doppler OCT could further visualize blood flow in parallel. These abilities shed light on promising future applications in the field of vascular neurosurgery.

High-resolution image-guided WEB aneurysm embolization by high-frequency optical coherence tomography

BACKGROUND

High-frequency optical coherence tomography (HF-OCT) is an intra-vascular imaging technique capable of assessing device-vessel interactions at spatial resolution approaching 10 µm. We tested the hypothesis that adequately deployed Woven EndoBridge (WEB) devices as visualized by HF-OCT lead to higher aneurysm occlusion rates.

METHODS

In a leporine model, elastase-induced aneurysms (n=24) were treated with the WEB device. HF-OCT and digital subtraction angiography (DSA) were performed following WEB deployment and repeated at 4, 8, and 12 weeks. Protrusion (0-present, 1-absent) and malapposition (0-malapposed, 1-neck apposition >50%) were binary coded. A device was considered 'adequately deployed' by HF-OCT and DSA if apposed and non-protruding. Aneurysm healing on DSA was reported using the 4-point WEB occlusion score: A or B grades were considered positive outcome. Neointimal coverage was quantified on HF-OCT images at 12 weeks and compared with scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

RESULTS

Adequate deployment on HF-OCT correlated with positive outcome (P=0.007), but no statistically significant relationship was found between good outcome and adequate deployment on DSA (P=0.289). Absence of protrusion on HF-OCT correlated with a positive outcome (P=0.006); however, malapposition alone had no significant relationship (P=0.19). HF-OCT showed a strong correlation with SEM for the assessment of areas of neointimal tissue (R²=0.96; P<0.001). More neointimal coverage of 78%±32% was found on 'adequate deployment' cases versus 31%±24% for the 'inadequate deployment' cases (P=0.001).

CONCLUSION

HF-OCT visualizes features that can determine adequate device deployment to prognosticate early aneurysm occlusion following WEB implantation and can be used to longitudinally monitor aneurysm healing progression.

Optical Coherence Tomography of Plaque Erosion and Thrombus in Severe Vertebral Artery Stenosis

A 69-year-old male presented with medically refractory vertebrobasilar insufficiency and paroxysmal subjective dizziness for six months. Severe stenosis of a dominant left V2 vertebral artery segment was identified on digital subtraction angiography (DSA) with an irregular intraluminal filling defect immediately above the stenosis. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) demonstrated a normal lumen at the distal end, with red thrombus detected distal to the stenosis. Atherosclerotic plaque containing fibro-lipid was also identified and treated with a drug-eluting stent. Distal red thrombi were not covered by stenting, indicating embolization risk in the future. Clear posterior fossa symptoms occurred after intervention, and treatment with a standard dual antiplatelet regimen and statin therapy was prescribed for one year. Six months after treatment, the symptoms improved, and six-minute walking distances were successful with no gait impairment. To our knowledge, this is the first V2 segment stenosis assessed by OCT imaging before and after stenting, indicating an intact fibrous cap with thrombus formation, as well as plaque erosion. Understanding the role and careful use of OCT may improve the identification of red thrombus and plaque erosion when clinically indicated.

Retinal vessel changes in cerebrovascular disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The retina is growingly recognized as a window into cerebrovascular and systemic vascular conditions. The utility of noninvasive retinal vessel biomarkers in cerebrovascular risk assessment has expanded due to advances in retinal imaging techniques and machine learning-based digital analysis. The purpose of this review is to underscore the latest evidence linking retinal vascular abnormalities with stroke and vascular-related cognitive disorders; to highlight modern developments in retinal vascular imaging modalities and software-based vasculopathy quantification.

RECENT FINDINGS

Longitudinal studies undertaken for extended periods indicate that retinal vascular changes can predict cerebrovascular disorders (CVD). Cerebrovascular ties to dementia provoked recent explorations of retinal vessel imaging tools for conceivable early cognitive decline detection. Innovative biomedical engineering technologies and advanced dynamic and functional retinal vascular imaging methods have recently been added to the armamentarium, allowing an unbiased and comprehensive analysis of the retinal vasculature. Improved artificial intelligence-based deep learning algorithms have boosted the application of retinal imaging as a clinical and research tool to screen, risk stratify, and monitor with precision CVD and vascular cognitive impairment.

SUMMARY

Mounting evidence supports the use of quantitative retinal vessel analysis in predicting CVD, from clinical stroke to neuroimaging markers of stroke and neurodegeneration.

Fluorescent AIE-Active Materials for Two-Photon Bioimaging Applications

Fluorescence imaging has been widely used as a powerful tool for in situ and real-time visualization of important analytes and biological events in live samples with remarkably high selectivity, sensitivity, and spatial resolution. Compared with one-photon fluorescence imaging, two-photon fluorescence imaging exhibits predominant advantages of minimal photodamage to samples, deep tissue penetration, and outstanding resolution. Recently, the aggregation-induced emission (AIE) materials have become a preferred choice in two-photon fluorescence biological imaging because of its unique bright fluorescence in solid and aggregate states and strong resistance to photobleaching. In this review, we will exclusively summarize the applications of AIE-active materials in two-photon fluorescence imaging with some representative examples from four aspects: fluorescence detection, in vitro cell imaging, ex vivo tissue imaging, and in vivo vascular imaging. In addition, the current challenges and future development directions of AIE-active materials for two-photon bioimaging are briefly discussed.

Longitudinal Monitoring of Flow-Diverting Stent Tissue Coverage After Implant in a Bifurcation Model Using Neurovascular High-Frequency Optical Coherence Tomography

BACKGROUND

Tissue growth over covered branches is a leading cause of delayed thrombotic complications after flow-diverter stenting (FDS). Due to insufficient resolution, no imaging modality is clinically available to monitor this phenomenon.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate high-frequency optical coherence tomography (HF-OCT), a novel intravascular imaging modality designed for the cerebrovascular anatomy with a resolution approaching 10 microns, to monitor tissue growth over FDS in an arterial bifurcation model.

METHODS

FDS were deployed in a rabbit model (n = 6), covering the aortic bifurcation. The animals were divided in different groups, receiving dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) (n = 4), aspirin only (n = 1), and no treatment (n = 1). HF-OCT data were obtained in vivo at 3 different time points in each animal. For each cross-sectional image, metal and tissue coverage of the jailed ostium was quantified. Scanning electron microscopy images of harvested arteries were subsequently obtained.

RESULTS

Good quality HF-OCT data sets were successfully acquired at implant and follow-up. A median value of 41 (range 21-55) cross-sectional images were analyzed per ostium for each time point. Between 0 and 30 d after implant, HF-OCT analysis showed a significantly higher ostium coverage when DAPT was not given. After 30 d, similar growth rates were found in the DAPT and in the aspirin group. At 60 d, a coverage of 90% was reached in all groups.

CONCLUSION

HF-OCT enables an accurate visualization of tissue growth over time on FDS struts. The use of FDS in bifurcation locations may induce a drastic reduction of the jailed-branch ostium area.

Application of Optical Frequency Domain Imaging to Recanalized Unruptured Internal Carotid Artery Aneurysm Treated by Flow-Diverting Stent-Assisted Coiling

BACKGROUND

Here we report the application of optical frequency domain imaging (OFDI), a new optical coherence tomography device, for intravascular visualization in the treatment of a recanalized unruptured internal carotid artery aneurysm that was treated initially by stent-assisted coil embolization.

CASE DESCRIPTION

OFDI revealed malapposition of the stent and lack of neointimal growth at the aneurysm neck, which was treated by deployment of a Pipeline Embolization Device to overlap the stent. An angiogram performed 1 year after the procedure revealed perfect healing of the aneurysm, and OFDI clearly demonstrated good stent apposition and total endothelialization over the aneurysm neck.

CONCLUSIONS

OFDI/OCT appears to be a useful diagnostic tool for evaluating stent-strut apposition over the vessel wall and the grade of neointimal endothelialization across the neck of the aneurysm in aneurysmal recanalization.

A neurovascular high-frequency optical coherence tomography system enables in situ cerebrovascular volumetric microscopy

Intravascular imaging has emerged as a valuable tool for the treatment of coronary and peripheral artery disease; however, no solution is available for safe and reliable use in the tortuous vascular anatomy of the brain. Endovascular treatment of stroke is delivered under image guidance with insufficient resolution to adequately assess underlying arterial pathology and therapeutic devices. High-resolution imaging, enabling surgeons to visualize cerebral arteries' microstructure and micron-level features of neurovascular devices, would have a profound impact in the research, diagnosis, and treatment of cerebrovascular diseases. Here, we present a neurovascular high-frequency optical coherence tomography (HF-OCT) system, including an imaging console and an endoscopic probe designed to rapidly acquire volumetric microscopy data at a resolution approaching 10 microns in tortuous cerebrovascular anatomies. Using a combination of in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo models, the feasibility of HF-OCT for cerebrovascular imaging was demonstrated.

Optical coherence tomography evaluation of vertebrobasilar artery stenosis: case series and literature review

BACKGROUND

Intracranial vertebrobasilar artery stenosis is an important cause of ischemic stroke. With its high resolution, intravascular optical coherence tomography (OCT) provides detailed assessment of vessel wall features. It is widely applied to identify high-risk plaque in the cardiovascular system, but its use in the intracranial artery has been limited.

OBJECTIVE

To explore, in this pilot study, the usefulness of OCT in imaging of the intracranial artery wall.

METHODS

Between November 2017 and July 2018, four patients with severe intracranial vertebrobasilar artery stenosis were enrolled for preintervention OCT evaluation of the lesion artery. Stenosis was present in the basilar artery in one case and in the intracranial vertebral artery in three cases.

RESULTS

OCT images of the lesions showed various features of plaque vulnerability, such as intraluminal thrombus, lipid-rich plaque with plaque rupture, thin fibrous cap, macrophage accumulations, and a mixed lesion with dissecting aneurysm. In view of the OCT findings, all patients received balloon angioplasty and stent implantation.

CONCLUSIONS

These cases describe the successful implementation of OCT in intracranial vertebrobasilar artery stenosis. No side effects were seen during the OCT imaging. This technology may help in the diagnosis and treatment of cerebrovascular disease.

NIR-II-Excited Intravital Two-Photon Microscopy Distinguishes Deep Cerebral and Tumor Vasculatures with an Ultrabright NIR-I AIE Luminogen

Intravital fluorescence imaging of vasculature morphology and dynamics in the brain and in tumors with large penetration depth and high signal-to-background ratio (SBR) is highly desirable for the study and theranostics of vascular-related diseases and cancers. Herein, a highly bright fluorophore (BTPETQ) with long-wavelength absorption and aggregation-induced near-infrared (NIR) emission (maximum at ≈700 nm) is designed for intravital two-photon fluorescence (2PF) imaging of a mouse brain and tumor vasculatures under NIR-II light (1200 nm) excitation. BTPETQ dots fabricated via nanoprecipitation show uniform size of around 42 nm and a high quantum yield of 19 ± 1% in aqueous media. The 2PF imaging of the mouse brain vasculatures labeled by BTPETQ dots reveals a 3D blood vessel network with an ultradeep depth of 924 µm. In addition, BTPETQ dots show enhanced 2PF in tumor vasculatures due to their unique leaky structures, which facilitates the differentiation of normal blood vessels from tumor vessels with high SBR in deep tumor tissues. Moreover, the extravasation and accumulation of BTPETQ dots in deep tumor (more than 900 µm) is visualized under NIR-II excitation. This study highlights the importance of developing NIR-II light excitable efficient NIR fluorophores for in vivo deep tissue and high contrast tumor imaging.

Intravascular imaging in neuroendovascular surgery: a brief review

Intravascular imaging has significantly contributed to the advancement of interventional cardiology. Intravascular ultrasound and optical coherence tomography have facilitated decision-making and interventional strategies in management of coronary artery lesions. Yet, applications of these modalities are limited in cerebrovascular practice. With the momentum in advancement of neuroendovascular interventions and techniques for treatment of strokes, cerebrovascular atherosclerotic diseases, aneurysms and vascular malformations, there is a need for the development of high-resolution platforms that can safely be used in cerebrovascular system, and to meet the imaging requirements in the field. In this brief review, we aim to discuss current and emerging intravascular imaging modalities and explore their potentials in field of neuroendovascular surgery.