Awareness, Perception, and Utilization of Skin Lightening Agents Among Females of Asmara, Eritrea: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background

The use of skin lightening agents (SLAs) is common among African females with black skin color. Although they usually contain harmful ingredients and can cause complications, their use remains to be a common practice. This study was conducted to assess the awareness, perception, and utilization of SLAs among females residing in Asmara, Eritrea.

Methods

A cross-sectional analytical study using a quantitative approach was conducted in representative samples of all beauty salons available in Asmara from May to July, 2021. The study participants were selected using two-stage stratified cluster sampling and data were collected through a face-to-face interview using a structured questionnaire. Descriptive analysis and logistic regression, at bivariate and multivariate level, were performed.

Results

The study enrolled 721 females and 684 completed the study. The majority of the respondents had the perception that SLAs can make someone light colored (84.4%), look beautiful (67.8%), trendy and fashionable (55.0%), and white skin is more attractive than dark skin (58.8%). About two-thirds (64.2%) reported they had previously used SLAs, mainly influenced by friends (60.5%). Approximately 46% were current users, while 53.6% stopped it mainly due to adverse effects, fear of adverse effects and ineffectiveness. A total of 150 products including natural ingredients were mentioned being used to lighten the skin, and Aneeza, Natural face, and Betamethasone containing brands were among the top used products. The occurrence of at least one adverse effect due to the use of SLAs was 43.7%, while 66.5% were satisfied with the use of SLAs. Additionally, employment status and perception of SLAs were found to be determinants of being a current user.

Conclusion

Utilization of SLAs, including products containing harmful or medicinal ingredients, was prevalent among the females of Asmara city. Thus, coordinated regulatory interventions are recommended to tackle unsafe practices and raise public awareness to promote the safe use of cosmetics.

The Impact of Face Skin Tone vs. Face Symmetry on Perceived Facial Attractiveness

The purpose of this study was to assess and compare the relative contribution of skin tone and symmetry on judgment of attractiveness regarding female faces. Two hundred and fifteen Mozambican adults were presented with a set of faces, and instructed to rate their degree of attractiveness along a continuous scale. Chi-square, factorial weight analyses and ANOVA were used to analyze the data. Face skin tone had a significant impact on the participants' attractiveness judgment of target faces. However, the target face skin tone contribution to the participants' attractiveness judgment (5% of the total variance) was much weaker than the contribution of the target face symmetry (85% of the total variance). These results imply that skin bleaching, common among Black people across sub-Saharan African countries, is not only dangerous to the health of those who practice it, but it is unlikely to make them appear much more attractive.

The business of black beauty: social entrepreneurship or social injustice?

Purpose

This paper aims to examine the black beauty industry from a historical perspective and consider the fairness heuristic theory to determine if organisations in this industry are engaging in and promoting social entrepreneurship or contributing to social injustice. The paper explores the work of Annie Turnbo-Malone and Madame C.J. Walker, pioneers and stalwart entrepreneurs in the black beauty business, to discuss the controversial issue. Current and future applications are also investigated and presented.

Design/methodology/approach

Papers from earlier as well as more contemporary journals, news media and books were examined and synthesised to render a balanced view to aid in the entrepreneurship or injustice debate.

Findings

The paper concludes that decisions about fairness and justice involve perception and thus vary by individual, allowing a substantial case for the black beauty industry to both be commended for social entrepreneurship and condemned as a proponent of social injustice (distributive, procedural and interactional).

Originality/value

Organisations have substantial impact on individuals, groups, the community and society. A meaningful organisation encourages expression, perceptions of worth and constructive attitudes and behaviour, and refrains from reflecting excessive dictatorship or dehumanisation. This paper highlights both positive and negative organisational and societal issues concerning the business of black beauty, a relatively understudied topic in management in general and management history in particular, and it provides a unique lens from which to build awareness about entrepreneurship and justice and to effect needed change.

Why people in Benin are reluctant to undergo amputations? A systematic inventory of motives

We made an inventory of the reasons for inhabitants of Benin are reluctant to undergo the amputation of a limb. A robust six-factor structure of motives was found: Change in Appearance, Lack of Information, Fear of Hospitals and Medical Staff, Loss of Others' Consideration and Affection, Denial of Necessity, and Spiritual and Religious Concerns. The first three motives were the most strongly endorsed. To improve people's timely acceptance, it is important to attack the main emotional-motivational barriers by using artificial limbs imitating real ones, by providing complete information on post-operative care and rehabilitation, and by strengthening family support.

The globalization of whitening: prevalence of skin lighteners (or bleachers) use and its social correlates among university students in 26 countries

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to investigate the use of skin lighteners and its social correlates in university students from 26 low, middle income, and emerging economy countries.

METHODS

Using anonymous questionnaires, data were collected from 19,624 undergraduate university students (mean age 20.8, SD 2.8) from 27 universities in 26 countries across Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to identify associations between sociodemographic, social, health risk, mental health and abuse, and the use of skin lighteners.

RESULTS

Overall, the prevalence of previous 12-month skin lightener use was 24.5, and 16.7% in male and 30.0% in female students. The use of skin lighteners varied by country, ranging from 0% in Turkey to 83.8% in Thailand. In multivariate logistic regression analysis among both men and women, social variables (highly-organized religious activity and lack of personal mastery) and health variables (inconsistent condom use) were associated with skin lightening use. In addition, male students from a lower income country, having a lack of social support, and a history of childhood sexual abuse were more likely to use skin lighteners, and women aged 20-21 years old, residing on the university campus, being a student of health and welfare, and having a lack of personal control, inadequate physical activity, and depressive symptoms were more likely users of skin-lightening products.

CONCLUSION

A high prevalence of skin lightener use was found in this large sample of university students, and social and health-related risk factors were identified.

The practice of puxa-puxa among Mozambican women: a systematic inventory of motives

Puxa-puxa is the elongation of the labia minora of the genital organs. It is one of the most widespread genital practices among women in Mozambique, and the practice seems to be specific to this country. The motives underlying this practice and its abandonment were examined in a theory-driven way. A total of 616 women currently living in the provinces of Maputo, Zambezia, and Nampula, aged 18 to 62, were presented with one of two questionnaires that contained items about possible motives for practicing puxa-puxa or possible motives for not practicing it. Seven separable motives for practicing puxa-puxa were found, and the most highly rated were "Having a satisfying sexual life"; "Satisfying my sexual partner"; and "Gaining self-control." Five separable motives for not practicing puxa-puxa were found, and the most highly rated were "Disliking a painful practice"; "Affirming one's value as a person"; and "Avoiding contamination." The main findings of the study are that the practice of puxa-puxa is associated with deep psychological motives common to most women in most cultures, namely having a satisfying sexual life with a reliable partner, creating the conditions for having children, and being able to care for them. The abandonment of this practice is largely the result of personal decisions, which are not taken under constraint and which are not exclusively taken from fear of illness.