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Romero-Morales C, Villafañe JH, Jácome-López R, Tullio M, Strelczuk A, Miñambres-Martín D, Lara-Cabrero JL, Jiménez-Sáiz SL. Gender Differences in Core Muscle Morphology of Elite Alpine Skiers: Insights from Ultrasonography. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:4073. [PMID: 39000851 PMCID: PMC11243973 DOI: 10.3390/s24134073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2024] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
This study investigates gender differences in core muscle morphology among elite alpine skiers using ultrasonography, highlighting significant disparities that could influence training and injury prevention strategies. METHODS A cross-sectional design was employed, examining ultrasound imaging (USI) in 22 elite skiers (11 male, 11 female) to assess the thickness of the external oblique (EO), internal oblique (IO), transversus abdominis (TrAb), and rectus abdominis (RA) muscles. RESULTS Significant differences were noted, with male skiers displaying greater muscle thickness, particularly in the right IO and RA and left IO, EO, TrAb, and RA. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that male and female skiers may require different training approaches to optimize performance and reduce injury risks. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of the physical demands on elite skiers and underscores the need for gender-specific training regimens to enhance athletic outcomes and prevent injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Romero-Morales
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, 28670 Villaviciosa de Odón, Spain; (C.R.-M.); (J.H.V.); (D.M.-M.); (J.L.L.-C.)
| | - Jorge H. Villafañe
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, 28670 Villaviciosa de Odón, Spain; (C.R.-M.); (J.H.V.); (D.M.-M.); (J.L.L.-C.)
| | - Rafael Jácome-López
- GlobalPhysio Rehabilitation Clinic, 28010 Madrid, Spain; (R.J.-L.); (M.T.); (A.S.)
| | - Marco Tullio
- GlobalPhysio Rehabilitation Clinic, 28010 Madrid, Spain; (R.J.-L.); (M.T.); (A.S.)
| | - Agustín Strelczuk
- GlobalPhysio Rehabilitation Clinic, 28010 Madrid, Spain; (R.J.-L.); (M.T.); (A.S.)
| | - Diego Miñambres-Martín
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, 28670 Villaviciosa de Odón, Spain; (C.R.-M.); (J.H.V.); (D.M.-M.); (J.L.L.-C.)
| | - José Luis Lara-Cabrero
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, 28670 Villaviciosa de Odón, Spain; (C.R.-M.); (J.H.V.); (D.M.-M.); (J.L.L.-C.)
- Clinica CEMTRO, 28035 Madrid, Spain
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Bonell Monsonís O, Spörri J, Warsen M, Bolling C, Gouttebarge V, Verhagen E. We know a lot about little and little about a lot: A contextualized scoping review on injury prevention in alpine ski racing. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2024; 34:e14533. [PMID: 37955281 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Our goal was to summarize and contextualize the available literature on alpine ski racing injury epidemiology, injury etiology, injury prevention measures, injury prevention context, and implementation issues. MATERIALS AND METHODS We searched four electronic databases using predetermined search terms. We included original studies that assessed injury, injury risk factors, and injury mechanisms, and assessed and reported the effect of an injury prevention measure in alpine ski racing. Two authors independently conducted title-abstract screening, and one performed the full-text review. For data synthesis and categorization, we used the Translating Research into the Injury Prevention Practice framework and a modified and adapted version of the Haddon matrix. RESULTS Of the 157 included studies, most corresponded to injury epidemiology and etiology, whereas few studies encompassed injury prevention measure development, implementation and evaluation. Preventive interventions targeting equipment, rules and regulations, course design and snow preparation were the most prevalent in the literature. Furthermore, various contextual factors in the current literature have been found, including gender, competition level, countries and federations, and time periods within a season. CONCLUSIONS We provided an in-depth and comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in the alpine ski racing context. We know a lot about little and little about a lot across all the areas associated with injury prevention in such context. The limitations in the literature yield a road map for designing future injury prevention studies to address the key gaps identified. A more comprehensive context-driven approach throughout all stages of injury prevention would benefit the ultimate implementation of effective preventive strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oriol Bonell Monsonís
- Amsterdam Collaboration on Health and Safety in Sports, Department of Public and Occupational Health, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam UMC, University Medical Centers - Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Musculoskeletal Health and Sports, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jörg Spörri
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Marit Warsen
- Amsterdam Collaboration on Health and Safety in Sports, Department of Public and Occupational Health, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam UMC, University Medical Centers - Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Caroline Bolling
- Amsterdam Collaboration on Health and Safety in Sports, Department of Public and Occupational Health, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam UMC, University Medical Centers - Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam, Orthopedic Surgery and Sports Medicine, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Vincent Gouttebarge
- Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Musculoskeletal Health and Sports, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam, Orthopedic Surgery and Sports Medicine, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Section Sports Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Evert Verhagen
- Amsterdam Collaboration on Health and Safety in Sports, Department of Public and Occupational Health, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam UMC, University Medical Centers - Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Musculoskeletal Health and Sports, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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3
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Fitze DP, Franchi MV, Ellenberger L, Peterhans L, Fröhlich S, Frey WO, Spörri J. Lumbar Multifidus Morphology in Youth Competitive Alpine Skiers and Associated Sex, Age, Biological Maturation, Trunk Stability, and Back Complaints. Sports Health 2023; 15:886-894. [PMID: 36517985 PMCID: PMC10606963 DOI: 10.1177/19417381221136129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The lumbar multifidus (LMF), as a dynamic stabilizer of the lumbar spine, may play an important role in the prevention of overuse-related back complaints. HYPOTHESIS LMF morphology is associated with trunk stability and differs between symptomatic and asymptomatic skiers. STUDY DESIGN Cohort study. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level 3. METHODS A total of 85 youth skiers (28 females, mean age, 14.7 ± 0.7 years; 57 males, mean age, 14.9 ± 0.5 years) underwent anthropometric assessments, an estimation of biological maturation, a magnetic resonance imaging- and ultrasound-based examination of LMF morphology, and a biomechanical quantification of deadbug bridging stabilization performance. Athletes were categorized as symptomatic if they had registered at least 1 significant overuse-related back complaint episode in the 12 months before the main examination. RESULTS Male skiers showed a greater LMF size (ie, anatomical cross-sectional area [ACSA]) than female skiers, except for vertebral body L5, where no difference was found (8.8 ± 1.8 cm2 vs 8.3 ± 1.4 cm2, P = 0.18). Conversely, female skiers displayed longer fascicles than male skiers (5.8 ± 0.8 cm vs 5.4 ± 0.8 cm, P = 0.03). Skiers aged under 16 years (U16) skiers had greater values for LMF size and fascicle length than U15 skiers. Maturity offset was associated with L5 LMF size (R2 = 0.060, P = 0.01), fascicle length (R2 = 0.038, P = 0.04), and muscle thickness (R2 = 0.064, P = 0.02). L5 LMF size was associated with trunk stability (R2 = 0.068, P = 0.01). Asymptomatic skiers showed on average a 12.8% greater value for L5 LMF size compared with symptomatic skiers (P = 0.04). CONCLUSION There are sex- and age-related differences in LMF morphology in youth competitive alpine skiers. Moreover, the ACSA at the level of the lumbar vertebral body L5 undergoes changes during biological maturation, shows a small, but significant association with trunk stability, and differs between symptomatic and asymptomatic skiers with back complaints. CLINICAL RELEVANCE The observed association of muscle structure (ie, L5 LMF ACSA) with functional aspects (ie, trunk stabilization capacity) and clinical representation (ie, overuse-related back complaints) further highlights the important role of the multifidus muscle for training and injury prevention in youth competitive alpine skiers around the growth spurt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P. Fitze
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Switzerland
- University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Martino V. Franchi
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute of Physiology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Italy
| | - Lynn Ellenberger
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Switzerland
- University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Loris Peterhans
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Switzerland
- University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Fröhlich
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Switzerland
- University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Walter O. Frey
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Switzerland
- University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jörg Spörri
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Switzerland
- University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Switzerland
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Meinke A, Spörri J, Brogli L, Schwab P, Karlen W. Addressing the unresolved challenge of quantifying skiing exposure-A proof of concept using smartphone sensors. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1157987. [PMID: 37229363 PMCID: PMC10203200 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1157987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
In epidemiological studies related to winter sports, especially alpine skiing, an unresolved methodological challenge is the quantification of actual on-snow activity exposure. Such information would be relevant for reporting meaningful measures of injury incidence, which refers to the number of new injuries that occur in a given population and time period. Accordingly, accurate determination of the denominator, i.e., actual "activity exposure time", is critical for injury surveillance and reporting. In this perspective article, we explore the question of whether wearable sensors in combination with mHealth applications are suitable tools to accurately quantify the periods in a ski day when the skier is physically skiing and not resting or using a mechanical means of transport. As a first proof of concept, we present exemplary data from a youth competitive alpine skier who wore his smartphone with embedded sensors on his body on several ski days during one winter season. We compared these data to self-reported estimates of ski exposure, as used in athletes' training diaries. In summary, quantifying on-snow activity exposure in alpine skiing using sensor data from smartphones is technically feasible. For example, the sensors could be used to track ski training sessions, estimate the actual time spent skiing, and even quantify the number of runs and turns made as long as the smartphone is worn. Such data could be very useful in determining actual exposure time in the context of injury surveillance and could prove valuable for effective stress management and injury prevention in athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Meinke
- Mobile Health Systems Lab, Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jörg Spörri
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Luzius Brogli
- Mobile Health Systems Lab, Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Patrick Schwab
- Mobile Health Systems Lab, Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Walter Karlen
- Mobile Health Systems Lab, Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
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Witwit WA, Hebelka H, Swärd Aminoff A, Abrahamson J, Todd C, Baranto A. No Significant Change in MRI Abnormalities or Back Pain Prevalence in the Thoraco-Lumbar Spine of Young Elite Skiers Over a 2-Year Follow-Up. Open Access J Sports Med 2022; 13:69-76. [PMID: 36003328 PMCID: PMC9394653 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s366548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Young athletes are at increasing risk for spinal column injuries due to overloading the spine with excessive sports activities, with potential development of complications later in life. Purpose The purpose of this 2-year follow-up study of young elite skiers and non-athletes was to investigate any potential change in the thoraco-lumbar findings on MRI and to outline any change in back pain prevalence with continuing sporting activity and age. Study Design Longitudinal cross-sectional study. Methods MRI of the thoraco-lumbar spine was performed on 30 skiers (mean age 20 years, female 43%) and 16 non-athletes (mean age 19, female 75%), available for the 2-year follow-up. The intervertebral discs were evaluated for signal, height, bulge/herniation, and additionally according to Pfirrmann classification, and the endplates were graded according to endplate defect score. Any of the following disc findings was defined as disc degenerative change: reduced signal, reduced height, bulge, or herniation. All participants answered a specific back pain questionnaire. Results No significant difference in spinal column abnormalities, nor back pain, was found between baseline and 2-year follow-up in neither skiers nor controls. There was significantly higher prevalence of disc degenerative changes in skiers (73%) than in non-athletes (44%, p=0.05). Skiers (63%) had significantly more Pfirrmann grade ≥3 discs compared to non-athletes (25%) (p=0.03). There was no significant difference in number of endplates with score ≥4 between skiers and non-athletes (50% vs 38%, p=0.40) nor in lifetime prevalence of back pain between skiers (46%) and non-athletes (40%). Conclusion There was no significant change over time of the spinal column MRI abnormalities, nor back pain prevalence, during a 2-year follow-up of skiers and non-athletes. Young skiers had significantly higher prevalence of spine abnormalities compared with non-athletes. There was no significant difference of the back pain lifetime prevalence in skiers compared with non-athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wisam A Witwit
- Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Department of Orthopaedics, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Department of Neuroradiology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Hanna Hebelka
- Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Department of Radiology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anna Swärd Aminoff
- Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Josefin Abrahamson
- Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Department of Orthopaedics, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Carl Todd
- Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Adad Baranto
- Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Department of Orthopaedics, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
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Preatoni E, Bergamini E, Fantozzi S, Giraud LI, Orejel Bustos AS, Vannozzi G, Camomilla V. The Use of Wearable Sensors for Preventing, Assessing, and Informing Recovery from Sport-Related Musculoskeletal Injuries: A Systematic Scoping Review. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:3225. [PMID: 35590914 PMCID: PMC9105988 DOI: 10.3390/s22093225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Wearable technologies are often indicated as tools that can enable the in-field collection of quantitative biomechanical data, unobtrusively, for extended periods of time, and with few spatial limitations. Despite many claims about their potential for impact in the area of injury prevention and management, there seems to be little attention to grounding this potential in biomechanical research linking quantities from wearables to musculoskeletal injuries, and to assessing the readiness of these biomechanical approaches for being implemented in real practice. We performed a systematic scoping review to characterise and critically analyse the state of the art of research using wearable technologies to study musculoskeletal injuries in sport from a biomechanical perspective. A total of 4952 articles were retrieved from the Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed databases; 165 were included. Multiple study features-such as research design, scope, experimental settings, and applied context-were summarised and assessed. We also proposed an injury-research readiness classification tool to gauge the maturity of biomechanical approaches using wearables. Five main conclusions emerged from this review, which we used as a springboard to propose guidelines and good practices for future research and dissemination in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ezio Preatoni
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK; (E.P.); (L.I.G.)
- Centre for Health and Injury and Illness Prevention in Sport, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Elena Bergamini
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Piazza L. de Bosis 6, 00135 Rome, Italy; (E.B.); (A.S.O.B.); (V.C.)
- Interuniversity Centre of Bioengineering of the Human Neuromusculoskeletal System (BOHNES), University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Piazza L. de Bosis 6, 00135 Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Fantozzi
- Department of Electrical, Electronic, and Information Engineering “Guglielmo Marconi”, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy;
- Health Sciences and Technologies—Interdepartmental Centre for Industrial Research, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Lucie I. Giraud
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK; (E.P.); (L.I.G.)
| | - Amaranta S. Orejel Bustos
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Piazza L. de Bosis 6, 00135 Rome, Italy; (E.B.); (A.S.O.B.); (V.C.)
- Interuniversity Centre of Bioengineering of the Human Neuromusculoskeletal System (BOHNES), University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Piazza L. de Bosis 6, 00135 Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Vannozzi
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Piazza L. de Bosis 6, 00135 Rome, Italy; (E.B.); (A.S.O.B.); (V.C.)
- Interuniversity Centre of Bioengineering of the Human Neuromusculoskeletal System (BOHNES), University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Piazza L. de Bosis 6, 00135 Rome, Italy
| | - Valentina Camomilla
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Piazza L. de Bosis 6, 00135 Rome, Italy; (E.B.); (A.S.O.B.); (V.C.)
- Interuniversity Centre of Bioengineering of the Human Neuromusculoskeletal System (BOHNES), University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Piazza L. de Bosis 6, 00135 Rome, Italy
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Schoeb T, Fröhlich S, Frey WO, Verhagen E, Farshad M, Spörri J. The ISPA Int Injury Prevention Programme for Youth Competitive Alpine Skiers: A Controlled 12-Month Experimental Study in a Real-World Training Setting. Front Physiol 2022; 13:826212. [PMID: 35309082 PMCID: PMC8929391 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.826212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Evidence-based injury prevention programmes for youth competitive alpine skiers are widely absent. The aims of this controlled 12-month experimental study were to introduce a novel injury prevention programme targeted to the injury patterns of youth skiers, called ISPAInt, and to compare the differences in injury occurrence between an intervention group (IG) additionally performing the ISPAInt programme and an independent, historical control group (CG) following their regular training routines. None of the skiers of the CG were part of the IG and vice versa. The study was directly conducted within the real-world youth development structures of skiers competing at the under 16 years (U16) level in Switzerland. Seventy-one skiers (aged 14.4 ± 0.3 years) assigned to the IG were compared to 58 age- and gender-matched controls. The IG was offered the ISPAInt programme with the recommendation to perform it at least once per week. Skiers’ adherence to this recommendation was surveyed but not enforced. Injuries were recorded using the Oslo Sports Trauma Research Centre Questionnaire. Primary outcomes were the absolute injury rates (number of injuries/100 athletes per season) and epidemiological incidence proportion (number of injured athletes/100 athletes per season). The secondary outcome was the average 2-weekly prevalence of traumatic knee, knee overuse, and lower back overuse injuries. There were lower absolute rates of all traumatic injuries [rate/risk difference, RD: −57.1 (−98.1, −16.0); rate/risk ratio, RR: 0.665 (0.485, 0.884)] and overuse injuries [RD: −35.9 (−71.0, −0.7); RR: 0.699 (0.493, 0.989)] in the IG than in the CG. Likewise, the epidemiological incidence proportion for all overuse injuries was smaller in the IG [RD: −28.4 (−44.8, −12.0); RR: 0.598 (0.435, 0.822)], while the proportion of skiers suffering from traumatic injuries did not significantly differ between the groups. Notably, the IG particularity differed from the CG in the average 2-weekly prevalence of knee trauma, knee overuse, and lower back overuse complaints, three of the major injury-related hot spots in youth skiers. Based on these promising results, the ISPAInt programme may have great potential to prevent injuries in youth competitive alpine skiers, and the underlying exercises should be considered complementary training content at the U16 level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thierry Schoeb
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Fröhlich
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland.,University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Walter O Frey
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland.,University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Evert Verhagen
- Amsterdam Collaboration on Health and Safety in Sports, IOC Research Centre for Prevention of Injury and Protection of Athlete Health, Department of Public and Occupational Health, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Mazda Farshad
- Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,University Spine Centre, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jörg Spörri
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland.,University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
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8
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Strutzenberger G, Ellenberger L, Bruhin B, Frey WO, Scherr J, Spörri J. Deadbug Bridging Performance in 6- to 15-Year-Old Competitive Alpine Skiers-A Cross-Sectional Study. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:329. [PMID: 35205195 PMCID: PMC8869284 DOI: 10.3390/biology11020329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In competitive alpine skiing, a superior antirotation and rear-chain stabilization capacity is essential to constantly remain in dynamic equilibrium while skiing and to counteract the ski-specific adverse loading patterns of the back. As such, skiers' trunk stabilization performance during deadbug bridging (DBB) exercises has been shown to be associated with both skiing performance and overuse complaints of the lower back in skiers under 16 years of age (U16). However, to date, little is known about the corresponding stabilization abilities in younger skiers, i.e., 6- to 15-year-old skiers. As part of a biomechanical field experiment during a national off-snow fitness competition, a total of 101 youth competitive alpine skiers were tested with respect to their trunk stabilization performance during DDB exercise. The maximum contralateral displacement of the pelvic drop during leg lift (DBBdisplacement) was quantified using reflective markers and a motion capture system (Vicon, Oxford, UK). Potential age group and sex differences in DBBdisplacement were assessed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) at p < 0.05. Within each subgroup, the associations of DBBdisplacement with age, anthropometrics and maturity offset were analysed using Pearson's correlation (p < 0.05). Female skiers under 15 years of age (U15) showed better DBB performance than male U15 skiers, while there was no sex difference at the under 10-year (U10) level. In female U10 skiers, DBBdisplacement was moderately associated with body height, while in all other subgroups, no confounding associations with anthropometrics or biological maturation were found. Biomechanically quantifying DBB performance may be considered a feasible and nonconfounded screening test approach in young skiers older than 6 years. Body height may represent a confounding bias in exclusively the U10 female skier cohort and, therefore, should be considered when interpreting the test results. In summary, this study provided sport-specific normative reference data that may be of equal interest to both researchers and sport practitioners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerda Strutzenberger
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland; (G.S.); (L.E.); (W.O.F.); (J.S.)
- University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
- Motion Analysis Zurich, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, Children’s Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lynn Ellenberger
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland; (G.S.); (L.E.); (W.O.F.); (J.S.)
- University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Walter O. Frey
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland; (G.S.); (L.E.); (W.O.F.); (J.S.)
- University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Johannes Scherr
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland; (G.S.); (L.E.); (W.O.F.); (J.S.)
- University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
- Motion Analysis Zurich, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, Children’s Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jörg Spörri
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland; (G.S.); (L.E.); (W.O.F.); (J.S.)
- University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
- Motion Analysis Zurich, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, Children’s Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
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9
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Spörri J, Müller E, Kröll J. "When you're down, stay down": A lesson for all competitive alpine skiers supported by an ACL rupture measured in vivo. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2022; 11:14-20. [PMID: 34852295 PMCID: PMC8847912 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2021.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Revised: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND During an experiment, a ski racer equipped with various measurement devices suffered an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rupture in his right knee. The aim of this study was to describe the underlying injury mechanism from a functional perspective. METHODS Eight giant slalom turns (i.e., 4 left turns), followed by 1 left turn at which the ACL injury occurred, were recorded by 2 video cameras, electromyography of 4 relevant muscle groups, inertial measurement units to measure knee and hip angles, and pressure insoles to determine ground reaction forces. RESULTS Due to a loss of balance, the ski racer began to slide sideways at the apex of a left turn. During sliding, his right (outside) leg was actively abducted upward without touching the ground. The ski racer then attempted to stand up again by dropping his leg back towards the snow surface. The end of this dropping was accompanied by a decrease in electromyographic activity in the knee stabilizing muscles. Once the inside edge of the outer ski caught the snow surface, a rapidly increasing peak force, knee flexion, and an aggressive sudden activation of the vastus medialis muscle were observed, while biceps femoris and rectus femoris further decreased their activation levels. This likely resulted in excessive anterior translation of the tibia relative to the femur, causing damage to the ACL. CONCLUSION Our example emphasizes that ski racers should not get up until they stop sliding. Remember: "When you're down, stay down."
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörg Spörri
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich 8008, Switzerland; University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich 8008, Switzerland.
| | - Erich Müller
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Hallein-Ri 5400, Austria
| | - Josef Kröll
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Hallein-Ri 5400, Austria
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10
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Lagerstrand K, Baranto A, Hebelka H. Different disc characteristics between young elite skiers with diverse training histories revealed with a novel quantitative magnetic resonance imaging method. EUROPEAN SPINE JOURNAL : OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE EUROPEAN SPINE SOCIETY, THE EUROPEAN SPINAL DEFORMITY SOCIETY, AND THE EUROPEAN SECTION OF THE CERVICAL SPINE RESEARCH SOCIETY 2021; 30:2082-2089. [PMID: 34013394 DOI: 10.1007/s00586-021-06869-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate if there are differences in thoraco-lumbar disc characteristics between elite skiers and non-athletic controls as well as between different types of elite skiers, with diverse training histories, using a novel quantitative MRI method. METHODS The thoraco-lumbar spine of 58 elite skiers (age = 18.2 ± 1.1 years, 30 males) and 26 normally active controls (age = 16.4 ± 0.6 years, 9 males) was examined using T2w-MRI. Disc characteristics were compared quantitatively between groups using histogram and regional image analyses to determine delta peak and T2-values in five sub-regions. RESULTS A statistical difference in the delta peak value was found between skiers and controls (p <0.001), reflecting higher degree of disc degeneration. The histogram analysis also revealed that the type of training determines where and to what extent the changes occur. Alpine skiers displayed lumbar changes, while mogul skiers displayed changes also in the thoracic spine. Alpine skiers with diverse training dose differed in delta peak value (p = 0.005), where skiers with highest training dose displayed less changes. Regional T2-value differences were found in skiers with divergent training histories (p <0.05), reflecting differences in disc degeneration patterns, foremost within the dorsal annulus. CONCLUSION Differences in quantitative disc characteristics were found not only between elite skiers and non-athletic controls but also between subgroups of elite skiers with diverse training histories. The differences in the disc measures, reflecting tissue degradation, are likely related to type and intensity of the physical training. Future studies are encouraged to explore the relation between disc functionality, training history and pain to establish adequate prevention and rehabilitation programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Lagerstrand
- Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
- Department of Medical Physics and Techniques, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - A Baranto
- Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Orthopedics, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - H Hebelka
- Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Radiology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
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11
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Fröhlich S, Helbling M, Fucentese SF, Karlen W, Frey WO, Spörri J. Injury risks among elite competitive alpine skiers are underestimated if not registered prospectively, over the entire season and regardless of whether requiring medical attention. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 2021; 29:1635-1643. [PMID: 32556431 DOI: 10.1007/s00167-020-06110-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Prospective studies assessing the injuries occurring in elite competitive alpine skiers are lacking, and a full picture of all injuries, including those not requiring medical attention, is absent. Likewise, little is known about the sex-specific injury risks and patterns of elite skiers throughout an entire season (i.e. an off-season preparation period and a competition period). Accordingly, this study investigated the injuries of a national team cohort with respect to season period and sex. METHODS Over an entire season, all injuries occurring in 44 Swiss National Ski Team members (25 females and 19 males) were registered, regardless of whether they required medical attention. Skiers were prospectively monitored by the Oslo Sports Trauma Research Centre (OSTRC) questionnaire and by continuously updated team medical records. Finally, these data were used as a reference for supplemental interviews, in which the correctness and completeness of the prospective data were verified. RESULTS The risk of suffering at least one injury during an entire season was 75.0% with a 95% confidence interval (73.1%, 76.9%) for traumatic injuries, and 52.3% (50.0%, 54.5%) for overuse injuries. Traumatic injuries concerned the head, lower leg and knee, while overuse injuries affected the lumbar spine, knee and hip. During the competition period, skiers were more prone to traumatic injuries, while during the off-season preparation period, skiers' risk was higher for overuse injuries. Over an entire season, there were no sex differences. However, females were more vulnerable to traumatic injuries during the preparation period and overuse injuries during the competition period, while males had a higher risk for overuse injuries during the preparation period. CONCLUSIONS When prospectively registering injuries among elite competitive alpine skiers over an entire season, regardless of whether the injuries required medical attention, the injury risks were alarmingly high and substantially larger than those previously reported. Moreover, since injury risks and patterns are season period and sex dependent, it is strongly recommended that (1) injury registration focuses on both the off-season preparation period and the competition period and (2) prevention efforts are specifically tailored to the sex of the athletes. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE II.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Fröhlich
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Lengghalde 5, Zurich, 8008, Switzerland
- University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Moritz Helbling
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Lengghalde 5, Zurich, 8008, Switzerland
- University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sandro F Fucentese
- Knee Surgery, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Walter Karlen
- Mobile Health Systems Lab, Institute for Robotics and Intelligent Systems, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Walter O Frey
- University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jörg Spörri
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Lengghalde 5, Zurich, 8008, Switzerland.
- University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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12
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A Comprehensive Comparison and Validation of Published Methods to Detect Turn Switch during Alpine Skiing. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21072573. [PMID: 33917619 PMCID: PMC8038779 DOI: 10.3390/s21072573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Revised: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The instant of turn switch (TS) in alpine skiing has been assessed with a variety of sensors and TS concepts. Despite many published methodologies, it is unclear which is best or how comparable they are. This study aimed to facilitate the process of choosing a TS method by evaluating the accuracy and precision of the methodologies previously used in literature and to assess the influence of the sensor type. Optoelectronic motion capture, inertial measurement units, pressure insoles, portable force plates, and electromyography signals were recorded during indoor treadmill skiing. All TS methodologies were replicated as stated in their respective publications. The method proposed by Supej assessed with optoelectronic motion capture was used as a comparison reference. TS time differences between the reference and each methodology were used to assess accuracy and precision. All the methods analyzed showed an accuracy within 0.25 s, and ten of them within 0.05 s. The precision ranged from ~0.10 s to ~0.60 s. The TS methodologies with the best performance (accuracy and precision) were Klous Video, Spörri PI (pressure insoles), Martinez CTD (connected boot), and Yamagiwa IMU (inertial measurement unit). In the future, the specific TS methodology should be chosen with respect to sensor selection, performance, and intended purpose.
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13
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Ogrin J, Šarabon N, Madsen MK, Kersting U, Holmberg HC, Supej M. Asymmetries in Ground Reaction Forces During Turns by Elite Slalom Alpine Skiers Are Not Related to Asymmetries in Muscular Strength. Front Physiol 2021; 12:577698. [PMID: 33859567 PMCID: PMC8042208 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.577698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The ground reaction forces (GRF) associated with competitive alpine skiing, which are relatively large, might be asymmetric during left and right turns due to asymmetries in the strength of the legs and torso and the present investigation was designed to evaluate this possibility. While skiing a symmetrical, 20-gate slalom course, the asymmetries of 9 elite alpine skiers were calculated on the basis of measurements provided by inertial motion units (IMU), a Global Navigation Satellite System and pressure insoles. In addition, specialized dynamometers were utilized to assess potential asymmetry in the strength of their legs and torso in the laboratory. In total, seven variables related to GRF were assessed on-snow and eight related to strength of the legs and torso in the laboratory. The asymmetries in these parameters between left and right turns on snow were expressed in terms of the symmetry (SI) and Jaccard indices (JI), while the asymmetries between the left and right sides of the body in the case of the laboratory measurements were expressed as the SIs. The three hypotheses to be tested were examined using multivariable regression models. Our findings resulted in rejection of all three hypotheses: The asymmetries in total GRF (H1), as well as in the GRF acting on the inside and outside legs (H2) and on the rear- and forefeet GRF (H3) during left and right turns were not associated with asymmetries in parameters related to muscular strength. Nevertheless, this group of elite slalom skiers exhibited significant asymmetry between their right and left legs with respect to MVC during ankle flexion (0.53 ± 0.06 versus 0.60 ± 0.07 Nm/kg, respectively) and hip extension (2.68 ± 0.39 versus 2.17 ± 0.26 Nm/kg), as well as with respect to the GRFs on the inside leg while skiing (66.8 ± 7.39 versus 76.0 ± 10.0 %BW). As indicated by the JI values, there were also large asymmetries related to GRF as measured by pressure insoles (range: 42.7–56.0%). In conclusion, inter-limb asymmetries in GRFs during elite alpine skiing are not related to corresponding asymmetries in muscular strength. Although our elite athletes exhibited relatively small inter-limb asymmetries in strength, their asymmetries in GRF on-snow were relatively large.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Ogrin
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Nejc Šarabon
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Primorska, Izola, Slovenia.,S2P, Science to Practice, Ltd., Laboratory for Motor Control and Motor Behavior, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Mads Kjær Madsen
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Sport Sciences - Performance and Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Uwe Kersting
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Sport Sciences - Performance and Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark.,Institute of Biomechanics and Orthopedics, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Hans-Christer Holmberg
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Biomedicum C5, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.,China Institute of Sport and Health Science, Beijing Sport University, Beijing, China
| | - Matej Supej
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
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14
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Xu Y, Yang C, Yang Y, Zhang X, Zhang S, Zhang M, Liu L, Fu W. A Narrative Review of Injury Incidence, Location, and Injury Factor of Elite Athletes in Snowsport Events. Front Physiol 2021; 11:589983. [PMID: 33488394 PMCID: PMC7820716 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.589983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Snowsport athletes face a high injury risk both during training and in competitions. Reducing injury incidence is crucial for athletes to achieve breakthroughs. This narrative review aimed to summarize and analyze injury data of elite athletes in snowsports and provide references for injury prevention and health security for these athletes and their coaches. A total of 39 studies that investigated snowsport injury were analyzed in the present study. On the basis of injury data of elite athletes in snowsports events, this narrative review focused on four aspects, namely, injury incidence, severity, location and causes. The findings of this review were as follows. (1) The highest injury incidence was recorded in freestyle skiing, followed by alpine skiing and snowboarding, the majority of which were moderate and severe injuries. (2) The proportion of injury in competitions and during training was similar. However, more injuries occurred in official training during the Winter Olympic Games; by contrast, injury proportion was higher in competitions during World Cup/World Championships. (3) The most commonly and severely injured body parts were the knees (29.9%), head and face (12.1%), shoulders and clavicula (10.5%), and lower back (8.9%). The most common injury types were joint and ligament injury (41.5%), fracture and bone stress (24.4%), concussion (11.1%), and muscle/tendon injury (10.7%). (4) The main causes of snowsport injury were collisions, falls, and non-contact injuries. Snowsport injury was also influenced by the skill level of the athletes, gender, course setup and equipment. Future studies should further explore the influence of event characteristics and intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors on snowsport injury. An injury or trauma reconstruction may be developed to predict athletic injuries and provide effective prevention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongxin Xu
- School of Kinesiology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Chenhao Yang
- School of Kinesiology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Yang Yang
- School of Kinesiology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Xini Zhang
- School of Kinesiology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Shen Zhang
- School of Kinesiology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Mingwen Zhang
- Beijing Institute of Fashion Technology, Beijing, China.,Institute for Frontier Materials, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Li Liu
- Beijing Institute of Fashion Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Weijie Fu
- School of Kinesiology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
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15
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Rentenberger C, Salzmann SN, Shue J, Hughes AP. Heel Lift for Skiing to Compensate for Corrected Sagittal Vertical Axis After Spinal Surgery: A Case Report. Int J Spine Surg 2021; 14:S33-S36. [PMID: 33900942 DOI: 10.14444/7162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Lateral lumbar interbody fusion (LLIF) and pedicle subtraction osteotomy are common procedures to correct adult spinal deformities. Little is known about returning postoperatively to a high-performance sport such as skiing after spinal surgery. We report a case of an alpine skier who underwent a LLIF procedure combined with a posterior corrective osteotomy and posterior instrumentation, who had difficulties returning to skiing postoperatively because of new spinal biomechanics. The case report describes the possible consequences of spinal sagittal deformity surgery on postoperative skiing. A 63-year-old man with a complex lumbar spinal surgery history showed severe adjacent segment degenerative spondylolistheses at L1-L2 and at L5-S1. A lateral approach at L1-L2 combined with a posterior corrective osteotomy at L3 and instrumentation from T10 to the pelvis were performed. At his 1-year follow up, he made excellent progress and returned to skiing. However, he reported that skiing did not feel the same, and his center of gravity felt as if it shifted backwards. Consequently, he placed a 2-cm wedge in his ski binding, which improved his skiing experience. Sagittal vertical axis changes after spinal surgery affect the biomechanics of the entire body. After surgery, the body's ligaments, muscles, and fascia adapt to the new body posture. Activities such as skiing, where body posture plays an essential role, are particularly affected by spine surgeries. Surgeons should discuss this issue before spinal surgery with patients, especially if patients are involved in high-intensity sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colleen Rentenberger
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Spine and Scoliosis Service, Hospital for Special Surgery, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York
| | - Stephan N Salzmann
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Spine and Scoliosis Service, Hospital for Special Surgery, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York
| | - Jennifer Shue
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Spine and Scoliosis Service, Hospital for Special Surgery, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York
| | - Alexander P Hughes
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Spine and Scoliosis Service, Hospital for Special Surgery, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York
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16
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Martínez A, Nakazato K, Scheiber P, Snyder C, Stöggl T. Comparison of the Turn Switch Time Points Measured by Portable Force Platforms and Pressure Insoles. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:2. [PMID: 33344997 PMCID: PMC7739759 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Several methods to determine turn switch points during alpine skiing using the vertical GRF exist in the literature. Although comparative studies between pressure insoles (PI) and force platforms (FP) have been conducted, there are no reports comparing the detected time points. Yet, these sensors and methods have been used interchangeably. This study aims to compare the turn switch time points with both sensors and various methods. Twenty skiers performed turns with FP and PI for two different ski styles (high and low dynamic turns). Three different assessment methodologies were compared: minima, functional minima, and crossings. Bland Altman and repeated measures ANOVA were used to assess statistical differences. Main effects of sensor and method were observed (p < 0.001). Although there was a low effect size (ηp2 = 0.013) between FP and PI, the 95% CI yielded values representing >30% of the turn duration. A large effect size (η2 = 0.153) was found between the crossing method and the minima and functional minima methods. This indicates that those methods assess different events during the turn switch phase. In conclusion, the sensors and assessment methodologies compared in this study are not interchangeable with the possible exception of the minima and functional minima assessed with FP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Martínez
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Kosuke Nakazato
- Faculty of Information Media, Hokkaido Information University, Ebetsu, Japan
| | - Peter Scheiber
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Cory Snyder
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Thomas Stöggl
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
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17
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Zorko M, Nemec B, Matjačić Z, Olenšek A, Tomazin K, Supej M. Wide Skis As a Potential Knee Injury Risk Factor in Alpine Skiing. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:7. [PMID: 33345002 PMCID: PMC7739600 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.00007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Alpine skis with wider waist widths have recently become more popular. With such skis, the contact point of the ground reaction force during ski turns is displaced more medially from beneath the sole of the outer ski, which may present an increased risk of injury. The aim of this study was to investigate knee joint kinetics, kinematics, and lower limb muscle activation as a function of changes of the ski waist width in a laboratory setting. A custom skiing simulator was constructed to enable simulation of different ski waist widths in a quasi-static ski turn position. An optical system was used for capturing knee joint kinematics of the outer leg, whereas a force plate was used to determine the ground reaction force vector. The combination of both systems enabled values for external torques acting on the knee joint to be calculated, whereas electromyographic measurements enabled an analysis of knee flexor muscle activation. With respect to the outer ski, the knee joint external torques were independent of ski waist width, whereas knee joint external rotation and biceps femoris activation increased significantly with the increase of the ski waist width. Skier muscle and kinematics adaptation most probably took place to diminish the external knee joint torque changes when the waist width of the ski was increased. The laboratory results suggest that using skis with large waist widths on hard, frozen surfaces may change the load of knee joint surfaces. However, future research is needed to clarify if this may result in the increased risk of knee injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Zorko
- Clinical Institute of Occupational, Traffic and Sports Medicine, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Bojan Nemec
- Department for Automatics, Biocybernetics and Robotics, Jožef Štefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Zlatko Matjačić
- Research and Development Unit, University Rehabilitation Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Andrej Olenšek
- Research and Development Unit, University Rehabilitation Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Katja Tomazin
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Matej Supej
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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18
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Changes in Anthropometric and Fitness Characteristics Over a Decade of Young Elite Alpine Ski Racers. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2020; 16:124-134. [PMID: 33271508 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2019-0889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this study was to evaluate whether anthropometric and fitness characteristics have changed between former and current elite male and female Austrian young ski racers (U11-U15). METHODS A battery of anthropometric, general, and skiing-specific fitness tests was conducted annually. In total, 1517 participants (846 males, 671 females) who were tested in 2005-2009 ("former athletes" n = 805) and 2015-2019 ("current athletes" n = 712) were included. Independent t tests and Cohen d were calculated to compare the two 5-y periods, separated by sex and age group. The level of significance was set at P < .05. RESULTS No significant change in anthropometric characteristics was found over the decade. Current young ski racers performed significantly better in the maximal core flexion strength test in all age categories (ES = 0.88-1.50; P < .02). Core extension strength values were higher in current male U12 and female U12 and U13 athletes (ES = 0.54-0.71; P < .01) and better postural stability values in the lateral direction were found in the age categories U12 and U14 (ES = 0.36-0.68; P < .05), as well as in the forward/backward direction in the age categories U12-U14 (ES = 0.38-1.12; P < .03). Lower-leg extension strength values were apparent in the current U13-U15 age categories (ES = 0.36-1.03; P ≤ .001) and lower drop-jump reactive strength indices in the U13-U15 male athletes (ES = 0.49-0.80; P < .01). CONCLUSIONS Current and former young ski racers differ significantly in some fitness parameters, which might lead to the assumption that some aspects (such as core strength) have gained more focus in athletic training during the last years compared with 15 y ago.
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19
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Asymmetries in the Technique and Ground Reaction Forces of Elite Alpine Skiers Influence Their Slalom Performance. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/app10207288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Background: Although many of the movements of skiers are asymmetric, little is presently known about how such asymmetry influences performance. Here, our aim was to examine whether asymmetries in technique and the ground reaction forces associated with left and right turns influence the asymmetries in the performance of elite slalom skiers. Methods: As nine elite skiers completed a 20-gate slalom course, their three-dimensional full-body kinematics and ground reaction forces (GRF) were monitored with a global navigation satellite and inertial motion capture systems, in combination with pressure insoles. For multivariable regression models, 26 predictor skiing techniques and GRF variables and 8 predicted skiing performance variables were assessed, all of them determining asymmetries in terms of symmetry and Jaccard indices. Results: Asymmetries in instantaneous and sectional performance were found to have the largest predictor coefficients associated with asymmetries in shank angle and hip flexion of the outside leg. Asymmetry for turn radius had the largest predictor coefficients associated with asymmetries in shank angle and GRF on the entire outside foot. Conclusions: Although slalom skiers were found to move their bodies in a quite symmetrical fashion, asymmetry in their skiing technique and GRF influenced variables related to asymmetries in performance.
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20
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Biomechanical quantification of deadbug bridging performance in competitive alpine skiers: Reliability, reference values, and associations with skiing performance and back overuse complaints. Phys Ther Sport 2020; 45:56-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ptsp.2020.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Revised: 05/23/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Neuwirth C, Snyder C, Kremser W, Brunauer R, Holzer H, Stöggl T. Classification of Alpine Skiing Styles Using GNSS and Inertial Measurement Units. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 20:E4232. [PMID: 32751374 PMCID: PMC7435691 DOI: 10.3390/s20154232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
In alpine skiing, four commonly used turning styles are snowplow, snowplow-steering, drifting and carving. They differ significantly in speed, directional control and difficulty to execute. While they are visually distinguishable, data-driven classification is underexplored. The aim of this work is to classify alpine skiing styles based on a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) and inertial measurement units (IMU). Data of 2000 turns of 20 advanced or expert skiers were collected with two IMU sensors on the upper cuff of each ski boot and a mobile phone with GNSS. After feature extraction and feature selection, turn style classification was applied separately for parallel (drifted or carved) and non-parallel (snowplow or snowplow-steering) turns. The most important features for style classification were identified via recursive feature elimination. Three different classification methods were then tested and compared: Decision trees, random forests and gradient boosted decision trees. Classification accuracies were lowest for the decision tree and similar for the random forests and gradient boosted classification trees, which both achieved accuracies of more than 93% in the parallel classification task and 88% in the non-parallel case. While the accuracy might be improved by considering slope and weather conditions, these first results suggest that IMU data can classify alpine skiing styles reasonably well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Neuwirth
- Salzburg Research Forschungsgesellschaft m.b.H., Techno-Z III, Jakob-Haringer-Straße 5, 5020 Salzburg, Austria; (W.K.); (R.B.)
| | - Cory Snyder
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Schlossallee 49, 5400 Hallein/Rif, Austria; (C.S.); (T.S.)
- Athlete Performance Center—Red Bull Sports, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Wolfgang Kremser
- Salzburg Research Forschungsgesellschaft m.b.H., Techno-Z III, Jakob-Haringer-Straße 5, 5020 Salzburg, Austria; (W.K.); (R.B.)
| | - Richard Brunauer
- Salzburg Research Forschungsgesellschaft m.b.H., Techno-Z III, Jakob-Haringer-Straße 5, 5020 Salzburg, Austria; (W.K.); (R.B.)
| | - Helmut Holzer
- Atomic Austria GmbH, Atomic Strasse 1, 5541 Altenmarkt, Austria;
| | - Thomas Stöggl
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Schlossallee 49, 5400 Hallein/Rif, Austria; (C.S.); (T.S.)
- Athlete Performance Center—Red Bull Sports, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
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22
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Peterhans L, Fröhlich S, Stern C, Frey WO, Farshad M, Sutter R, Spörri J. High Rates of Overuse-Related Structural Abnormalities in the Lumbar Spine of Youth Competitive Alpine Skiers: A Cross-sectional MRI Study in 108 Athletes. Orthop J Sports Med 2020; 8:2325967120922554. [PMID: 32528992 PMCID: PMC7263161 DOI: 10.1177/2325967120922554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Alpine ski racing is known as a sport with unfavorable spinal loads and high rates of back overuse injuries at the elite level. However, little is known about overuse-related structural abnormalities occurring in the spine of youth athletes. Purpose: To describe the prevalence of abnormal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings in the lumbar spine of youth competitive alpine skiers within the U16 category (under 16 years) with respect to sex, height growth, multifidus size, increasing age, and clinical relevance. Study Design: Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: A total of 108 youth competitive alpine skiers aged 13 to 15 years underwent MRI examination of the lumbar spine and measurement of the multifidus cross-sectional area on a 3-T Magnetom Prisma scanner. Complementary assessments included the determination of anthropometrics and biological maturation. Athletes were classified as symptomatic when, pursuant to the Oslo Sports Trauma Research Center questionnaire on health problems, at least 1 substantial back overuse–related health problem episode had been registered during the 12 months before the MRI examination. Results: Of the analyzed youth skiers, 37.0% presented with ≥1 abnormal MRI finding in the lumbar spine. The most prevalent findings in both sexes were disc degeneration (23.1%), Schmorl nodes (19.4%), end plate changes (10.2%), and pars interarticularis anomalies (10.2%); the pars interarticularis anomalies occurred exclusively in males. A smaller relative lumbar multifidus cross-sectional area was related to more frequent occurrence of disc protrusions (P = .018; R2 = 0.116) and end plate changes (P = .024; R2 = 0.096). Overall, the occurrence of abnormal MRI findings in the lumbar spine increased with age (P = .034; R2 = 0.054). Disc degeneration (particularly disc dehydration and disc protrusion) were significantly more prevalent in symptomatic versus asymptomatic athletes (P < .05 for all). Conclusion: As early as age 15 years or younger, competitive alpine skiers demonstrated distinct overuse-related structural abnormalities in the lumbar spine, with some of them being clinically relevant and restrictive of sports participation. As sex, height growth, multifidus size, and increasing age seem to play an important role for the occurrence of such abnormalities, considering these factors might be essential for prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loris Peterhans
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Fröhlich
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Stern
- Department of Radiology, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Walter O Frey
- University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Mazda Farshad
- Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,University Spine Centre, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Reto Sutter
- Department of Radiology, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jörg Spörri
- Sports Medical Research Group, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,University Centre for Prevention and Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Alhammoud M, Racinais S, Rousseaux‐Blanchi M, Bouscaren N. Recording injuries only during winter competitive season underestimates injury incidence in elite alpine skiers. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2020; 30:1177-1187. [PMID: 32141109 DOI: 10.1111/sms.13648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2019] [Revised: 12/31/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marine Alhammoud
- High‐Level Sport Medicine Centre Hospital of Albertville‐Moûtiers Albertville France
- French Ski Federation Annecy France
- Aspetar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital Doha Qatar
| | - Sébastien Racinais
- Aspetar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital Doha Qatar
- Laboratory Sport, Expertise and Performance French Institute of Sport (INSEP) Paris France
| | - Marie‐Philippe Rousseaux‐Blanchi
- High‐Level Sport Medicine Centre Hospital of Albertville‐Moûtiers Albertville France
- French Ski Federation Annecy France
- International Ski Federation Oberhofen am Thunersee Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Bouscaren
- French Ski Federation Annecy France
- Inserm CIC1410 CHU Réunion Saint Pierre France
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24
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Aminoff AS, Agnvall C, Todd C, Jónasson P, Thoreson O, Sansone M, Swärd L, Karlsson J, Baranto A. Young elite Alpine and Mogul skiers have a higher prevalence of cam morphology than non-athletes. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 2020; 28:1262-1269. [PMID: 30367199 PMCID: PMC7148273 DOI: 10.1007/s00167-018-5236-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate the prevalence of cam morphology in (1) a group of young elite Mogul and Alpine skiers compared with non-athletes and (2) between the sexes. METHOD The hip joints of 87 subjects [n = 61 young elite skiers (29 females and 32 males) and n = 26 non-athletes (17 females and 9 males)] were examined using MRI, for measurements of the presence of cam morphology (α-angle ≥ 55). RESULTS The skiers had a significantly higher prevalence of cam morphology compared with the non-athletes (49% vs 19%, p = 0.009). A significant difference (p < 0.001) was also found between females and males, where 22% of the females and 61% of the males had cam morphology. Among the skiers, there was also a significant difference (p < 0.001) between the sexes, where 28% of the females and 68% of the males had cam morphology. This difference between the sexes was not found in the non-athletic group. No significant differences were found between Mogul and Alpine skiers. CONCLUSION Young male elite skiers have a higher prevalence of cam morphology of the hips compared with non-athletes. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE II.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Swärd Aminoff
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden. .,Åre Hälsocentral, Box 25, 830 14, Åre, Sweden.
| | | | - Carl Todd
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | - Olof Thoreson
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Mikael Sansone
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Leif Swärd
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Jon Karlsson
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Adad Baranto
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
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25
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Bigdon SF, Gewiess J, Hoppe S, Exadaktylos AK, Benneker LM, Fairhurst PG, Albers CE. Spinal injury in alpine winter sports: a review. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med 2019; 27:69. [PMID: 31324221 PMCID: PMC6642543 DOI: 10.1186/s13049-019-0645-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2019] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Alpine winter sports have become increasingly popular over recent decades, with a similar increase in accident incidence. This review provides an overview of the most recent literature concerning spinal injury epidemiology, mechanisms, patterns and prevention strategies in the context of alpine winter sports. MATERIAL AND METHODS The PubMed, Cochrane Library, and EMBASE databases were searched using the keywords spine injury, alpine injury, spine fracture, skiing injuries, snowboard injuries. 64 published studies in English and German met a priori inclusion criteria and were reviewed in detail by the authors. RESULTS There are various mechanisms of injury in alpine winter sports (high speed falls in skiing, jumping failure in snowboarding) whilst regionality and injury severity are broadly similar. The thoracolumbar spine is the most common region for spinal injury. Spinal cord injury is relatively rare, usually accompanying distraction and rotation type fractures and is most commonly localised to the cervical spine. Disc injuries seem to occur more commonly in alpine winter sport athletes than in the general population. DISCUSSION Despite awareness of increasing rates and risks of spinal injuries in alpine winter sports, there has been little success in injury prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Frederick Bigdon
- Department of Traumatology and Orthopaedic Surgery, Inselspital University of Bern, Freiburgstrasse, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Jan Gewiess
- Department of Traumatology and Orthopaedic Surgery, Inselspital University of Bern, Freiburgstrasse, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Sven Hoppe
- Department of Traumatology and Orthopaedic Surgery, Inselspital University of Bern, Freiburgstrasse, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Aristomenis K. Exadaktylos
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Inselspital University of Bern, Freiburgstrasse 16C, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Lorin M. Benneker
- Department of Traumatology and Orthopaedic Surgery, Inselspital University of Bern, Freiburgstrasse, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Paul Gilbert Fairhurst
- Department of Traumatology and Orthopaedic Surgery, Inselspital University of Bern, Freiburgstrasse, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Christoph E. Albers
- Department of Traumatology and Orthopaedic Surgery, Inselspital University of Bern, Freiburgstrasse, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
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26
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Transmissibility of whole-body vibrations and injury risk in alpine skiing. J Sci Med Sport 2019; 22 Suppl 1:S71-S77. [PMID: 30885614 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2019.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2018] [Revised: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Whole body vibrations in alpine skiing are a potential cause for frequent overuse and acute injuries. Therefore, the aim of the study was to investigate the transmissibility of vibrations from the skis to lower back and head. Attention was addressed to distinguish shocks and transient vibrations from long-lasting vibrations. DESIGN Whole body vibrations were analysed in snow-plough swinging, basic swinging, short swinging and carved turns performed by eight highly skilled skiers. METHODS Power spectrum densities (PSD), running root-mean-square accelerations (RMS) and transmissibilities were estimated and analysed from 7 accelerometers positioned on skis, pelvis and head. RESULTS In the measurements frequency range, vibrations were effectively transmitted from the skis to the pelvis and to the head, with the highest transmissibility occurring at frequencies below 6Hz. The highest transmissibility was observed for short swinging. The running RMS was cyclically increasing and decreasing with turning and shocks. Also, transient vibrations exhibited similar PSDs with considerably higher densities compared to overall PSDs. CONCLUSIONS All form of alpine skiing were associated with random, periodic and transient vibrations. Skiing involving skidding was associated with higher vibration levels, higher transmissibilities and more pronounced shocks and transient vibrations compared to carving turns. Frequent skiers should preferably use carving instead of skidding techniques to decrease the risk for low back pain and loss of control.
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27
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Examining the Presence of Back Pain in Competitive Athletes: A Focus on Stress and Recovery. J Sport Rehabil 2019; 28:188-195. [PMID: 29140183 DOI: 10.1123/jsr.2017-0235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Explanatory approaches for back pain (BP) in athletes focus on biomechanical factors while neglecting psychological perspectives. Psychological factors have gained importance in the prediction of injuries in athletes and BP in the general population, with stress and recovery emerging as central risk factors. However, scarce evidence exists regarding the role of these aspects for the prevalent burden of BP. OBJECTIVE To investigate the association between stress and recovery parameters and the presence of BP. DESIGN Cross-sectional design. SETTING The questionnaires were distributed after the training sessions. PARTICIPANTS A total of 345 competitive athletes (mean age = 18.31 y [SD = 5.40]) were investigated. The classification of the athletes' competitive status was based on performance level. INTERVENTIONS Data were collected using questionnaires for the assessment of stress, recovery, and BP. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES The authors performed a multiple logistic regression to obtain odds ratios for stress and recovery parameters with regard to the outcome variable BP status. RESULTS For stress, the dimension "overall stress" (odds ratio = 1.83; 95% confidence interval, 1.30-2.59; P = .001) and the scale "physical complaints" (odds ratio = 1.68; 95% confidence interval, 1.25-2.25; P = .001) of the general version of the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire resulted to be significantly associated with BP. None of the recovery-related scales displayed a statistically significant relationship with BP. CONCLUSION The outcomes of this study imply a modest association between stress and the presence of BP in competitive athletes. Practitioners may take these findings into account regarding the conception of training and for monitoring purposes.
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28
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Tarka MC, Davey A, Lonza GC, O'Brien CM, Delaney JP, Endres NK. Alpine Ski Racing Injuries. Sports Health 2019; 11:265-271. [PMID: 30689522 DOI: 10.1177/1941738119825842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
CONTEXT This article reviews the epidemiology of alpine ski racing-related injuries, risk factors, mechanisms of injury, and injury prevention strategies. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION Pertinent literature from peer-reviewed publications from 1976 through 2018. STUDY DESIGN Clinical review. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level 5. RESULTS The rate of injury in alpine ski racing is high. In general, knee injuries are the most common, with anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) disruptions being the most significant in terms of time loss from sport. Three specific mechanisms of ACL injury in alpine ski racers have recently been described (slip-catch, dynamic snowplow, and landing back-weighted). In contrast to other sports, female ski racers are not clearly at greater risk for ACL injury, especially at the highest level of competition. A high percentage of ski racers are able to return to their previous level of competition after ACL injury. Risk factors for injury and methods of injury prevention have been proposed; however, the rate of injury, particularly ACL injuries, has not decreased significantly. CONCLUSION Alpine ski racing has a high injury rate. ACL injuries in particular remain problematic. Further study is needed to identify modifiable risk factors and implementation of injury prevention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell C Tarka
- Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont
| | - Annabelle Davey
- Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont
| | - Geordie C Lonza
- Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont
| | - Casey M O'Brien
- Bouvé College of Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - John P Delaney
- Cleveland Clinic Orthopaedic and Rheumatologic Institute, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Nathan K Endres
- Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont
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Gale NC, Zeigler SL, Towler C, Mondal S, Issen KA, Mesfin A, Michalek AJ, Kuxhaus L. Increased lumbar spinal column laxity due to low-angle, low-load cyclic flexion may predispose to acute injury. JOR Spine 2018; 1:e1038. [PMID: 31463453 PMCID: PMC6686791 DOI: 10.1002/jsp2.1038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2018] [Revised: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Lumbar spinal column laxity contributes to instability, increasing the risk of low back injury and pain. Until the laxity increase due to the cyclic loads of daily living can be quantified, the associated injury risk cannot be predicted clinically. This work cyclically loaded 5-vertebra lumbar motion segments (7 skeletally-mature cervine specimens, 5 osteoporotic human cadaver specimens) for 20 000 cycles of low-load low-angle (15°) flexion. The normalized neutral zone lengths and slopes of the load-displacement hysteresis loops showed a similar increase in spinal column laxity across species. The intervertebral kinematics also changes with cyclic loading. Differences in the location and magnitude of surface strain on the vertebral bodies (0.34% ± 0.11% in the cervine specimens, and 3.13% ± 1.69% in the human cadaver specimens) are consistent with expected fracture modes in these populations. Together, these results provide biomechanical evidence of spinal column damage during high-cycle low-load low-angle loading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole C. Gale
- Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical EngineeringClarkson UniversityPotsdamNew York
| | | | | | - Sumona Mondal
- Department of MathematicsClarkson UniversityPotsdamNew York
| | - Kathleen A. Issen
- Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical EngineeringClarkson UniversityPotsdamNew York
| | - Addisu Mesfin
- Departments of Orthopaedic Surgery and NeurosurgeryUniversity of RochesterRochesterNew York
| | - Arthur J. Michalek
- Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical EngineeringClarkson UniversityPotsdamNew York
| | - Laurel Kuxhaus
- Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical EngineeringClarkson UniversityPotsdamNew York
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Spörri J, Kröll J, Supej M, Müller E. Reducing the back overuse-related risks in alpine ski racing: let's put research into sports practice. Br J Sports Med 2018; 53:2-3. [PMID: 30323057 PMCID: PMC6317437 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2018-100040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jörg Spörri
- Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Josef Kröll
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Hallein-Rif, Austria
| | - Matej Supej
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Erich Müller
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Hallein-Rif, Austria
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Steidl-Müller L, Hildebrandt C, Müller E, Fink C, Raschner C. Limb symmetry index in competitive alpine ski racers: Reference values and injury risk identification according to age-related performance levels. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2018; 7:405-415. [PMID: 30450248 PMCID: PMC6230217 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2018.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Revised: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2018] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aims of this study were to assess differences of limb symmetry index (LSI) in strength- and coordination-related tasks between high-level, competitive, noninjured ski racers of different age-related performance levels and to prospectively assess limb differences as a possible risk factor for traumatic and overuse injury in youth ski racers. METHODS The study (Study 1) included 285 high-level competitive ski racers (125 females, 160 males) of 3 age-related performance levels and based on the school system: 95 youth (10-14 years, secondary modern school), 107 adolescent (15-19 years, grammar school), and 83 elite athletes (20-34 years). To investigate the second aim (Study 2), 67 of the 95 youth athletes were included and any traumatic or overuse injuries were prospectively recorded over 2 seasons. All athletes performed 4 unilateral tests (strength related: one-leg counter movement jump (OL-CMJ) and one-leg isometric/isokinetic press strength test (OL-ILS); coordination related: one-leg stability test (OL-ST) and one-leg speedy jump test (OL-SJ)). The LSI was calculated by dividing the dominant leg by the nondominant leg and multiplying by 100. Kruskal-Wallis H tests and binary logistic regression analyses were conducted. RESULTS There were significant differences between the LSI of the 3 age-related performance-level groups only in the strength-related tests: the OL-CMJ (χ²(2, 285) = 9.09; p = 0.01) and the OL-ILS (χ²(2, 285) = 14.79; p < 0.01). The LSI for OL-ILS was found to be a significant risk factor for traumatic injury in youth ski racers (Wald = 7.08; p < 0.01). No significant risk factors were found for overuse injuries. CONCLUSION Younger athletes display slightly greater LSI values only in the strength-related tests. The cut-off value of limb differences of <10% for return to sport decisions seems to be appropriate for elite athletes, but for youth and adolescent athletes it has to be critically discussed. It seems to be necessary to define thresholds based on specific performance tasks (strength vs. coordination related) rather than on generalizations, and age-related performance levels must be considered. Limb differences in unilateral leg extension strength represent a significant injury risk factor in youth ski racers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Steidl-Müller
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck 6020, Austria
| | - Carolin Hildebrandt
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck 6020, Austria
| | - Erich Müller
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg 5400, Austria
| | - Christian Fink
- Research Unit for Orthopedic Sports Medicine and Injury Prevention, Institute of Psychology (ISAG), The Health & Life Sciences University (UMIT), Innsbruck 6020, Austria
- Gelenkpunkt – Sports and Joint Surgery, Innsbruck 6020, Austria
| | - Christian Raschner
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck 6020, Austria
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Müller E. Performance and safety in elite skiing sports: A big challenge on specificity, individuality, and complexity. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2018; 7:379-380. [PMID: 30450245 PMCID: PMC6234022 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2018.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/01/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
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Fasel B, Gilgien M, Spörri J, Aminian K. A New Training Assessment Method for Alpine Ski Racing: Estimating Center of Mass Trajectory by Fusing Inertial Sensors With Periodically Available Position Anchor Points. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1203. [PMID: 30214415 PMCID: PMC6125645 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study we present and validate a method to correct velocity and position drift for inertial sensor-based measurements in the context of alpine ski racing. Magnets were placed at each gate and their position determined using a land surveying method. The time point of gate crossings of the athlete were detected with a magnetometer attached to the athlete's lower back. A full body inertial sensor setup allowed to track the athlete's posture, and the magnet positions were used as anchor points to correct position and velocity drift from the integration of the acceleration. Center of mass (CoM) position errors (mean ± standard deviation) were 0.24 m ± 0.09 m and CoM velocity errors were 0.00 m/s ± 0.18 m/s. For extracted turn entrance and exit speeds the 95% limits of agreements (LoAs) were between -0.19 and 0.33 m/s. LoA for the total path length of a turn were between -0.06 and 0.16 m. The proposed setup and processing allowed estimating the CoM kinematics with similar errors than known for differential global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), even though the athlete's movement was measured with inertial and magnetic sensors only. Moreover, as the gate positions can also be obtained with non-GNSS based land surveying methods, CoM kinematics may be estimated in areas with reduced or no GNSS signal reception, such as in forests or indoors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Fasel
- Laboratory of Movement Analysis and Measurement, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Gilgien
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
- Center of Alpine Sports Biomechanics, St. Moritz Health and Innovation Foundation, St. Moritz, Switzerland
| | - Jörg Spörri
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
- Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kamiar Aminian
- Laboratory of Movement Analysis and Measurement, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Swärd Aminoff A, Agnvall C, Todd C, Jónasson P, Sansone M, Thoreson O, Swärd L, Karlsson J, Baranto A. The effect of pelvic tilt and cam on hip range of motion in young elite skiers and nonathletes. Open Access J Sports Med 2018; 9:147-156. [PMID: 30123011 PMCID: PMC6084081 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s162675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Current knowledge of the effect of changes in posture and the way cam morphology of the hip joint may affect hip range of motion (ROM) is limited. Purpose To determine the effect of changes in pelvic tilt (PT) on hip ROM and with/without the presence of cam. Study design This was a cross-sectional study. Materials and methods The hip ROM of 87 subjects (n=61 young elite skiers, n=26 nonathletes) was examined using a goniometer, in three different seated postures (flexed, neutral, and extended). The hips of the subjects were further subgrouped into cam and no-cam morphology, based on the magnetic resonance imaging findings in the hips. Results There was a significant correlation between the hip ROM and the seated posture in both extended and flexed postures compared with the neutral posture. There was a significant decrease in internal hip rotation when the subjects sat with an extended posture with maximum anterior PT (p<0.0001). There was a significant increase in internal hip rotation when the subjects sat with a flexed posture with maximum posterior PT (p<0.001). External rotation was significantly decreased in an extended posture with maximum anterior PT (p<0.0001), but there was no difference in flexed posture with maximum posterior PT. The hips with cam morphology had reduced internal hip rotation in all three positions, but they responded to the changes in position in a similar manner to hips without cam morphology. Conclusion Dynamic changes in PT significantly influence hip ROM in young people, independent of cam or no-cam morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Swärd Aminoff
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden,
| | - Cecilia Agnvall
- Sports Medicine Åre, Åre, Sweden.,Åre Ski Academy, Åre, Sweden
| | - Carl Todd
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden,
| | | | - Mikael Sansone
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden,
| | - Olof Thoreson
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden,
| | - Leif Swärd
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden,
| | - Jon Karlsson
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden,
| | - Adad Baranto
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden,
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Todd C, Aminoff AS, Agnvall C, Thoreson O, Swärd L, Karlsson J, Baranto A. No difference in prevalence of spine and hip pain in young Elite skiers. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 2018; 26:1959-1965. [PMID: 29204863 PMCID: PMC6061433 DOI: 10.1007/s00167-017-4733-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate the prevalence between back and hip pain in young Elite skiers. METHODS Sample group (n = 102), consisted of young Elite skiers (n = 75) and age-matched non-athletes (n = 27), all completed a three-part back and hip pain questionnaire, Oswestry Disability Index and EuroQoL to evaluate general health, activity level, back and hip pain prevalence. RESULTS No significant differences were shown for lifetime prevalence of back pain in the skiers (50%) compared with controls (44%) (n.s.). Duration of back pain for the skiers showed (30%) > 1 year, whilst (46%) > 5 years. A significant difference was shown with increased Visual Analogue Scale back pain levels for skiers 5.3 (SD 3.1) compared with controls 2.4 (SD 1.9, p = 0.025). No significant differences were shown for lifetime prevalence of hip pain in skiers (21%) compared with controls (8%) (n.s.). CONCLUSION Young Elite skiers are shown not to have increased lifetime prevalence for back and hip pain compared with a non-athletic control group. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE II.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl Todd
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Göthenburg, Sweden.
- The Carl Todd Clinic, 5 Pickwick Park, Park Lane, Corsham, SN13 0HN, UK.
| | - Anna Swärd Aminoff
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Göthenburg, Sweden
| | - Cecilia Agnvall
- Sportsmedicine Åre and Åre Ski High School, Göthenburg, Sweden
| | - Olof Thoreson
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Göthenburg, Sweden
| | - Leif Swärd
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Göthenburg, Sweden
| | - Jon Karlsson
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Göthenburg, Sweden
| | - Adad Baranto
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Göthenburg, Sweden
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Abstract
Alpine ski racing is known to be a sport with a high risk of injury and a high proportion of time-loss injuries. In recent years, substantial research efforts with regard to injury epidemiology, injury etiology, potential prevention measures, and measures’ evaluation have been undertaken. Therefore, the aims of this review of the literature were (i) to provide a comprehensive overview of what is known about the aforementioned four steps of injury prevention research in the context of alpine ski racing; and (ii) to derive potential perspectives for future research. In total, 38 injury risk factors were previously reported in literature; however, a direct relation to injury risk was proven for only five factors: insufficient core strength/core strength imbalance, sex (depending on type of injury), high skill level, unfavorable genetic predisposition, and the combination of highly shaped, short and wide skis. Moreover, only one prevention measure (i.e. the combination of less-shaped and longer skis with reduced profile width) has demonstrated a positive impact on injury risk. Thus, current knowledge deficits are mainly related to verifying the evidence of widely discussed injury risk factors and assessing the effectiveness of reasonable prevention ideas. Nevertheless, the existing knowledge should be proactively communicated and systematically implemented by sport federations and sport practitioners.
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Supej M, Ogrin J, Holmberg HC. Whole-Body Vibrations Associated With Alpine Skiing: A Risk Factor for Low Back Pain? Front Physiol 2018; 9:204. [PMID: 29593563 PMCID: PMC5854839 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2017] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Alpine skiing, both recreational and competitive, is associated with high rates of injury. Numerous studies have shown that occupational exposure to whole-body vibrations is strongly related to lower back pain and some suggest that, in particular, vibrations of lower frequencies could lead to overuse injuries of the back in connection with alpine ski racing. However, it is not yet known which forms of skiing involve stronger vibrations and whether these exceed safety thresholds set by existing standards and directives. Therefore, this study was designed to examine whole-body vibrations connected with different types of skiing and the associated potential risk of developing low back pain. Eight highly skilled ski instructors, all former competitive ski racers and equipped with five accelerometers and a Global Satellite Navigation System to measure vibrations and speed, respectively, performed six different forms of skiing: straight running, plowing, snow-plow swinging, basic swinging, short swinging, and carved turns. To estimate exposure to periodic, random and transient vibrations the power spectrum density (PSD) and standard ISO 2631-1:1997 parameters [i.e., the weighted root-mean-square acceleration (RMS), crest factor, maximum transient vibration value and the fourth-power vibration dose value (VDV)] were calculated. Ground reaction forces were estimated from data provided by accelerometers attached to the pelvis. The major novel findings were that all of the forms of skiing tested produced whole-body vibrations, with highest PSD values of 1.5–8 Hz. Intensified PSD between 8.5 and 35 Hz was observed only when skidding was involved. The RMS values for 10 min of short swinging or carved turns, as well as all 10-min equivalent VDV values exceeded the limits set by European Directive 2002/44/EC for health and safety. Thus, whole-body vibrations, particularly in connection with high ground reaction forces, contribute to a high risk for low back pain among active alpine skiers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matej Supej
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jan Ogrin
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Hans-Christer Holmberg
- School of Sport Sciences, UiT Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.,School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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Gilgien M, Kröll J, Spörri J, Crivelli P, Müller E. Application of dGNSS in Alpine Ski Racing: Basis for Evaluating Physical Demands and Safety. Front Physiol 2018; 9:145. [PMID: 29559918 PMCID: PMC5845727 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Accepted: 02/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
External forces, such as ground reaction force or air drag acting on athletes' bodies in sports, determine the sport-specific demands on athletes' physical fitness. In order to establish appropriate physical conditioning regimes, which adequately prepare athletes for the loads and physical demands occurring in their sports and help reduce the risk of injury, sport-and/or discipline-specific knowledge of the external forces is needed. However, due to methodological shortcomings in biomechanical research, data comprehensively describing the external forces that occur in alpine super-G (SG) and downhill (DH) are so far lacking. Therefore, this study applied new and accurate wearable sensor-based technology to determine the external forces acting on skiers during World Cup (WC) alpine skiing competitions in the disciplines of SG and DH and to compare these with those occurring in giant slalom (GS), for which previous research knowledge exists. External forces were determined using WC forerunners carrying a differential global navigation satellite system (dGNSS). Combining the dGNSS data with a digital terrain model of the snow surface and an air drag model, the magnitudes of ground reaction forces were computed. It was found that the applied methodology may not only be used to track physical demands and loads on athletes, but also to simultaneously investigate safety aspects, such as the effectiveness of speed control through increased air drag and ski-snow friction forces in the respective disciplines. Therefore, the component of the ground reaction force in the direction of travel (ski-snow friction) and air drag force were computed. This study showed that (1) the validity of high-end dGNSS systems allows meaningful investigations such as characterization of physical demands and effectiveness of safety measures in highly dynamic sports; (2) physical demands were substantially different between GS, SG, and DH; and (3) safety-related reduction of skiing speed might be most effectively achieved by increasing the ski-snow friction force in GS and SG. For DH an increase in the ski-snow friction force might be equally as effective as an increase in air drag force.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Gilgien
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
- St. Moritz Health and Innovation Foundation, Center of Alpine Sports Biomechanics, St. Moritz, Switzerland
| | - Josef Kröll
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Hallein, Austria
| | - Jörg Spörri
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Hallein, Austria
- Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Philip Crivelli
- Group for Snowsports, WSL - Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, Davos, Switzerland
| | - Erich Müller
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Hallein, Austria
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Pieber K. Sport als Schädigungsfaktor für die Wirbelsäule. MANUELLE MEDIZIN 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s00337-017-0346-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Spörri J, Kröll J, Fasel B, Aminian K, Müller E. Standing Height as a Prevention Measure for Overuse Injuries of the Back in Alpine Ski Racing: A Kinematic and Kinetic Study of Giant Slalom. Orthop J Sports Med 2018; 6:2325967117747843. [PMID: 29344540 PMCID: PMC5761919 DOI: 10.1177/2325967117747843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In alpine ski racing, typical loading patterns of the back include a combined occurrence of spinal bending, torsion, and high peak loads. These factors are known to be associated with high spinal disc loading and have been suggested to be attributable to different types of spine deterioration. However, little is known about the effect of standing height (ie, the distance between the bottom of the running surface of the ski and the ski boot sole) on the aforementioned back loading patterns. Purpose To investigate the effect of reduced standing height on the skier's overall trunk kinematics and the acting ground-reaction forces in giant slalom (GS) from an overuse injury prevention perspective. Study Design Controlled laboratory study. Methods Seven European Cup-level athletes skied a total of 224 GS turns with 2 different pairs of skis varying in standing height. Their overall trunk movement (frontal bending, lateral bending, and torsion angles) was measured based on 2 inertial measurement units located at the sacrum and sternum. Pressure insoles were used to determine the total ground-reaction force. Results During the turn phase in which the greatest spinal disc loading is expected to occur, significantly lower total ground-reaction forces were observed for skis with a decreased standing height. Simultaneously, the skier's overall trunk movement (ie, frontal bending, lateral bending, and torsion angles) remained unwaveringly high. Conclusion Standing height is a reasonable measure to reduce the skier's overall back loading in GS. Yet, when compared with the effects achievable by increased gate offsets in slalom, for instance, the preventative benefits of decreased standing height seem to be rather small. Clinical Relevance To reduce the magnitude of overall back loading in GS and to prevent overuse injuries of the back, decreasing standing height might be an efficient approach. Nevertheless, the clinical relevance of the current findings, as well as the effectiveness of the measure "reduced standing height," must be verified by epidemiological studies before its preventative potential can be judged as conclusive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörg Spörri
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria.,Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Josef Kröll
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Benedikt Fasel
- Laboratory of Movement Analysis and Measurement, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Kamiar Aminian
- Laboratory of Movement Analysis and Measurement, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Erich Müller
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
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Witwit WA, Kovac P, Sward A, Agnvall C, Todd C, Thoreson O, Hebelka H, Baranto A. Disc degeneration on MRI is more prevalent in young elite skiers compared to controls. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 2018; 26:325-332. [PMID: 28409199 PMCID: PMC5754419 DOI: 10.1007/s00167-017-4545-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Accepted: 04/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Evidence-based facts regarding spine abnormalities and back pain are needed in order to develop rehabilitation programs and prevent spine injuries in young skiers. The aim therefore is to identify MRI changes in the thoraco-lumbar spine and the lifetime prevalence of back pain, as well as the association between them, in young skiers compared to non-athletes. METHODS Seventy-five young elite alpine and mogul skiers, age range 16-20 years, were compared with 27 non-athletic controls. All subjects underwent spinal MRI and answered back pain questionnaires. RESULTS Fifty-six percent of skiers had at least one disc Pfirrmann grade ≥3 compared to 30% of controls (p = 0.027). Schmorl's nodes (46%) and disc height reduction (37%) were significantly more prevalent in skiers compared to controls (0%) (p < 0.001). When all parameters were combined together, skiers had significantly higher rate of radiological changes than controls, 82% compared to 54% (p = 0.007). The mean number of discs with Pfirrmann grade ≥3 was 1.1 per individual in skiers (median 1, range 0-6) versus 0.6 in controls (median 0, range 0-3). There was no significant difference in lifetime prevalence of back pain between skiers (50%) and controls (44%) (n.s.). MRI abnormalities in skiers did not correlate with lifetime prevalence of back pain. Skiers had a better health perception than controls (p = 0.026). CONCLUSION Alpine skiers have more degenerative disc changes compared to non-athletes, but these changes do not correlate with the lifetime prevalence of back pain. Lifetime prevalence of back pain is not significantly different between the groups; however, skiers report more severe pain on VAS score. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE II.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wisam A. Witwit
- Department of Radiology, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, 41345 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Peter Kovac
- Department of Radiology, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, 41345 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anna Sward
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Cecilia Agnvall
- Sportsmedicine Åre and Åre Ski High School, Ostersund, Sweden
| | - Carl Todd
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Olof Thoreson
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Hanna Hebelka
- Department of Radiology, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, 41345 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Adad Baranto
- Department of Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg and Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
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Müller L, Hildebrandt C, Müller E, Fink C, Raschner C. Long-Term Athletic Development in Youth Alpine Ski Racing: The Effect of Physical Fitness, Ski Racing Technique, Anthropometrics and Biological Maturity Status on Injuries. Front Physiol 2017; 8:656. [PMID: 28912731 PMCID: PMC5583226 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Alpine ski racing is known to be a sport with a high risk of injuries. Because most studies have focused mainly on top-level athletes and on traumatic injuries, limited research exists about injury risk factors among youth ski racers. The aim of this study was to determine the intrinsic risk factors (anthropometrics, biological maturity, physical fitness, racing technique) for injury among youth alpine ski racers. Study participants were 81 youth ski racers attending a ski boarding school (50 males, 31 females; 9–14 years). A prospective longitudinal cohort design was used to monitor sports-related risk factors over two seasons and traumatic (TI) and overuse injuries (OI). At the beginning of the study, anthropometric characteristics (body height, body weight, sitting height, body mass index); biological maturity [status age at peak height velocity (APHV)]; physical performance parameters related to jump coordination, maximal leg and core strength, explosive and reactive strength, balance and endurance; and ski racing technique were assessed. Z score transformations normalized the age groups. Multivariate binary logistic regression (dependent variable: injury yes/no) and multivariate linear regression analyses (dependent variable: injury severity in total days of absence from training) were calculated. T-tests and multivariate analyses of variance were used to reveal differences between injured and non-injured athletes and between injury severity groups. The level of significance was set to p < 0.05. Relatively low rates of injuries were reported for both traumatic (0.63 TI/athlete) and overuse injuries (0.21 OI/athlete). Athletes with higher body weight, body height, and sitting height; lower APHV values; better core flexion strength; smaller core flexion:extension strength ratio; shorter drop jump contact time; and higher drop jump reactive strength index were at a lower injury risk or more vulnerable for fewer days of absence from training. However, significant differences between injured and non-injured athletes were only observed with respect to the drop jump reactive strength index. Regular documentation of anthropometric characteristics, biological maturity and physical fitness parameters is crucial to help to prevent injury in youth ski racing. The present findings suggest that neuromuscular training should be incorporated into the training regimen of youth ski racers to prevent injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Müller
- Department of Sport Science, University of InnsbruckInnsbruck, Austria
| | | | - Erich Müller
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of SalzburgSalzburg, Austria
| | - Christian Fink
- Research Unit for Orthopedic Sports Medicine and Injury Prevention, Institute of Psychology (ISAG), The Health & Life Sciences University (UMIT)Hall, Austria.,Gelenkpunkt - Sports and Joint SurgeryInnsbruck, Austria
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Fasel B, Spörri J, Schütz P, Lorenzetti S, Aminian K. Validation of functional calibration and strap-down joint drift correction for computing 3D joint angles of knee, hip, and trunk in alpine skiing. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0181446. [PMID: 28746383 PMCID: PMC5528837 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0181446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
To obtain valid 3D joint angles with inertial sensors careful sensor-to-segment calibration (i.e. functional or anatomical calibration) is required and measured angular velocity at each sensor needs to be integrated to obtain segment and joint orientation (i.e. joint angles). Existing functional and anatomical calibration procedures were optimized for gait analysis and calibration movements were impractical to perform in outdoor settings. Thus, the aims of this study were 1) to propose and validate a set of calibration movements that were optimized for alpine skiing and could be performed outdoors and 2) to validate the 3D joint angles of the knee, hip, and trunk during alpine skiing. The proposed functional calibration movements consisted of squats, trunk rotations, hip ad/abductions, and upright standing. The joint drift correction previously proposed for alpine ski racing was improved by adding a second step to reduce separately azimuth drift. The system was validated indoors on a skiing carpet at the maximum belt speed of 21 km/h and for measurement durations of 120 seconds. Calibration repeatability was on average <2.7° (i.e. 3D joint angles changed on average <2.7° for two repeated sets of calibration movements) and all movements could be executed wearing ski-boots. Joint angle precision was <4.9° for all angles and accuracy ranged from -10.7° to 4.2° where the presence of an athlete-specific bias was observed especially for the flexion angle. The improved joint drift correction reduced azimuth drift from over 25° to less than 5°. In conclusion, the system was valid for measuring 3D joint angles during alpine skiing and could be used outdoors. Errors were similar to the values reported in other studies for gait. The system may be well suited for within-athlete analysis but care should be taken for between-athlete analysis because of a possible athlete-specific joint angle bias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Fasel
- Laboratory of Movement Analysis and Measurement, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jörg Spörri
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Hallein-Rif, Austria
- Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Pascal Schütz
- Institute for Biomechanics, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zurich, Zurich Switzerland
| | - Silvio Lorenzetti
- Institute for Biomechanics, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zurich, Zurich Switzerland
| | - Kamiar Aminian
- Laboratory of Movement Analysis and Measurement, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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Spörri J, Kröll J, Fasel B, Aminian K, Müller E. The Use of Body Worn Sensors for Detecting the Vibrations Acting on the Lower Back in Alpine Ski Racing. Front Physiol 2017; 8:522. [PMID: 28775695 PMCID: PMC5517454 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Accepted: 07/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
This study explored the use of body worn sensors to evaluate the vibrations that act on the human body in alpine ski racing from a general and a back overuse injury prevention perspective. In the course of a biomechanical field experiment, six male European Cup-level athletes each performed two runs on a typical giant slalom (GS) and slalom (SL) course, resulting in a total of 192 analyzed turns. Three-dimensional accelerations were measured by six inertial measurement units placed on the right and left shanks, right and left thighs, sacrum, and sternum. Based on these data, power spectral density (PSD; i.e., the signal's power distribution over frequency) was determined for all segments analyzed. Additionally, as a measure expressing the severity of vibration exposure, root-mean-square (RMS) acceleration acting on the lower back was calculated based on the inertial acceleration along the sacrum's longitudinal axis. In both GS and SL skiing, the PSD values of the vibrations acting at the shank were found to be largest for frequencies below 30 Hz. While being transmitted through the body, these vibrations were successively attenuated by the knee and hip joint. At the lower back (i.e., sacrum sensor), PSD values were especially pronounced for frequencies between 4 and 10 Hz, whereas a corresponding comparison between GS and SL revealed higher PSD values and larger RMS values for GS. Because vibrations in this particular range (i.e., 4 to 10 Hz) include the spine's resonant frequency and are known to increase the risk of structural deteriorations/abnormalities of the spine, they may be considered potential components of mechanisms leading to overuse injuries of the back in alpine ski racing. Accordingly, any measure to control and/or reduce such skiing-related vibrations to a minimum should be recognized and applied. In this connection, wearable sensor technologies might help to better monitor and manage the overall back overuse-relevant vibration exposure of athletes in regular training and or competition settings in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörg Spörri
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of SalzburgHallein-Rif, Austria.,Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, Zurich, University of ZurichZurich, Switzerland
| | - Josef Kröll
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of SalzburgHallein-Rif, Austria
| | - Benedikt Fasel
- Laboratory of Movement Analysis and Measurement, École Polytechnique Fédérale de LausanneLausanne, Switzerland
| | - Kamiar Aminian
- Laboratory of Movement Analysis and Measurement, École Polytechnique Fédérale de LausanneLausanne, Switzerland
| | - Erich Müller
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of SalzburgHallein-Rif, Austria
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Hildebrandt C, Müller L, Heisse C, Raschner C. Trunk Strength Characteristics of Elite Alpine Skiers - a Comparison with Physically Active Controls. J Hum Kinet 2017; 57:51-59. [PMID: 28713458 PMCID: PMC5504578 DOI: 10.1515/hukin-2017-0046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Core muscle imbalances and weak trunk strength are relevant for injury prevention and performance. Information regarding core strength requirements and ideal flexion/extension ratios in alpine skiing is limited. We aimed to compare trunk strength capacities in elite alpine skiers with those of a matched control group. The concentric maximal trunk flexion and extension of 109 elite skiers and 47 active controls were measured at 150°/s in a ballistic mode using the CON-TREX® TP 1000 test system. The relative flexion peak torque was higher in male ski racers (p = 0.003; 2.44 ± 0.30 Nm/kg) than in the controls (2.32 ± 0.42 Nm/kg). The relative peak torque for extension was 4.53 ± 0.65 Nm/kg in ski racers and 4.11 ± 0.52 Nm/kg in the controls (p = 0.001). Female athletes were significantly stronger in both, relative flexion force (p = 0.006; skiers 2.05 ± 0.22 Nm/kg; controls 1.74 ± 0.28 Nm/kg) and relative extension force (p = 0.001; skiers 3.55 ± 0.53 Nm/kg; controls 3.14 ± 0.48 Nm/kg). No significant differences were found in the ratios of flexion to extension forces in females and males. Ski racers are engaged in extensive strength training for both leg and trunk muscles, which explains the higher peak values. Both groups indicated a low ratio from 0.54-0.59, which represents high trunk extensor muscles strength relative to flexor muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lisa Müller
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Christian Heisse
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Christian Raschner
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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Müller L, Hildebrandt C, Müller E, Oberhoffer R, Raschner C. Injuries and illnesses in a cohort of elite youth alpine ski racers and the influence of biological maturity and relative age: a two-season prospective study. Open Access J Sports Med 2017; 8:113-122. [PMID: 28546774 PMCID: PMC5436787 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s133811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Studies on injuries and illnesses involving youth ski racers younger than 15 years are lacking in the literature. The aim of this study was prospectively to assess the incidence, prevalence, and severity of traumatic and overuse injuries, as well as illnesses of elite youth ski racers with regard to sex, biological maturity status, and relative age. SUBJECTS AND METHODS A prospective, longitudinal cohort design was used to monitor the anthropometrics, training characteristics, traumatic and overuse injuries, and illnesses of 82 elite youth ski racers (51 males, 31 females, age 9-14 years) over 2 consecutive years. The exact training exposure (skiing and athletic) was recorded. Relative age and estimated biological maturity status were assessed. RESULTS Relatively low injury incidence or prevalence (traumatic, 0.86/1,000 hours of training; overuse, 0.28/1,000 hours) and comparably high illness prevalence (2.4/athlete) were reported. The knee was the most commonly affected body part (traumatic injuries 36.5%, overuse injuries 82%). A high number of bone fractures were revealed (46%), while no stress fractures occurred; 66% of the illnesses were respiratory tract infections. No differences were found between males and females, the differing maturity groups, or relative age quartiles. Early-maturing athletes had comparably low traumatic and overuse-injury rates. Relatively younger athletes had low traumatic injury rates. CONCLUSION The injury-prevention measures implemented in the training process of youth ski racers seem to contribute to a low incidence of injury. Biological maturity status should be considered in the training process to prevent injuries in late-maturing athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Müller
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Carolin Hildebrandt
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.,Department of Sport and Health Science, Preventative Pediatrics, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Erich Müller
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Renate Oberhoffer
- Department of Sport and Health Science, Preventative Pediatrics, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Christian Raschner
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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Fasel B, Sporri J, Chardonnens J, Kroll J, Muller E, Aminian K. Joint Inertial Sensor Orientation Drift Reduction for Highly Dynamic Movements. IEEE J Biomed Health Inform 2017; 22:77-86. [PMID: 28141537 DOI: 10.1109/jbhi.2017.2659758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Inertial sensor drift is usually corrected on a single-sensor unit level. When multiple sensor units are used, mutual information from different units can be exploited for drift correction. This study introduces a method for a drift-reduced estimation of three dimensional (3-D) segment orientations and joint angles for motion capture of highly dynamic movements as present in many sports. 3-D acceleration measured on two adjacent segments is mapped to the connecting joint. Drift is estimated and reduced based on the mapped accelerations' vector orientation differences in the global frame. Algorithm validity is assessed on the example of alpine ski racing. Shank, thigh, and trunk inclination as well as knee and hip flexion were compared to a multicamera-based reference system. For specific leg angles and trunk segment inclination mean accuracy and precision were below 3.9° and 6.0°, respectively. The errors were similar to errors reported in other studies for lower dynamic movements. Drift increased axis misalignment and mainly affected joint and segment angles of highly flexed joints such as the knee or hip during a ski turn.
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Heidari J, Hasenbring M, Kleinert J, Kellmann M. Stress-related psychological factors for back pain among athletes: Important topic with scarce evidence. Eur J Sport Sci 2016; 17:351-359. [PMID: 27838957 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2016.1252429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Health issues represent a frequent problem for athletes, as this particular demographic is repeatedly confronted with physically and psychologically stressful situations. Back pain (BP) materialises as comparatively common health problem being regarded as functionally limiting and psychologically straining burden for athletes. According to research conducted on athletes with BP, biomechanical and physiological mechanisms emerge as influential, whereas stress-related psychological factors appear to be neglected. For athletic injuries, the essential impact of psychological processes on injury occurrence and return from injury has already been corroborated. Hence, the aim of this literature review is to: (1) introduce a conceptual differentiation between injuries and BP; (2) summarise the results obtained regarding stress-related psychological aspects for injuries; and (3) connect the injury research to the state-of-the-art evidence regarding stress-related factors for BP among athletes. A distinction between injuries and BP could be established based on previous definitions, despite the fact that a considerable overlap between both concepts prevails. Injuries can be attributed to a physical origin, whereas BP frequently lacks this physical criterion. For BP, our enquiry yielded four studies including psychological measures of stress - with two studies specifically examining the association between BP and psychological stress among athletes longitudinally. Abundant findings from the general population support the importance of considering psychological and specifically stress-related factors in BP prevention and rehabilitation, but evidence related to the athletic field remains elusive. Further scientific investigations with a wider methodological approach are needed to deepen the knowledge about the crucial relationship between psychological stress, BP, and athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jahan Heidari
- a Unit of Sport Psychology, Faculty of Sport Science , Ruhr University Bochum , Germany
| | - Monika Hasenbring
- b Department of Medical Psychology and Medical Sociology , Ruhr University Bochum , Germany
| | - Jens Kleinert
- c Department of Health and Social Psychology , German Sport University , Cologne , Germany
| | - Michael Kellmann
- a Unit of Sport Psychology, Faculty of Sport Science , Ruhr University Bochum , Germany.,d School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences , The University of Queensland , St Lucia , Australia
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Supej M, Senner V, Petrone N, Holmberg HC. Reducing the risks for traumatic and overuse injury among competitive alpine skiers. Br J Sports Med 2016; 51:1-2. [PMID: 27799165 PMCID: PMC5256127 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2016-096502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matej Supej
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Veit Senner
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany
| | - Nicola Petrone
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Hans-Christer Holmberg
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden.,School of Sport Sciences, UiT Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
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Kröll J, Spörri J, Gilgien M, Schwameder H, Müller E. Sidecut radius and kinetic energy: equipment designed to reduce risk of severe traumatic knee injuries in alpine giant slalom ski racing. Br J Sports Med 2016; 50:26-31. [PMID: 26702015 PMCID: PMC4717412 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2015-095463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Background Kinetic energy (Ekin) increases with speed by the power of 2 and is considered a major risk factor for injuries in alpine ski racing. There is no empirical knowledge about the effect of ski geometry on Ekin. Consequently, the aim of this study was to investigate the influence of sidecut radius on the progress of Ekin while skiing through a multigate section in giant slalom (GS). Methods 5 European-Cup level athletes skied on three different pairs of GS skis varying in sidecut radii (30, 35 and 40 m). Each athlete's position over time within a six gate section (including flat and steep terrain) was captured by the use of a differential Global Navigational Satellite System. Ekin, speed, time and path length were analysed for each pair of skis used. Results When using skis with greater sidecut radius, average Ekin was significantly lower over the entire six gate section, but not locally at every turn cycle. Particular decreases of Ekin were observed for both turns on the flat terrain, as well as for the turn at the terrain transition and the first turn on the steep terrain. The observed decreases in Ekin were found to be primarily explainable by increases in turn time. Conclusions With respect to typical sport mechanisms that cause severe knee injuries, using skis with greater sidecut radius potentially provides additional injury preventative gain, particularly in specific areas within a run. However, this injury preventative gain during falls in GS should not be overestimated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josef Kröll
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Hallein-Rif, Austria
| | - Jörg Spörri
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Hallein-Rif, Austria
| | - Matthias Gilgien
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Hermann Schwameder
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Hallein-Rif, Austria
| | - Erich Müller
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Hallein-Rif, Austria
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