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Pongraktham K, Somnuk K. Continuous double-step acid catalyzed esterification production of sludge palm oil using 3D-printed rotational hydrodynamic cavitation reactor. ULTRASONICS SONOCHEMISTRY 2023; 95:106374. [PMID: 37004412 PMCID: PMC10457588 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2023.106374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 03/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Sludge palm oil (SPO) with high free fatty acid (FFA) content was processed using a continuous and double-step esterification production process in a rotor-stator-type hydrodynamic cavitation reactor. Three-dimensional printed rotor was made of plastic filament and acted as a major element in minimizing the FFA content in SPO. To evaluate the reduced level of FFAs using both methods, five independent factors were varied: methanol content, sulphuric acid content (H2SO4), hole diameter, hole depth, and rotor speed. The first-step conditions for the esterification process included 60.8 vol% methanol content, 7.2 vol% H2SO4 content, 5.0 mm diameter of the hole, 6.1 mm depth of the hole, and 3000 rpm speed of the rotor. The initial free fatty acid content decreased from 89.16 wt% to 35.00 wt% by the predictive model, while 36.69 wt% FFA level and 94.4 vol% washed first-esterified oil yield were obtained from an actual experiment. In the second-step, 1.0 wt% FFA was achieved under the following conditions: 44.5 vol% methanol content, 3.0 vol% H2SO4 content, 4.6 mm hole diameter, 5.8 mm hole depth, and 3000 rpm rotor speed. The actual experiment produced 0.94 wt% FFA content and 93.9 vol% washed second-esterified oil yield. The entire process required an average electricity of 0.137 kWh/L to reduce the FFA level in the SPO below 1 wt%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kritsakon Pongraktham
- Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90110, Thailand
| | - Krit Somnuk
- Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90110, Thailand; Energy Technology Research Center, Faculty of Engineering, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90110, Thailand.
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Towards rapid and sustainable synthesis of biodiesel: A review of effective parameters and scale-up potential of intensification technologies for enzymatic biodiesel production. J IND ENG CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jiec.2022.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Zulqarnain, Mohd Yusoff MH, Ayoub M, Ramzan N, Nazir MH, Zahid I, Abbas N, Elboughdiri N, Mirza CR, Butt TA. Overview of Feedstocks for Sustainable Biodiesel Production and Implementation of the Biodiesel Program in Pakistan. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:19099-19114. [PMID: 34337248 PMCID: PMC8320110 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c02402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
The energy demand of the world is skyrocketing due to the exponential economic growth and population expansion. To meet the energy requirement, the use of fossil fuels is not a good decision, causing environmental pollution such as CO2 emissions. Therefore, the use of renewable energy sources like biofuels can meet the energy crisis especially for countries facing oil shortages such as Pakistan. This review describes the comparative study of biodiesel synthesis for various edible oils, non-edible oils, and wastes such as waste plastic oil, biomass pyrolysis oil, and tyre pyrolysis oil in terms of their oil content and extraction, cetane number, and energy content. The present study also described the importance of biodiesel synthesis via catalytic transesterification and its implementation in Pakistan. Pakistan is importing an extensive quantity of cooking oil that is used in the food processing industries, and as a result, a huge quantity of waste cooking oil (WCO) is generated. The potential waste oils for biodiesel synthesis are chicken fat, dairy scum, WCO, and tallow oil that can be used as potential substrates of biodiesel. The implementation of a biodiesel program as a replacement of conventional diesel will help to minimize the oil imports and uplift the country's economy. Biodiesel production via homogeneous and heterogeneous catalyzed transesterification is more feasible among all transesterification processes due to a lesser energy requirement and low cost. Therefore, biodiesel synthesis and implementation could minimize the imports of diesel by significantly contributing to the overall Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Although, waste oil can meet the energy needs, more available cultivation land should be used for substrate cultivation. In addition, research is still needed to explore innovative solvents and catalysts so that overall biodiesel production cost can be minimized. This would result in successful biodiesel implementation in Pakistan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zulqarnain
- HICoE
− Center for Biofuel and Biochemical Research, Institute of
Self-Sustainable Building, Department of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar 32610, Perak, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Hizami Mohd Yusoff
- HICoE
− Center for Biofuel and Biochemical Research, Institute of
Self-Sustainable Building, Department of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar 32610, Perak, Malaysia
| | - Muhammad Ayoub
- HICoE
− Center for Biofuel and Biochemical Research, Institute of
Self-Sustainable Building, Department of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar 32610, Perak, Malaysia
| | - Naveed Ramzan
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of Engineering
& Technology, Lahore 54890, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Hamza Nazir
- HICoE
− Center for Biofuel and Biochemical Research, Institute of
Self-Sustainable Building, Department of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar 32610, Perak, Malaysia
| | - Imtisal Zahid
- HICoE
− Center for Biofuel and Biochemical Research, Institute of
Self-Sustainable Building, Department of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar 32610, Perak, Malaysia
| | - Nadir Abbas
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Ha’il, Ha’il 81441, Saudia Arabia
| | - Noureddine Elboughdiri
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Ha’il, Ha’il 81441, Saudia Arabia
- Chemical
Engineering Department, Modeling Analysis and Control of Systems,
National School of Engineering Gabes, University
of Gabes, Gabes 6072, Tunisia
| | - Cyrus Raza Mirza
- Department
of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Hail, Ha’il 55425, Saudi Arabia
| | - Tayyab Ashfaq Butt
- Department
of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Hail, Ha’il 55425, Saudi Arabia
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Biodiesel Production from Palm Oil, Its By-Products, and Mill Effluent: A Review. ENERGIES 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/en11082132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The sustainability of petroleum-based fuel supply has gained broad attention from the global community due to the increase of usage in various sectors, depletion of petroleum resources, and uncertain around crude oil market prices. Additionally, environmental problems have also arisen from the increasing emissions of harmful pollutants and greenhouse gases. Therefore, the use of clean energy sources including biodiesel is crucial. Biodiesel is mainly produced from unlimited natural resources through a transesterification process. It presents various advantages over petro-diesel; for instance, it is non-toxic, biodegradable, and contains less air pollutant per net energy produced with low sulphur and aromatic content, apart from being safe. Considering the importance of this topic, this paper focuses on the use of palm oil, its by-products, and mill effluent for biodiesel production. Palm oil is known as an excellent raw material because biodiesel has similar properties to the regular petro-diesel. Due to the debate on the usage of palm oil as food versus fuel, extensive studies have been conducted to utilise its by-products and mill effluent as raw materials. This paper also discusses the properties of biodiesel, the difference between palm-biodiesel and other biodiesel sources, and the feasibility of using palm oil as a primary source for future alternative and sustainable energy sources.
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