Current Trends in Retirement: Implications for Career Counseling and Vocational Psychology

Determinants of Hispanic and non-Hispanic Workers' Intent to Work Past Age 65: An Analysis From the Life Course Perspective

Background: The average retirement age in the United States (U.S.) has increased over the past few decades. However, the rate of increase for Hispanics is lower than that for non-Hispanics. For Hispanics, the decision to retire later may be more influenced by their migration history and context rather than health or finances. Objective: This study aims to explore the differences in the determinants of intentions to delay retirement (i.e., work beyond the age of 65) between Hispanics and non-Hispanic Whites in the U.S. Methods: A pooled sample was generated from all waves of the Health and Retirement Study (1992-2014), including a unique record for each non-institutionalized individual aged 55-61 who was employed. All eligible Hispanics (n = 3,663) were included, while a random sample of non-Hispanic Whites (n = 3,663) was selected. Logistic mixed models were conducted for each group, and a Two-fold Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition analysis was used to explore differences between the groups. Results: The results indicate that non-Hispanic Whites are more likely to plan to postpone retirement. Furthermore, significant differences were found between Hispanics and non-Hispanic Whites regarding their intentions to delay retirement, specifically related to socioeconomic indicators such as individual earnings, amount of debt, level of education, and parents' level of education. The differences between the groups were primarily influenced by the amount of debt, having a defined benefit plan, and parents' level of education, reflecting the cumulative disadvantage experienced by Hispanics over their life course. Conclusion: Most existing research on the topic has focused on middle-class Whites, while few studies have examined race or ethnicity as the primary focus or explored the extent to which commonly identified predictors of delayed retirement apply to different ethno-racial groups. This is significant because Hispanics and other disadvantaged groups tend to experience financial insecurity during retirement, which directly impacts their health and well-being.

Age, sex and race distribution of accelerometer-derived sleep variability in US school-aged children and adults

Sleep variability (e.g. intra-individual variabilities in sleep duration or sleep timing, social jetlag, and catch-up sleep) is an important factor impacting health and mortality. However, limited information is available on the distribution of these sleep parameters across the human life span. We aimed to provide distribution of sleep variability related parameters across lifespan by sex and race in a national representative sample from the U.S. population. The study included 9981 participants 6 years and older from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2011-2014, who had 4-7 days of valid 24-h accelerometer recording with at least one day obtained during weekend (Friday or Saturday night). Of the study participants, 43% showed ≥ 60 min sleep duration standard deviation (SD), 51% experienced ≥ 60 min catch-up sleep, 20% showed ≥ 60 min sleep midpoint SD, and 43% experienced ≥ 60 min social jetlag. American youth and young adults averaged greater sleep variability compared to other age groups. Non-Hispanic Blacks showed greater sleep variability in all parameters compared to other racial groups. There was a main effect of sex on sleep midpoint SD and social jetlag with males averaging slightly more than females. Our study provides important observations on sleep variability parameters of residents of the United States by using objectively measured sleep patterns and will provide unique insights for personalized advice on sleep hygiene.

Age, sex and race distribution of accelerometer-derived sleep variability in US school-aged children and adults

Background

Sleep variability (e.g. intra-individual variabilities in sleep duration or sleep timing, social jetlag, and catch-up sleep) is an important factor impacting health and mortality. However, limited information is available on the distribution of these sleep parameters across the human life span. We aimed to provide distribution of sleep variability related parameters across lifespan by sex and race in a national representative sample from the U.S. population.

Methods

The study included 9,799 participants 6 years and older from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2011-2014, who had at least 3 days of valid sleep parameters with at least one day obtained during weekend (Friday or Saturday night). These were calculated from 7-day 24-h accelerometer recordings.

Results

Of the study participants, 43% showed ≥ 60 minutes sleep duration standard deviation (SD), 51% experienced ≥ 60 minutes catch-up sleep, 20% showed ≥ 60 minutes midpoint of sleep SD, and 43% experienced ≥ 60 minutes social jetlag. American youth and young adults averaged greater sleep variability compared to other age groups. Non-Hispanic Blacks showed greater sleep variability in all parameters compared to other racial groups. There was a main effect of sex on sleep midpoint SD and social jetlag with males averaging slightly more than females.

Conclusion

Our study provides important observations on sleep irregularity parameters of residents of the United States by using objectively measured sleep patterns and will provide unique insights for personalized advice on sleep hygiene.

Retirement and Physical Activity: The Opportunity of a Lifetime or the Beginning of the End?

Retirement has been identified as a life transition that is important in determining older adults' physical activity levels. The present study examined the factors associated with retirement that affect physical activity participation among older adults. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 425 retired Australians aged 60 years and older. Physical activity was assessed objectively, using accelerometers. Two categories of factors affecting physical activity participation following retirement were identified: the various physical and psychological changes in later life that can encourage or discourage physical activity and the adaptation processes undertaken by older people in response to these changes. The adoption of either a gain or loss approach to retirement and aging appeared to be the most influential adaptation factor affecting physical activity participation. The results suggest that intervention approaches should aim to foster more positive attitudes to aging and retirement and promote physical activity at all stages in life.

Women's Perceptions of Retirement

A record number of women are going through the major life transition of retirement. The purpose of the current study was to explore women's perceptions of retirement with the goals of better understanding important patterns of response regarding retirement transitioning and to inform nurses on how to assist clients who are anticipating or engaging in the retirement transition. A sample population of 170 retired women was recruited using convenience sampling from community settings within six southeastern U.S. states. Participants expressed their perceptions of retirement through written responses to open-ended questions. Content analysis revealed the following themes: Love It/Happy; Unhappy/Regrets; So Much Time, So Little (money, resources, etc.); Searching; Busy; Relief/Freedom; Giving: For Me and Thee; Adequate Resources; Creating Your Own Structure; and Positive Attitude. Careful assessment for health changes, promotion of positive coping skills, and provision of educational planning and therapeutic resources to women who are transitioning to retirement should assist women toward healthy and successful retirements. [Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 45(4), 31-39.].

Correlates of changes in walking during the retirement transition: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis

Retirement from employment involves disruption in daily routines and has been associated with positive and negative changes in physical activity. Walking is the most common physical activity among older Americans. The factors that influence changes in walking after retirement are unknown. The study objective was to identify correlates of within-person change in recreational walking (for leisure) and transport walking (to get places) during the retirement transition among a multi-ethnic cohort of adults (N = 928) from six US communities. Correlates were measured at the individual (e.g., gender), interpersonal (e.g., social support), and community (e.g., density of walking destinations) levels at study exams between 2000 and 2012. Comparing pre- and post-retirement measures (average 4.5 years apart), 50% of participants increased recreational walking by 60 min or more per week, 31% decreased by 60 min or more per week, and 19% maintained their recreational walking. Forty-one percent of participants increased transport walking by 60 min or more per week, 40% decreased by 60 min or more per week, and 19% maintained their transport walking after retirement. Correlates differed for recreational and transport walking and for increases compared to decreases in walking. Self-rated health, chronic conditions, and perceptions of the neighborhood walking environment were associated with changes in both types of walking after retirement. Further, some correlates differed by gender and retirement age. Findings can inform the targeting of interventions to promote walking during the retirement transition.

Older Workers and Affective Job Satisfaction: Gender Invariance in Spain

Older employees’ affective job satisfaction is an aspect that arouses growing interest among researchers. Among the affective measures of job satisfaction, the Brief Index of Affective Job Satisfaction (BIAJS) is one of the most used in the last decade. This study is intended to the test the gender invariance of the BIAJS in two samples of workers over age 40 in Spain. The first sample, of 300 participants and the second sample, of 399 participants, have been used to test gender invariance of the BIAJS. In comparison with the original English version, the Spanish version of the BIAJS has adequate psychometric properties. The findings allow us to consider it a valid and reliable tool to assess older people’s affective expressions about their work. In addition, this study provides evidence of its factorial invariance as a function of gender.

Physical Activity, Sedentary Behavior, and Retirement: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis

INTRODUCTION

Physical activity and sedentary behavior are major risk factors for chronic disease. These behaviors may change at retirement, with implications for health in later life. The study objective was to describe longitudinal patterns of moderate to vigorous and domain-specific physical activity and TV watching by retirement status.

METHODS

Participants in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (n=6,814) were recruited from six U.S. communities and were aged 45-84 years at baseline. Retirement status and frequency and duration of domain-specific physical activity (recreational walking, transport walking, non-walking leisure activity, caregiving, household, occupational/volunteer) and TV watching were self-reported at four study exams (2000 to 2012). Fixed effect linear regression models were used to describe longitudinal patterns in physical activity and TV watching by retirement status overall and stratified by socioeconomic position. Analyses were conducted in 2017.

RESULTS

Of 4,091 Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis participants not retired at baseline, 1,012 (25%) retired during a median of 9 years follow-up. Retirement was associated with a 10% decrease (95% CI= -15%, -5%) in moderate to vigorous physical activity and increases of 13% to 29% in recreational walking, household activity, and TV watching. Among people of low socioeconomic position, the magnitude of association was larger for moderate to vigorous physical activity. Among people of high socioeconomic position, the magnitude of association was larger for non-walking leisure and household activity.

CONCLUSIONS

The retirement transition was associated with changes in physical activity and TV watching. To inform intervention development, future research is needed on the determinants of behavior change after retirement, particularly among individuals of low socioeconomic position.

Gender differences in retirement planning: A longitudinal study among Spanish Registered Nurses

BACKGROUND

Consistent patterns of gender differences in retirement planning behaviours have been shown but little is known about these behaviours among nurses.

AIMS

To analyse the antecedents of the behaviours to prepare for retirement in nurses older than 55 and to identify differences as a function of gender.

METHODS

A two-wave longitudinal study with Spanish nurses (n = 132).

RESULTS

Statistically significant gender differences were revealed. Specifically, paths from financial knowledge to public protection and self-insurance as well as paths from goals clarity to public protection all differed by gender.

CONCLUSIONS

Patterns of retirement planning differentiated by gender apparently continue to emerge.

IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING MANAGEMENT

The study adds evidence showing that female nurses continue to rely on public protection as a solid support for their retirement. Despite their greater awareness of the importance of health care and social relations, savings and finance are more neglected by female nurses. Intervention should be aimed at fostering financial literacy of the entire nursing population, but particularly, the access of women to this training. Secondly, given that the differences persist, advance planning of social actions to protect those who will be living alone and economically helpless in old age.

Financial Planning for Retirement: A Psychosocial Perspective

Retirement is a time of life that has grown ever longer in the developed world, and the number of pensioners has increased accordingly, questioning the strength of Social Security systems and the social safety net in general. Financial Planning for Retirement (FRP) consists of the series of activities involved in the accumulation of wealth to cover needs in the post-retirement stage of life. The negative short-, mid-, and long-term consequences of inadequate Financial Planning for Retirement do not only affect individuals, but also their extended families, homes, eventually producing an unwanted impact on the entire society. The Capacity-Willingness-Opportunity Model has been proposed to understand FPR, combined with Intentional Change Theory, a framework for understanding the process, antecedents and consequences of FPR. From this perspective, we propose this promising model, but there are a large number of variables that have not been included that offer novel ways to deepen our understanding of FPR. A focus on each dimension of the model, the role of age and psychosocial variables associated with demographic indicators such as gender, health status, and migration, allow us to provide a proposal of scientific advancement of FPR.

Economic Cognitions Among Older Adults: Parental Socialization Predicts Financial Planning for Retirement

Drawing on the model on financial planning for retirement (FPR), the aim of this work is to explore how parental economic socialization both directly and indirectly affects FPR through the mediation of financial literacy, financial planning decisions and financial management. Data from a sample of 280 participants aged between 45 and 63 years were used. The results show that parental economic socialization directly and indirectly influences FPR. Moreover, parental economic behavior acts as a positive model for the development of financial literacy and skills and for decisions about FPR. All the variables increased the explained variance of FPR. Lastly, we discuss the process by which parental economic socialization is positively related to financial literacy and skills that impact on FPR, indicating some implications and future lines of research.

Social Cognitive Career Theory, the Theory of Work Adjustment, and Work Satisfaction of Retirement-Age Adults

Despite a recent increase in the number of adults who work past traditional retirement age, existing theories of vocational behavior have not yet received adequate empirical support. In a large sample of adults age 60-87, we evaluated the relationship between theorized predictors of work satisfaction proposed by Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT), work satisfaction as a predictor of continued work, as proposed by the Theory of Work adjustment (TWA), as well as the influence of reported experiences of discrimination on these relationships. While the results supported most of the predicted relationships, the effects of discrimination were stronger than the variables proposed by either SCCT or TWA for the present sample.

Career and Retirement Theories: Relevance for Older Workers Across Cultures

This paper reviews selected career development theories as well as theories specifically focused on retirement, with an emphasis on their application to retirement decisions and vocational behavior in multicultural populations. Theories are evaluated based on whether: (a) retirement was considered a stage of working life, (b) work satisfaction, motivation, and other work variables at retirement age were addressed, (c) work choices at retirement age were included, and (d) cultural and other minority status issues were either directly considered in the work/retirement decision or if the model could be reasonably applied to retirement across cultures. We provide specific recommendations for research and practice with the aim of helping practitioners and scholars conceptualize the current concerns older adults face in their working lives and during retirement planning.