Rape Myth Consistency and Gender Differences in Perceiving Rape Victims: A Meta-Analysis

Rape Myths and Verdict Systems: What Is Influencing Conviction Rates in Rape Trials in Scotland?

The Scottish verdict system includes three verdicts: 'guilty', 'not guilty' and 'not proven'. Politicians propose that the three-verdict system is partially to blame for the low conviction rate of rape, whereas research suggests that rape myths may be having a larger impact. To test the effects of varying verdict systems (guilty, not guilty and not proven; guilty and not guilty; a series of proven and not proven verdicts) and rape myths on juror verdicts. A total of 180 participants answered questions regarding their acceptance of rape myths using the Acceptance of Modern Myth and Sexual Aggression (AMMSA) scale. They then watched a staged rape trial filmed in a real courtroom and reached a verdict. Participants also provided longer-form answers on which thematical analysis was conducted. The main findings are as follows: (1) The special verdict system leads to a higher conviction rate than the other systems when rape myth acceptance is controlled for. (2) The higher the rape myth acceptance, the more favourably the accused was perceived and the less favourably the complainer was perceived.

Relations Between Rape Myths, Ambivalent Sexism, Social Dominance Orientation, and Right-Wing Authoritarianism Across Gay and Straight Women and Men: More Similar Than Dissimilar

Rape myths support and fuel cultural understandings regarding gender roles and deny the victim's rights and strengthen those of the instigator. Little research exists examining the invariance of rape myths measures and models used to explain rape myths across gay and straight samples. Examining correlates of rape myths and determining if the pattern of relations between correlates is similar across gay and straight male and female samples provides insights into socially constant factors that are influencing rape myth acceptance. Participants (294 straight women, 282 gay women, 293 straight men, and 234 gay men) were asked to complete measures of social dominance orientation (SDO), right-wing authoritarianism (RWA), ambivalent sexism toward women, ambivalent sexism toward men, and rape myths toward women. We tested four models that highlighted significant, direct paths between SDO, RWA, and rape myth acceptance. Both hostile sexism toward women and benevolent sexism toward men demonstrated significant indirect effects between SDO, RWA, and rape myth acceptance. Benevolent sexism toward women and hostile sexism toward men demonstrated, in most samples, significant indirect effects between SDO, RWA, and rape myth acceptance. However, the strength of those relations differed for gay and heterosexual samples. This provides further understanding of rape myths as SDO, RWA, and benevolent and hostile sexism toward men and women play a role in supporting rape myth acceptance and establishes that, overall, these relations are more similar than dissimilar across straight and gay samples.

Development of the Vietnamese Rape Myths Acceptance Scales: A Web-Based Survey of Young Adults

Rape myths-false but widely held beliefs that serve to deny and justify sexual aggression-present a major barrier to reporting and prevention of sexual violence in Vietnam and globally. Based on a parent study aimed at reducing sexual violence at two universities in Hanoi, we developed and assessed a contextualized measure of rape myths among young people in Vietnam. Items from previously validated rape myth acceptance (RMA) scales and data from qualitative research informed the development of 50 items, which were administered to Vietnamese 18-24-year-olds (n = 2,756 total, n = 1,798 cisgender women) via an anonymous link in February 2021. We used factor analysis to explore and test factor structure and multi-group factor analysis to assess measurement equivalence across gender. We calculated item-level discrimination and difficulty parameters and visualized information curves using item response theory analysis, informing the development of a short form. Four hypothesized subconstructs identified in the qualitative data emerged as factors: (1) "He didn't mean to"; (2) "She asked for it"; (3) "It wasn't really rape"; and (4) "Rape is a deviant event." A fifth factor, "She didn't protect herself," included four items from formative data. Confirming formative findings and prior literature, cisgender women had lower RMA than cisgender men, particularly on items related to victim-blaming. The Vietnamese Rape Myths Acceptance Scales were internally consistent and equivalent between cisgender men and women, capturing elements specific to the Vietnamese context and providing a tool for campus climate surveys and evaluations of sexual violence prevention programs.

Relatively Unworthy Victims? Middle-Aged Women as Rape Survivors

This study examines how the age of female survivors impacts public perceptions of rape in China. In our online survey experiment, participants consider rape as less serious when the survivor is a middle-aged woman compared to other groups of women (younger, older, or age unknown). Participants also request shorter sentencing when the survivor is a middle-aged woman than a younger woman. In China, moral codes surrounding chastity and respect for elders lead to greater emotional responses toward rape against younger and older survivors than middle-aged survivors. Our study expands studies of rape perception by theorizing public attitudes toward middle-aged survivors.

Rape or Homicide: Which Is Worse?

Some people believe rape is just as serious as homicide, or more serious, contrary to law. We examined the prevalence of this belief and whether it reflects an individual's political ideology and moral foundations. Analyses were based on a national YouGov survey of 1,125 US adults gathered in 2021. We found that only 26% of respondents believed rape was less serious than homicide. Most (61%) believed rape and homicide were equally serious, while 13% believed rape was more serious. Social progressives (particularly progressive women) were more likely than social conservatives to view rape as more serious or just as serious as homicide. However, this tendency was partially offset by the tendency of social progressives to view harm as a key factor in judging the morality of a behavior. We suggest that social progressives view rape more seriously than social conservatives because of their concern for gender inequality, but this concern is partially offset by their concern with harm.

The Impacts of Conservatism, Social Dominance, and Rape Myth Acceptance on Blame Attribution in Ambiguous Rape Scenarios

Participants (N = 496) reviewed an ambiguous rape scenario involving a "perpetrator," either in a high or low authority position, and a "victim," who had or had not consumed alcohol. They indicated whether they viewed what happened as rape, and rated the perceived responsibility of the individuals involved. They also completed Conservatism and Rape Myth Acceptance (RMA) scales. Most believed the scenario to constitute rape. Perpetrator responsibility ratings were highest in the high-authority condition, and victims were assigned greater responsibility when they had consumed alcohol. Those who scored higher on the Conservatism/RMA scale attributed less responsibility to the perpetrator and more responsibility to the victim across all conditions.

The Relationship Between Rape Myths, Revictimization by Law Enforcement, and Well-Being for Victims of Sexual Assault

Relationships between rape myths, revictimization, and postassault well-being were examined in a sample of adult victims of sexual assault (n = 88). Correlation, multiple regression, and path analyses investigated whether conformity to stereotypes of "real rape" or "real victim" was associated with revictimization and well-being. A possible mediating effect of revictimization on the relationship between rape myth conformity and well-being was assessed. The relationship between specific revictimization behaviors and emotions was also analyzed. Questioning victims' resistance to the assault was correlated with revictimization emotions. "Real victim" characteristics were associated with well-being, but no mediating effect of revictimization was observed.

Blame others but hurt yourself: blaming or sympathetic attitudes toward victims of COVID-19 and how it alters one's health status

OBJECTIVE

This study explored the relationship between blame/sympathy and blamer's/sympathizer's perceived health status.

DESIGN

We recruited participants via an online survey platform. Study 1 was a cross-sectional study using data (N = 3304, Mage = 28.22, SDage = 7.92, and 39.3% female) collected from 30 provinces, municipalities, and autonomous regions of China on February 3, 2020. Study 2 used the daily diary method collecting data from February 4 to 9, 2020. Sample (N = 2456, Mage = 28.49, SDage = 7.49, and 39.4% were female) was obtained by inviting participants in Study 1 on the same platform.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Self-reported health status and life satisfaction.

RESULTS

In Study 1, blame was negatively associated with perceived health status, while sympathy was positively associated with it. Negative emotions and risk perception are the underlying mechanisms, but neither of them has effects on the relationship between sympathy and perceived health status. Study 2 replicated these results using multilevel analysis.

CONCLUSION

The results highlight the importance of people's attitudes on perceived health status. While sympathy is positively related to perceived health status, blaming has a negative association with perceived health status. Negative emotions and risk perceptions are the underlying mechanisms.

Boy v. man: The role of perception and the attribution of blame in court proceedings

Juries are a core component of the criminal justice system. Although marked with a history of prejudice, segmentation, and discrimination, the framework of the 6th Amendment calls for impartiality among a jury of peers who are selected for the pursuit of justice. Influencing jury decision-making is the perception of witnesses, defendants, and victims. Specific to this work, the characterization of the victim is often a function of in-group bias in which the jury, operating collectively, decides if it is to cognitively distance itself from the victim based on assigned attributes. The group's agreement with the assignment of negative attributes is especially apparent when the victim is a Black male. In the case of this analysis, teenage murder victim Jordan Davis was described as a man and characterized as an adult aggressor and deserving of blame. The analysis is integrative and considers this case to elaborate on the cognitive theories, system behavior, and cultural norms that frame the perceptive process of jurors. Also reflected are the implications of biased decision-making processes, as well as suggestions for ways to mitigate them.

The Impact of Media Watching and Victim Gender on Victim and Offender Blameworthiness and Punishment

In recent years, there has been increased attention regarding the impact of the media on individuals' perceptions of the criminal justice system, specifically focusing on the CSI effect and forensic evidence. In order to expand this area of research, this article focuses on the impact and interaction of crime-related media-watching habits and victim gender on perceptions of blameworthiness and punishment of both victims and aggressors in sexual assault cases. As expected, results supported the hypothesis that increased media-watching contributed to more stereotypical perceptions of sexual assault cases. However, slight variations observed in blameworthiness and punishment based on victim gender were nonsignificant. Implications for future research are discussed.

An Experimental Test of the Impact of Varying Questionnaire Response Format on Prevalence Rates for Sexual Violence Victimization and Perpetration

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the impact of a dichotomous versus scaled response format on prevalence rates of sexual violence perpetration and victimization, thus conceptually replicating Hamby et al., 2006 and extending those findings to the context of sexual violence.

METHODS

Two samples were recruited from Amazon Mechanical Turk and were randomly assigned to either a dichotomous or scaled response format of the same questionnaire. Sample 1 was used to examine perpetration and received a perpetration specific version of the Post-Refusal Sexual Persistence Scale (PRSPS). Sample 2 was used to examine victimization and received a victimization specific version of the PRSPS.

RESULTS

Men and women who received the scaled response format reported significantly more incidents of sexual perpetration, and for each type of tactic studied, on the order of 1.7-9x more frequently. The association between response format condition and prevalence rates of sexual violence victimization was significant only for men (23.0 vs 39.4%) and for the tactic of verbal coercion (30.1 vs 41.5%), with the scaled response format producing greater responding.

CONCLUSIONS

The response format of sexual violence items can significantly alter prevalence rates of sexual violence perpetration, with scaled response formats producing greater endorsements than dichotomous formats. Response format also appears to impact prevalence rates of sexual violence victimization, particularly for men.

Rape Myth Acceptance and General Self-Efficacy: Gender, Race, and Ethnic Differences of Knowing a Sexual Assault Victim among University Students

Knowing a sexual assault victim and general self-efficacy (GSE) were examined as predictors of rape myth acceptance (RMA) among university students. Where knowing a sexual assault victim was associated with greater rejection of rape myths among female students, most notably White females, a null effect occurred on male students, except for Black males whose RMA increased. Higher self-efficacy predicted the overall rejection of rape myths differently among identity intersections, most prominently with victim blaming. Knowing a sexual assault victim moderated GSE and RMA for male students and Latinos. These findings offer practical and critical implications as universities grow in diversity.

The Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale-Subtle Version: Using an Adapted Measure to Understand the Declining Rates of Rape Myth Acceptance

Research in recent years has shown decreased rates of rape myth acceptance. This decrease may be due to an actual decline in attitudes, but it may also be fully or in part because such attitudes have become socially undesirable to acknowledge. However, most of the current measures of rape myth acceptance are not sensitive to this issue. The purpose of the current study was to examine this issue by adapting the psychometrically sound items from the most established rape myth acceptance measure (the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale, IRMA) and combining those with additional items that may seem less problematic to endorse. Results showed that the revised measure (IRMA-S) elicited higher levels of rape myth acceptance than the original when both were administered to all participants, regardless of the order of administration. This suggests that the decrease may in fact be due more to measurement issues than real declines in rape myth acceptance. However, this difference was very small practically, amounting to the difference between some agreement and some disagreement on a single item. Previous research has found that the measurement method employed in this study has been successful when utilizing other items, so it may be that the IRMA-S was not sensitive enough to detect real-world differences, or that having both measures included in a single administration, even with filler measures between them, affected responses to the IRMA-S. Despite not conclusively resolving that main question, this study moves this important area of research forward in several ways, including adding to the literature on rape myth acceptance results from a more diverse sample than previous ones and providing findings on the impact of different facets of social desirability, as well as pointing the way toward continued research on measurement of rape myth acceptance.

Influence of Personality Traits on Post-Traumatic Cognitions of Sexual Assault

Sexual assault is a common form of trauma that is associated with psychological distress for many people who experience it. One factor that influences the degree to which sexual assault survivors exhibit distress is the cognitions they form related to the assault in its aftermath. The more times the assault happens, the more disruptive are the post-traumatic cognitions, although both the frequency of sexual assault and nature of post-traumatic cognitions differ by gender. Another factor that may influence post-traumatic cognitions is personality, which emerging research suggests has an influence on post-traumatic response in general and post-traumatic cognitions in particular. However, there is little research on the influence of personality on post-traumatic cognitions related to sexual assault specifically. In this study, we examine the association between personality traits (Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Openness) and post-traumatic cognitions of sexual assault in a sample of sexual assault survivors recruited from Amazon's Mechanical Turk (N = 303) using a Bayesian approach to multiple regression. Results suggest that although the influence of traits varied depending on the post-traumatic cognition under analysis and the sex of the sexual assault survivor, Neuroticism was the primary predictor of post-traumatic cognitions over and above sexual assault frequency, although this applied more for men than for women. Study findings clarify previous research on the role of personality traits in post-traumatic response and suggest directions for future research and clinical intervention.

Moderating Factors in Culpability Ratings and Rape Proclivity in Stranger and Acquaintance Rape: Validation of Rape Vignettes in a Community Sample

Rape is a serious concern globally. Past research has identified Ambivalent Sexism (AS), Rape Myth Acceptance (RMA), and the victim-perpetrator relationship as key constructs influencing rape blame attributions and rape proclivity. Limitations with methodologies have, however, limited the practical implications of past research, particularly in the context of underpowered samples and a lack of transparency in vignette development and implementation. In the current research, three studies aimed to validate material to be used in research into rape perceptions and to examine the impact of victim-perpetrator relationship, AS, and RMA on victim and perpetrator culpability, and rape proclivity, using an experimental design. On 563 participants, this research developed and validated six rape vignettes which accounted for methodological limitations of past research (Study One) and were found to be believable and realistic by participants; it further found that aggressively sexist attitudes were associated with increased victim culpability and decreased perpetrator culpability (Study Two), and increased rape proclivity (Study Three). Scenarios of a casual acquaintance produced the highest levels of victim culpability and the lowest levels of perpetrator culpability. Victims were ascribed more control than blame, or responsibility. Men reported the highest levels of rape proclivity in scenarios of casual acquaintance, and intimate partner relationships. Contrary to past research, Benevolent Sexism (BS) did not directly impact attributions in rape cases but may maintain and legitimize the attitudes, which do. As some of our findings contradict past research, we suggest that the need for standardized rape vignettes is evident, along with greater transparency and methodological rigor in sexual assault research, as this will improve the practical implications of findings. Reproducible research practices may be useful for this. While limited in diversity, this research has important implications for policy and research practice, particularly in producing validated material that can be reused by future researchers.

Attributions of Blame in Stranger and Acquaintance Rape: A Multilevel Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Victim blame, particularly in cases of acquaintance rape, presents an obstacle to criminal justice. Past research indicates that acquaintance rape results in more blame than stranger rape. However, there are inconsistencies in these findings (e.g., whether there is a linear relationship between victim blame and relationship closeness), partly due to methodological variation.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the effect of victim-perpetrator relationship on victim blame, how this effect is impacted by rape myth acceptance (RMA) and ambivalent sexism (AS), and to establish what the methodological quality is of studies.

SYNTHESIS METHOD

Studies were synthesized through a multilevel meta-analysis using the Metafor package in R (version 2.4-0), synthesizing findings from 47 individual studies. Studies compared victim blame between stranger and acquaintance rape, in isolation or in conjunction with RMA and AS, and were identified through a database search.

RESULTS

The review found higher levels of blame in acquaintance as compared to stranger rape, with a medium effect size. This effect was not moderated by RMA. AS was not included as a moderator in the meta-analysis, but the review indicated that benevolent sexism may be a particularly relevant variable.

IMPLICATIONS

Future research should examine the relationship between AS and victim blame. The current review contributes to the evidence base on victim blame in rape cases by suggesting that methodological limitations can account for some of the past mixed findings in this area, particularly in a lack of consistency in vignette details. It is recommended that future sexual assault research uses rigorous methodology and increases transparency of research processes.

The "Casting Couch" Scenario: Impact of Perceived Employment Benefit, Reporting Delay, Complainant Gender, and Participant Gender on Juror Decision-Making in Rape Cases

Recent legal and media reports of contemporary and historical rape and sexual assault cases have focused on the entertainment industry, particularly around the notion of the "casting couch." This scenario, in which a powerful figure obtains sometimes nonconsensual sexual acts from subordinate actors in exchange for employment, was used to explore the influence of rape myths and Sexual Economics Theory on mock-juror decision-making. Participant-jurors (n = 907) viewed video and written testimony of a complainant, accusing a male producer of rape. Complainant gender (male, female), delay before reporting the incident to the police (immediately, 6 months, 10 years), and complainant casting in the production were randomly varied (acting role secured, not secured). The strongest effects were that females (79.7%) were significantly more likely than males (62.7%) to deliver a guilty verdict and to recommend longer prison sentences for the offence. When the complainant did not secure the acting role, and they delayed reporting the incident for six months, there was an interaction between complainant gender and verdict. No interacting complainant gender effects on trial outcomes were found in the other delay conditions, or when the actor secured employment. Defendant guilt attributions to the male and female complainant were also differently influenced by rape myth belief levels and homophobic attitudes, but not beliefs in a just world. The casting couch euphemism, reported worldwide, suggests industry acceptance, and may sanitize the act of demanding sex and even committing rape. However, these results have important implications for any occupational setting in which men in positions of power may sexually exploit junior staff.

Attachment Anxiety, Rape Myth Acceptance, and Sexual Compliance

People may consent to sexual activity with a partner when they do not desire it (i.e., sexual compliance), and such behavior is particularly prevalent in women. Despite the negative consequences of unwanted sex, (e.g., guilt and poor health), few studies have considered those factors influencing sexual compliance. Attachment anxiety is characterized by overestimation of relationship threats and sensitivity to romantic rejection and rape myths are beliefs about rape that deny, trivialize, or justify sexual aggression and assault. In the present study both attachment anxiety and rape myth acceptance were hypothesized to influence perceptions of unwanted sex and personal experience of sexual compliance. Heterosexual women (N = 158) completed a series of online standardized self-report measures. Hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted to determine whether attachment anxiety and rape myth acceptance predicted women's perceptions of unwanted sex (perpetrator blame, victim blame, no blame, compliance, confrontation, and ignore) and personal experience of sexual compliance, while controlling for participant age and length of their current romantic relationship. Women high on attachment anxiety were less likely to endorse confrontation of a partner and were more likely to report personal experience of unwanted sex. Those accepting rape myths were more likely to endorse compliance and less likely to blame perpetrators or endorse confrontation of the partner. Future research should consider the consequences of unwanted sex and experiences of sexual compliance in nonheterosexual relationships and those who do not identify as women.

Are College Students' Attitudes Related to Their Application of Sanctions for Campus Sexual Assault Cases?

With growing attention to adjudication of campus sexual assault cases, more is known regarding students' views of sexual assault, but little the literature focuses on how students perceive "justice" in terms of assigning sanctions or guilt/responsibility for such cases. The present study focused on understanding whether college students' preformed attitudes and beliefs were associated with the severity of sanctions they applied across a range of sexual assault cases as well as their assignments of guilt and responsibility to the parties involved. To determine students' attitudes and beliefs mediating effects on sanction choices, five scales (i.e., rape myth acceptance, downplaying the severity of rape, sexism, just world beliefs, and right-wing authoritarianism) were adapted and used for this project. College students (n = 846) responded to one of four versions of a randomly distributed survey each containing eight vignettes varied to represent levels of 14 factors employed because of their relevance to campus sexual assault cases. Across all versions, sexism was associated with increased responsibility given to the victim. In addition, stronger endorsement of both downplaying significance of rape and rape myth acceptance scales were associated with giving a milder sanction to the perpetrator and increased responsibility and guilt assigned to the victim. Just world beliefs and right-wing authoritarianism associations were inconsistent across the four versions, suggesting these beliefs were situation-specific. Preformed attitudes that are more directly related to the context of sexual assault influenced the designation of sanctions applied to perpetrators and perceptions of guilt and responsibility. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for research and prevention programming.

She deserved it: Analysis of variables that influence the accountability of victims of sexual violence

This article aims to analyze the effect of the combination of the variables - victim characteristics (skin color and normativity), observer sex, Belief in a Just World, and ambivalent sexism - on sexual violence victim blaming. Three studies were conducted with university students (Study 1, N=288; Study 2, N=226; Study 3, N=307), who were asked to answer some items on victim blaming, Belief in a Just World, and Ambivalent Sexism. The ANOVA and ANCOVA analyses have shown that the combination of these variables resulted in higher black and counter-normative victim blaming. The results confirmed that victim skin color, victim normativity, and the observer sex influence victim blaming for sexual violence (study 1); that bjw predicts the attribution of the victim’s accountability for sexual violence (study 2), and that only benevolent sexism, together with bjw, was responsible for predicting victim blaming for sexual violence (study 3).

She Asked for It: Hardcore Porn, Sexism, and Rape Myth Acceptance

The present study examined pornography viewing, rape myth acceptance, and sexist attitudes. Data came from 392 male and 903 female participants. Multigroup SEM indicated neither pornography viewing, nor hardcore pornography viewing, were related to rape myth acceptance when controlling for sexist attitudes among men. Wald tests indicated hostile sexism to be a significantly stronger predictor of all rape myths examined compared to pornography viewing or hardcore pornography viewing in men and women. Latent variable interaction analyses suggested hardcore pornography viewing as a significant exacerbating factor for the relationship between hostile sexism and "she asked for it" rape myths across genders.

Health Professionals' Experiences of Providing Trauma-Informed Care in Acute Psychiatric Inpatient Settings: A Scoping Review

BACKGROUND

Trauma-informed care is increasingly recognized as the ideal model of care for acute psychiatric inpatient units; however, it continues to be a challenge to implement. The aims of this review are (1) to synthesize the research exploring health professionals' experiences of providing trauma-informed care in acute psychiatric inpatient settings and (2) to examine these experiences through a gender lens, particularly relating to gender-based violence. This research will provide additional insights to facilitate implementation of trauma-informed care in acute psychiatric inpatient care.

METHOD

A comprehensive scoping review methodology was adopted. English-language, peer-reviewed articles published between January 1998 and March 2018 were identified from seven databases. Inclusion criteria included a qualitative or mixed-method study design.

RESULTS

Eight full-text articles were found. This review highlights the importance for health professionals to have a reflective environment and a multilayered level of collaboration to adopt trauma-informed care. However, negative attitudes toward female consumers and inconsistent implementation strategies continue to hold back implementation of trauma-informed care in acute psychiatric inpatient units. Overall, limited consideration for gendered issues and gender-based violence in the implementation of trauma-informed care in acute psychiatric inpatient settings was found.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

There is a lack of research on health professionals' experiences of providing trauma-informed care in acute psychiatric inpatient units, with even less research considerating gender-based violence. We argue that more research is needed to gain a better understanding of the experience of health professionals from acute psychiatric inpatient settings to inform future implementation of trauma-informed care.

Comparing Rape Myth Acceptance Among Police Trainees and Medical Students: A Preliminary Danish Validation of the Updated Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale

Identifying rape myths among criminal justice and medical professionals is central to preventing secondary victimization. We present the first preliminary Danish validation of McMahon and Farmer's updated Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance scale using samples of police and medical trainees. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses result in a 14-item, four-factor measure that demonstrates acceptable model fit, satisfactory convergent and discriminant validity, and good internal consistency. Although reported rape myth acceptance is generally low in both samples, some subscale scores vary across professional groups, thereby identifying specific targets for intervention in different occupational contexts. Further tests of the scale are recommended.

An Experimental Investigation of Victim Blaming in Sexual Assault: The Roles of Victim Sexual Orientation, Coercion Type, and Stereotypes About Bisexual Women

Bisexual women are more likely to be sexually assaulted and to receive negative reactions to disclosures of sexual assault than heterosexual and lesbian women. However, few studies have examined the extent to which victim sexual orientation and related factors influence perceptions of sexual assault victims and perpetrators. To fill this gap, the current study used an experimental manipulation to examine the influence of victim sexual orientation and coercion type on perceptions of sexual assault victims and perpetrators. Participants (N = 826) were randomly assigned to read one of nine vignettes in which the sexual orientation of the female victim (bisexual, lesbian, heterosexual) and the type of coercion (verbal, physical, alcohol incapacitation) were varied. Then, participants were asked a series of questions about the victim and the perpetrator. Results indicated that bisexual and heterosexual female victims were both perceived as having wanted to have sex with the perpetrator more and as having "led the perpetrator on" more than lesbian victims. In contrast, victim sexual orientation was not associated with explicit ratings of victim or perpetrator responsibility or victim suffering. Bisexual female victims were also perceived as more promiscuous than both lesbian and heterosexual female victims. In turn, perceiving the victim as more promiscuous was associated with perceiving the victim as more responsible, having wanted to have sex with the perpetrator more, having "led the perpetrator on" more, and suffering less, and with perceiving the perpetrator as less responsible. In sum, our findings suggest that efforts to reduce sexual violence toward bisexual women should attend to negative attitudes toward bisexual women, especially the perception of bisexual women as promiscuous.

Youth Response to Rape: Rape Myths and Social Support

Adolescents and young adults face the highest incidence of sexual assault, yet only limited research focuses on the experience of adolescent survivors, adolescent rape myth acceptance, or the ways youth respond to rape. Survivors tend to disclose to at least one person, typically peers, and the response, whether positive or negative, can impact well-being and help-seeking behaviors. Focus groups across Oregon, a leader in state-level comprehensive sexuality education policy, solicited high school-student reactions to an alcohol-involved rape scenario. These rich-case participants had taken comprehensive sexuality education classes and were affiliated with health and sexuality organizations. These youth were anticipated to showcase best possible outcomes resulting from current sexuality education practices. After hearing a hypothetical scenario involving a friend's experience with alcohol-involved sexual assault, participants were asked how they would respond. Participants spontaneously discussed whether the actions described constituted rape, often relying on victim-blaming rape myths as evidence. Alcohol use was a critical factor in interpretations. Female use increased her perceived culpability and male use decreased his. After assessing blame and whether the incident constituted rape, youth described three types of support (informational, instrumental or practical, and emotional support) they would offer as well as barriers when responding to the victim and intentions to hold victims accountable. These responses paint a concerning portrait of the ways youth make sense of sexual violence and consider responding to a friend's disclosure. Sexuality education policy mandates and intervention programs must target the problematic links between alcohol, rape, and rape myths while reinforcing non-victim-blaming support.

Intoxicated But Not Incapacitated: Are There Effective Methods to Assist Juries in Interpreting Evidence of Voluntary Complainant Intoxication in Cases of Rape?

Jurors often negatively evaluate complainants making allegations of rape when those complainants were intoxicated at the time of the assault. It is, therefore, essential that legal practitioners have effective methods of ensuring that jurors use evidence of intoxication for the legally permissible purpose, which is to determine the complainant's cognitive capacity to consent. This study examines whether providing judicial instructions about how jurors should make use of complainant intoxication evidence assists jurors to use this evidence appropriately. University students (N = 212) read a case synopsis of an Australian criminal trial in which the complainant described experiencing mild or moderate levels of cognitive impairment due to alcohol consumption. Participants were then given a standard instruction about using the evidence of the complainant's intoxication or one that provided an upper decision limit for determining complainant cognitive capacity (providing inference support). As expected, presenting evidence about the complainant's alcohol-impaired cognitive state attenuated participants' negative perceptions of the complainant. The judicial instructions also assisted participants as they evaluated a moderately intoxicated complainant as less capable of consenting when participants received an instruction that supported the correct inference to draw from the evidence compared to a standard instruction. However, parallel mediation analysis showed that rape schemas mediated the relationship between perceived complainant capacity to consent and perceptions of defendant guilt. Judicial instructions that support perceivers' inferences may assist participants to more appropriately evaluate information about complainants' intoxication, however problematically, rape schemas still influenced decisions about defendant guilt.

Great Sexpectations: The Impact of Participant Gender, Defendant Desirability, and Date Cost on Attributions of a Date Rape Victim and Defendant

We investigated the effect of the desirability of the defendant and the cost of a date on how participants assigned blame in a date rape context. Community participants (N = 211) read one of four date rape trial summaries that differed based on the two manipulated independent variables: the desirability of the defendant (i.e., high vs. low desirability) and the cost of the date (i.e., expensive [US$175] vs. inexpensive [US$30]). Participants then rated the victim and defendant on various attributes related to the trial (credibility, blame, and guilt) and post-date sexual behavior (expectations, want, and deservingness of sex). Overall, men viewed the victim more negatively and the defendant more positively than women. Participants in the high defendant desirability condition also viewed the victim as having higher want of sex following the date and rated the defendant as more credible. With regard to the cost of date manipulation, men viewed the defendant as more credible when a desirable defendant paid for an inexpensive date in comparison with an undesirable defendant. However, when the date was expensive, women viewed the desirable defendant as more credible than the undesirable defendant. Finally, we also found that participants' perceptions of the victim's expectations and want for sex and the defendant's deservingness for sex mediated the effects of participant gender and defendant desirability on victim and defendant blame.

The Effect of Passively Viewing a Consent Campaign Video on Attitudes Toward Rape

Around 90% of rape victims know their perpetrator, making acquaintance rape the most common form of rape, contradicting societal beliefs. There is ambiguity about the meaning and use of consent in sexual scenarios (Beres, 2007). This study used a mixed methods approach to test the effectiveness of a campaign video aimed at increasing understanding of consent. We assessed whether the video affected rape judgments in vignettes depicting consensual or non-consensual sexual scenarios. We also manipulated whether making consent the primary or secondary question influenced attitudes. Text responses were also obtained to gain an insight into participant reasoning. The campaign showed no increase in rape judgments. Making consent primary in question order did lead to greater accuracy in rape judgment. A content analysis of the free-text responses indicated that the presence of the campaign actually reduced people's use of consent in explaining why a scenario may represent rape: Instead they focused on the attractiveness of the attacker. These results are discussed in relation to the effectiveness of passively viewing campaign material.

Health professionals' perceptions of how gender sensitive care is enacted across acute psychiatric inpatient units for women who are survivors of sexual violence

BACKGROUND

Sexual violence is a global public health issue. It is a form of gender-based violence commonly experienced by women accessing mental health services. The biomedical model has been the dominant model of care in acute psychiatric units, however, there has been a global movement towards more gender-sensitive and trauma-informed models. To date, only a small amount of research has focused on evaluating these models of care and health professionals' experiences of providing this care. The aim of this study is to gain an in-depth understanding of healthcare professionals' perceptions of how Gender Sensitive Care (GSC) is enacted across acute psychiatric inpatient units for women who are survivors of sexual violence.

METHODS

This study used case study methodology and the Normalisation Process Theory (NPT) conceptual framework. NPT is a practical framework that can be used to evaluate the implementation of complex models of care in health settings. It included semi-structured interviews with 40 health professionals, document and policy reviews, and observations from four psychiatric inpatient units within a large Australian public mental health organisation. Data were examined using thematic and content analysis.

RESULTS

Themes were developed under the four NPT core constructs; 1) Understanding GSC in acute psychiatric units: "Without the corridors there's not a lot we can do", 2) Engagement and Commitment to GSC in acute psychiatric units: "There are a few of us who have that gender sensitive lens", 3) Organising, relating and involvement in GSC: "It's band aid stuff", 4) Monitoring and Evaluation of GSC in acute psychiatric units: "We are not perfect, we have to receive that feedback".

DISCUSSION

Many health professionals held a simplistic understanding of GSC and avoided the responsibility of implementing it. Additionally, the competing demands of the biomedical model and a lack of appraisal has resulted in an inconsistent enactment of GSC.

CONCLUSIONS

Health professionals in this study enacted GSC to varying levels. Our findings suggest the need to address each NPT construct comprehensively to adequately implement GSC.

Health professionals' experiences of providing care for women survivors of sexual violence in psychiatric inpatient units

Background

Survivors of sexual violence, who are predominantly women, commonly access mental health services. Psychiatric inpatient units in Australia are predominately mixed gender and may further retraumatise these women. Sexual violence is under-recognised by mental health professionals and there is a lack of adequate policy or direction for mental health service services. To date, only a small amount of research has focused on health professionals’ experiences of providing trauma-informed care to women in psychiatric settings, with most studies focused on specific practices or interventions. Qualitative data is particularly lacking on this topic. This is a critical gap in the knowledge given that health professionals are key to detecting and addressing victimisation. The aim of this study was to gain an in-depth understanding of healthcare professionals’ experiences and perceptions in providing care to women who are survivors of sexual violence in psychiatric inpatient units.

Methods

This qualitative study utilised semi-structured interviews with 40 health professionals recruited from four psychiatric inpatient units within a large Australian public mental health organisation. Data were examined using thematic analysis.

Results

Three main typologies were developed to describe participants’ experiences of the care provided to women; 1) Dismissing and denying; 2) Acknowledging but unprepared; 3) Empathising but despairing.

Discussion

Gender, professional training, adherence to the biomedical model, and level of experience influenced health professionals’ experiences.

Conclusions

Health professionals in this study held varying attitudes towards female consumers and responses to sexual violence. Our findings suggest the need to address individual staff perception and promote trauma-informed and gender-sensitive care across all disciplines, genders, and levels of experience.

The Effects of Victim and Perpetrator Characteristics on Ratings of Guilt in a Sexual Assault Case

Scholars have long investigated how perceptions of the victim affect judgments in a sexual assault case, but little research has investigated perceptions of the perpetrator. Participants (N = 322) read a scenario about an alleged sexual assault that manipulated victim behavior (speed of reporting) and perpetrator characteristics (athlete status and celebrity status) and then made judgments about the victim and perpetrator. Results showed that victim behavior was the most important factor in judgments. Furthermore, significant three-way interactions suggested that participants may attend to perpetrator characteristics but only when the victim's behavior is consistent with stereotypes about sexual assault victims.

Bros Will Be Bros? The Effect of Fraternity Membership on Perceived Culpability for Sexual Assault

To examine the link between fraternity membership and sexual assault perpetration, we used an experimental design to assess the role of perceptions in an ambiguous sexual assault scenario. Undergraduates ( N = 408) were randomly assigned to either an experimental group where the perpetrator is a fraternity member or a control group where no fraternity information is given. Males rated perpetrators as less guilty and victims as more culpable when the perpetrator was a fraternity member, suggesting that sexual violence may be reinforced among fraternity members as they are both more likely to perpetrate sexual assault and less likely to be blamed.

Predictors of College Students' Likelihood to Report Hypothetical Rape: Rape Myth Acceptance, Perceived Barriers to Reporting, and Self-Efficacy

Rape myth acceptance (RMA), perceived barriers, and self-efficacy were examined as predictors of likelihood to report different types of rape to law enforcement among 409 undergraduates. Participants had lower likelihood to report incapacitated compared to physically forced rape. Men had lower reporting likelihood than women for rape perpetrated by the same and opposite sex, and were more likely to perceive several barriers. RMA and perceived barriers predicted a lower likelihood to report several types of rape. Among men, higher self-efficacy predicted increased reporting likelihood. Targeting RMA and decreasing perceived barriers is imperative to increase college students' likelihood to report rape to local and campus law enforcement.

Attributions of victim blame in stranger and acquaintance rape: A quantitative study

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

To, on a sample of nurses and the general public, examine whether victim blame varies according to level of familiarly between victim and perpetrator. It also examines how Ambivalent Sexism and Rape Myth Acceptance impact on this.

BACKGROUND

Around one in five women will be victims of sexual assault during their lifetime. The majority are acquaintance rapes, and these victims are generally attributed more blame than victims of stranger rape. Research indicates that nurses hold similar attitudes on gender roles and victim blame as do the general public.

METHODS

Eighty-one participants read a story depicting a sexual assault of a woman by either a stranger or an acquaintance and completed scales measuring victim blame, Ambivalent Sexism and Rape Myth Acceptance.

RESULTS

The results of this study indicated that victim-perpetrator relationship, Benevolent Sexism, Hostile Sexism and whether the participant was a nurse contributed to the variance in attributed victim blame. Hierarchical regressions revealed that whether or not the participant was a nurse contributed to the variance in victim blame in the acquaintance rape condition, and Hostile Sexism and Benevolent Sexism contributed to the variance in victim blame in the stranger rape condition.

CONCLUSIONS

This paper gives a novel insight into attitudes involved in victim blame in rape cases and makes a unique comparison between nurses and the general public. Findings suggest that victim blame correlates primarily with aggressively sexist attitudes and that nurses generally attribute more blame to the victim of acquaintance rape.

RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE

This study has practical implications for the provision of medical services for victims of sexual assault, as it highlights problems in identifying and accessing rape victims, as well as recommending the sexual assault training of all practicing nurses.

What Constitutes Rape? The Effect of Marital Status and Type of Sexual Act on Perceptions of Rape Scenarios

Many people believe that rape is always perpetrated by a stranger and involves vaginal intercourse. To clarify perceptions of rape that do not follow traditional beliefs, participants were presented with a vignette that described a rape in which the marital status and sexual act were manipulated. Participants were then asked to assess the incident’s severity and the victim’s responsibility. Results indicated that there was no difference in perceptions between vignettes based on marital status. However, rapes involving vaginal intercourse were associated with lesser degrees of victim blame and minimization than were rapes involving forced oral sex or digital sex.

Prostitution Myth Endorsement

Women in the sex trade have experienced victim blame from first responders and victimization from buyers and traffickers. Women’s ability to exit the sex trade may be negatively affected by bias from prostitution myth adherence that has normalized sexual exploitation and violence against women. Few studies have examined beliefs and behaviors that predict these problematic attitudes. In the current study, we assessed predictors of prostitution myth endorsement in a sample of 355 college students (196 women, 159 men). Gender, increased sexist attitudes toward women, frequency of pornography consumption, and self-control deficits significantly predicted prostitution myth adherence. Interactions between gender and study variables were not significant, demonstrating that gender did not moderate the relations between sexist attitudes toward women, lifetime sexual victimization, self-control deficits, and frequency of pornography consumption on prostitution myth endorsement. We discuss practice implications and future research directions with particular focus on the need to challenge and transform the current sociopolitical culture related to gender equity and healthy sexuality through advocacy and education.

Perception of victims of rape and perception of gender social roles among college students in Southwest Nigeria: validation of a 5-item gender scale

Our study focused on the perception of victims of rape and the relationship with the perception of social roles for gender among college students in southwest Nigeria using a 5-item gender social scale and a perception of victims of rape questionnaire. The study was done among 312 college students in Southwest Nigeria and explored the perception of victims of rape and gender social roles. The aim was to determine the relationship between perception of rape victims and view of gender social roles. We used a perception of rape victims questionnaire and a validated 5-item gender social roles scale to assess the views of participants. The findings revealed that females had better perception of victims of rape than males. Females also had more positive views of females' social roles involving gender. However, there was poor perception on work-related social roles and the traditional concept of headship in the varied situations described on the 5-item gender social scale. Old stereotypes of typically blaming victims of rape were not common beliefs among college students. There were no significant correlations between perception of victims of rape and perception of gender social roles among college students. Seemingly, the perception of victims of rape does not have a significant relationship with the concept of gender social roles.

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Beliefs of Prenursing and Nursing Students About Sexual Assault

Sexual assault has been identified as a major public health problem in the United States, yet little research has been done regarding nursing students' knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about sexual assault. Lack of knowledge, or victim-blaming attitudes held by healthcare providers can be problematic for the care of the sexual assault victim, leaving them feeling upset and distressed after the healthcare encounter. Prenursing and nursing students were surveyed about their knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about sexual assault. A knowledge test, the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance scale, and the Attitudes Toward Rape Victims scale were utilized in the survey; 297 students completed the survey. Results indicate that rape myth acceptance is lower for nursing students in their last semester of college than in the prenursing group; and that last-semester nursing students held less victim-blaming attitudes toward rape victims than prenursing students. The knowledge test highlights problem areas that need to be addressed by nursing education to improve the care of sexual assault patients.

Cultures of gendered violence: An integrative review of measures of attitudinal support for violence against women

National and international research has repeatedly identified the specific gendered nature and context of women’s victimisation of violence, whereby women are disproportionately victims of sexual and partner violence and overwhelmingly at the hands of known male perpetrators. As such, violence against women warrants a targeted and substantial focus, within overall violence reduction and prevention efforts. In the Australian policy context, there is an emerging and influential focus on attitudes towards violence against women as key targets for primary prevention and as foci for monitoring progress in reducing this violence. The Australian National Community Attitudes Towards Violence Against Women Survey was established to estimate community-level understanding of and attitudes towards violence against women. It has arguably evolved into an important instrument both for monitoring shifts in Australians’ knowledge and attitudes, as well as for directing primary prevention efforts. The purpose of this article is to provide an integrative review in relation to one of the key dimensions of the national community attitudes survey: violence supportive attitudes (see Webster et al., 2014). Here, we seek to identify patterns in defining and measuring attitudes that support violence against women, as well as advance the field by offering recommendations for progressing the measurement of violence supportive attitudes in Australia in the future.

Adaptation of the Domestic Violence Myth Acceptance Scale to Portuguese and Tests of Its Convergent, Divergent, and Predictive Validities

The Domestic Violence Myth Acceptance Scale was adapted to Portuguese (PDVMAS). The PDVMAS displayed reasonable fit indices (Study 1); was positively correlated with right-wing authoritarianism, social dominance orientation, belief in a just world (Study 2), and ambivalent sexism (Study 3); and negatively correlated with empathetic tendencies (Study 4). PDVMAS significantly predicted victim blame and aggressor exoneration in scenarios of coercion (Study 5) and physical assault (Study 6). Victims and non-victims of domestic violence equally endorsed domestic violence myths. Globally, the PDVMAS is a reliable instrument, and domestic violence myths are pervasive and alter the perception of intimate partner violence.

Rape Myths, Rape Scripts, and Common Rape Experiences of College Women

Rape is prevalent at colleges. Although research suggests commonalities across many college women’s rape experiences (e.g., perpetrators using multiple coercive strategies), vignettes used to assess rape perceptions often reflect false beliefs. Two studies varying a perpetrator’s coercive tactics examine rape perceptions using vignettes reflecting rape myths, rape scripts, or many college women’s common rape experiences. Participants perceive a woman who was raped more positively in vignettes reflecting common rape experiences versus those reflecting rape myths or scripts. Theoretical, educational, and research implications are discussed.