General and culture-specific factors influencing African American women's reporting patterns and perceived social support following sexual assault. An exploratory investigation

Representative Survivorship: A Look Into the Race-Evasiveness of Title IX and Understanding the Barriers to Reporting for Women of Color

While there are many cultural norms that serve as barriers to Women of Color reporting sexual assault on college campuses, there are also several institutional and systemic barriers. This paper explores some of these barriers and argues for Title IX, a policy that addresses issues of sexual assault on college campuses, to encompass and protect more than a person's sex alone. In addition to the legal system, institutions of higher education have a long-standing history of discrimination against racial and ethnic minority groups, in particular with addressing sexual assault crimes. This paper argues that specific measures need to be outlined in Title IX that acknowledge and redress the effects of institutional harms on the BIPOC community. This paper also discusses how adopting a restorative justice and intersectional approach to policy reform will aid in building a supportive relationship between survivors and their educational institutions.

A conceptual framework for queer, black womxn sexual assault survivors: an adaptation of the minoritised stress model

Queer, Black womxn experience sexual assault at an alarming rate in the USA leading to adverse mental and physical health outcomes in survivors. A synthesis of the literature was conducted to understand their unique lived experiences and needs. This article proposes an adapted Meyer's Minoritised Stress framework to understand salient clinical factors impacting Queer, Black womxn sexual assault survivors, including those associated with multiple minoritised identities: Queer-based trauma, race-based trauma, cultural betrayal trauma, and misogynoir. Given the high rates of victimisation, marginalisation and discrimination, psychologists and others working with members of this population should engage with and address these factors to provide culturally responsive, sexually affirming and effective mental health treatment and care.

Predictors of college women's disclosure of sexual assault prior to and during college

Talking to others about experiences of sexual assault can facilitate recovery. The present study explored associations between assault characteristics, attitudes, coping strategies, social support, and the college women's disclosure of adolescent sexual victimization (N = 134), as well as sexual victimization over a 7-month interim during college (N = 67). A sample of first-year college women completed pencil and paper assessments of sexual victimization, assault characteristics, tendency to disclose, self-concealment, attributions of blame, likelihood to report sexual victimization, social support., and coping strategies. A series of bivariate and multivariate analyses examined predictors of sexual assault disclosure. Whereas acknowledgment of the sexual assault as victimization predicted disclosure of adolescent sexual assault, less acquaintance with the perpetrator and strong social attachments predicted disclosure of sexual assault occurring during women's first year of college. Data suggest that the factors that influence disclosure of sexual assault may vary across periods of adolescent and young adult development.

African American Sexual Assault Survivors and Mental Health Help-Seeking: A Mixed Methods Study

Little research has focused on African American women's sexual assault victimization and mental health seeking. A mixed methods study was conducted to explore African American women's sexual assault in relationship to mental health seeking and experiences with mental health providers in a large community sample. Quantitative survey and qualitative interview data indicated unique correlates of immediate and longer term seeking of help from various mental health sources. Barriers and facilitators of African American women's mental health seeking were identified and qualitative themes were uncovered relevant to this group of survivors. Implications for research and clinical practice with this population are provided.

Responding to Delayed Disclosure of Sexual Assault in Health Settings: A Systematic Review

Few adolescent and adult women seek out formal support services in the acute period (7 days or less) following a sexual assault. Instead, many women choose to disclose weeks, months, or even years later. This delayed disclosure may be challenging to support workers, including those in health-care settings, who lack the knowledge and skills to respond effectively. We conducted a systematic literature review of health-care providers' responses to delayed disclosure by adolescent and adult female sexual assault survivors. Our primary objective was to determine how health-care providers can respond appropriately when presented with a delayed sexual assault disclosure in their practice. Arising out of this analysis, a secondary objective was to document recommendations from the articles for health-care providers on how to create an environment conducive to disclosing and support disclosure in their practice. These recommendations for providing an appropriate response and supporting disclosure are summarized.

Racial Differences in Pregnancy Intention, Reproductive Coercion, and Partner Violence among Family Planning Clients: A Qualitative Exploration

BACKGROUND

Unintended pregnancy (UIP) is a persistent public health concern in the United States disproportionately experienced by racial/ethnic minorities and women of low socioeconomic status. UIP often occurs with experiences of reproductive coercion (RC) and intimate partner violence (IPV). The purpose of the study was to qualitatively describe and compare contexts for UIP risk between low-income Black and White women with histories of IPV/RC.

STUDY DESIGN

Semistructured interviews were conducted with low-income Black and White women with histories of IPV or RC, ages 18 to 29 years, recruited from family planning clinics in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

RESULTS

Interviews with 10 non-Hispanic Black women and 34 non-Hispanic White women (N = 44) were included in the analysis. Differences between White and Black women emerged regarding IPV/RC experiences, gender roles in intimate relationships, and trauma histories, including childhood adversity. Fatal threats and IPV related to childbearing were most influential among White women. Among Black women, pregnancy was greatly influenced by RC related to impending incarceration, subfertility, and condom nonuse, and decisions about contraception were often dependent on the male. Sexual abuse, including childhood sexual assault, in the context of sexual/reproductive health was more prominent among White women. Childhood experiences of neglect impacted pregnancy intention and love-seeking behaviors among Black women.

CONCLUSIONS

Racial differences exist in experiences of IPV/RC with regard to UIP even among women with similar economic resources and health care access. These findings provide much-needed context to the persistent racial/ethnic disparities in UIP and illustrate influences beyond differential access to care and socioeconomic status.

General and Culturally Specific Factors Influencing Black and White Rape Survivors' Self-Esteem

Grounded in a culturally inclusive ecological model of sexual assault recovery framework, the influence of personal (e.g., prior victimization), rape context (e.g., degree of injury during last assault), and postrape response factors (e.g., general and cultural attributions, rape related coping) on self-esteem of Black and White college women, who were survivors of attempted and completed rape, were examined. As predicted, Black and White women identified similar general variables (e.g., general attributions) as important in the recovery process. Black women, however, identified a cultural factor (i.e., cultural attributions) as more important in influencing their reactions to the last rape compared to their White counterparts. Using path analysis, findings from this cross-sectional study indicated that severity of the last assault and prior victimization were related to lower self-esteem indirectly through avoidance coping strategies, and victim blame attributions for the latter. Results also suggested that the link between cultural attributions and self-esteem was explained through victim blame attributions, primarily for Black participants. The model accounted for 26% of variance in self-esteem.

Disclosure Patterns of Black Female Sexual Assault Survivors

Drawing from interviews conducted with 12 Black women who experienced various forms of sexual violence, this study looks specifically at disclosure patterns of Black female sexual assault survivors. In particular, it examines how survivors' awareness of their social location as Black women influences the likelihood of their reporting sexual victimization to family members, friends, criminal justice personnel, and/or helping professionals. The purpose of the study is to add to the knowledge base regarding the impact of sexual violence on Black women's lives and to increase understanding of the factors influencing Black women's decisions to disclose or not to disclose their victimization as well as the consequences of those decisions.

The Role of “Real Rape” and “Real Victim” Stereotypes in the Police Reporting Practices of Sexually Assaulted Women

Some feminists have argued that rape myths constrain women’s reporting of sexual assault to the police. The authors investigated whether myth-associated characteristics of sexual assaults play a role in police reporting behaviors of women. A sample of 186 sexual assault cases seen at a hospital-based sexual assault care center in 1994 was analyzed using logistic regression. A positive association was found between reporting a sexual assault to the police and two overtly violent components of the “real rape” myth: the use of physical force and the occurrence of physical injury.

Deciding Whom to Tell: Expectations and Outcomes of Rape Survivors' First Disclosures

In this study, 102 female rape survivors were interviewed regarding their first post-assault disclosure. Qualitative analysis revealed that nearly 75% of first disclosures were to informal support providers and over one third of the disclosures were not initiated by the survivors themselves. Over half of the survivors received positive reactions and less than one third felt the disclosure had a detrimental impact on their recovery. Loglinear analysis suggested that survivors who actively sought help from informal support providers were more likely to receive positive than negative reactions. In contrast, survivors who actively sought help from formal support providers were more likely to receive negative than positive reactions. When disclosure to formal support providers was initiated by the formal support providers themselves, however, survivors received exclusively positive reactions. Implications for future research are discussed.

"Come on Baby. You Know I Love You": African American Women's Experiences of Communication with Male Partners and Disclosure in the Context of Unwanted Sex

We examined African American women's experiences of communication with their male intimate partners a couple of hours before and after an incident of unwanted sex. We also examined women's experiences of disclosure following an incident of unwanted sex. Semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with a community-based sample of sexually active African American women (n = 19) reporting at least one incident of sexual coercion (i.e., being pressured into unwanted sex without consent) by an intimate male partner since the age of 18. Our analysis was guided by "the sexual division of power" from Connell's (1987) theory of gender and power. Data were analyzed inductively by examining the interviews for common themes in the following domains: communication before the unwanted sex, communication after the unwanted sex, and disclosure to others. Men pressured partners for unwanted sex through verbal and non-verbal tactics, ranging from pestering and blunt requests for sex to verbal bullying and violence. Many women responded by clearly saying no. However, many women also described eventually ceasing to resist their partners and engaging in unwanted sex. After the unwanted sex, men actively and passively avoided discussing the incident. Although many women discussed the unwanted sex with family and friends, less women disclosed to trained professionals. In some cases, women did not discuss the incident with anyone at all. These findings indicate that, when addressing sexual violence against women, there is a need to target men as well as the norms of masculinity that underpin physical and sexual violence against women.

Silenced suffering: the need for a better understanding of partner sexual violence

This article has two overall goals. First, to examine the current state of sexual violence research to highlight several shortcomings in the knowledge on partner sexual violence. Second, to describe several factors to consider in future research to facilitate a more in-depth understanding of partner sexual violence. Shortcomings of the research on partner sexual violence include (1) overreliance on dichotomous yes/no representations of sexual violence experiences; (2) lack of, or inadequate documentation of the scope and nature of partner sexual violence; (3) inadequate ways to account for impairment of consent under different circumstances; (4) difficulties in discriminating unwanted from nonconsensual sexual activities; and (5) limited information about the role sexual violence plays in the larger context of coercive control. In order to facilitate a more in-depth understanding of partner sexual assault, there is a need (1) to better understand the scope and nature of partner sexual assault and (2) to better understand the role partner sexual violence plays in coercive control. By improving the measurement of this phenomenon, victims, researchers, practitioners, and those involved in the justice system might be better equipped to respond to sexual violence among intimate partners.

Healing pathways: longitudinal effects of religious coping and social support on PTSD symptoms in African American sexual assault survivors

African American women are at a slightly increased risk for sexual assault (A. Abbey, A. Jacques-Tiaura, & M. Parkhill, 2010). However, because of stigma, experiences of racism, and historical oppression, African American women are less likely to seek help from formal agencies compared to White women (Lewis et al., 2005; S. E. Ullman & H. H. Filipas, 2001) and/or women of other ethnic backgrounds (C. Ahrens, S. Abeling, S. Ahmad, & J. Himman, 2010). Therefore, the provision of culturally appropriate services, such as the inclusion of religion and spiritual coping, may be necessary when working with African American women survivors of sexual assault. Controlling for age and education, the current study explores the impact of religious coping and social support over 1 year for 252 African American adult female sexual assault survivors recruited from the Chicago metropolitan area. Results from hierarchical linear regression analyses reveal that high endorsement of religious coping and social support at Time 1 does not predict a reduction in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms at Time 2. However, high social support at Time 2 does predict lower PTSD at Time 2. Also, it is significant to note that survivors with high PTSD at Time 1 and Time 2 endorse greater use of social support and religious coping. Clinical and research implications are explored.

Knowing a sexual assault victim or perpetrator: a stratified random sample of undergraduates at one university

Rape awareness and prevention programs are common on college campuses and a potentially useful way to reach large numbers of young adults. One largely unexamined potential mediator or moderator of program effectiveness is the personal knowledge of student audiences. In this study, we assess the prevalence of knowing a victim and, notably, a perpetrator of sexual assault. A stratified random sample of 2,400 undergraduates was recruited for an online survey about sexual assault. A total of 53.5% participated and yielded a sample representative of the student body. Sixteen questions were modified from the Sexual Experiences Survey to assess whether participants knew a victim of any one of eight types of sexual assault. Findings indicate that students begin college with considerable personal knowledge of sexual assault victimization and perpetration. Nearly two thirds (64.5%) reported that they know one or more women who were a victim of any one of eight types of sexual assault, and over half (52.4%) reported that they know one or more men who perpetrated any of the types of sexual assault. Most students reported knowing victims and perpetrators of multiple types of assault. Knowledge varied substantially by gender and ethnicity. Students' preexisting personal knowledge should be included in assessments of program effectiveness and, ideally, in program design.

The context and consequences of sexual assault among undergraduate women at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs)

To examine the context of sexual assault and postassault actions and consequences among women attending historically Black colleges or universities (HBCUs), web-based surveys were administered in November 2008 to 3,951 undergraduate women attending four HBCUs. Data on the context in which assaults occurred were generated for women who had been sexually assaulted since entering college (n = 358). Multivariate models were run on the full sample to examine the association between sexual assault and symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Results indicated that most survivors were assaulted by assailants well known to them and when the survivor and perpetrator were drinking alcohol. Very few survivors disclosed their experiences to formal sources of support. Survivors had significantly more symptoms of depression and were more likely to screen positive for PTSD than nonvictims. Further research on disclosure and its moderating role on the mental health consequences of sexual assault is needed.

Minority women victims of recent sexual violence: disparities in incident history

AIMS

The aims of this descriptive study were to (1) describe assault and care characteristics and (2) determine differences in assault and care characteristics between black women and white women who sought emergency care following sexual violence.

METHODS

A retrospective, cross-sectional design was used to examine forensic examination data characterizing the incident history reported by women victims of sexual violence at the time of a forensic nurse examination. Examinations occurred at an urban university-affiliated hospital emergency department (ED) over a 2-year period.

RESULTS

Of the women (n = 173) seeking care in the ED, 58.4% were black and 41.6% were white. When compared with white women, black women were more likely to have weapons used in their assaults (42.6% vs. 16.7%, p < 0.00) and to be assaulted in the city rather than the suburbs (82.8% vs. 56.5%, p < 0.00). In general, substance use prior to the assault was reported to have occurred in 49.1% of the victims and 41% of the assailants; however, differences existed in the type and pattern of substance use by race/ethnicity. Black victims were more likely to report use of illicit drugs (28.7% vs. 12.5%, p = 0.01). White women were more likely than black women to report personal alcohol use prior to their assault, with significant differences for drinking by victims (47.2% vs. 23.8%, p = 0.01) or assailant use of alcohol (47.2% vs. 23.8%, p = 0.00). White women were more likely than black women to report both they and the assailant had used some type of substance (38.9 vs. 21.8, p = 0.01). Black women were more likely to arrive to the ED via EMS services (45.5% vs. 29.2%, p = 0.03). There were no reported differences in care characteristics by race.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings from this study suggest that differences exist in assault characteristics between black and white women. Use of substances, including alcohol, plays an important role in sexual violence in women and should be a focus of preventive intervention initiatives when conducting a forensic examination. Both coordinated responses and comprehensive, individualized care by specially trained providers are important in the emergency care of minority women who are victims of recent sexual violence.

To Whom Do College Women Confide Following Sexual Assault? A Prospective Study of Predictors of Sexual Assault Disclosure and Social Reactions

A prospective methodology was used to explore predictors of sexual assault disclosure among college women, identify who women tell about sexual victimization, and examine the responses of informal support providers ( N = 374). Women most often confided in a female peer. Increased coping via seeking emotional support, strong attachments, and high tendency to disclose stressful information predicted adolescent sexual assault disclosure and disclosure over the 7-month interim. Less acquaintance with the perpetrator predicted disclosure over the follow-up, including experiences of revictimization. Victim and perpetrator alcohol use at the time of the assault also predicted disclosure over the follow-up. Implications are presented.

Examining the Relationship Among Self-Reported Assertiveness, Perceived Discrimination, and College Environment in a National Sample of Black Women Law Students

The purpose of our study was to examine college environment, defined as whether law students entered law school from a historically Black college or university or a traditionally White institution, as a moderator of the relationship between gender discrimination and assertiveness. Using a national sample of 402 incoming Black women law students and multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with covariates, the authors also tested whether college environment moderated the relationship between racial discrimination and assertiveness. CFA models with covariates were used to further investigate whether racial discrimination and gender discrimination interact to influence assertiveness. Results indicated that college environment did not moderate the relationship between gender discrimination and assertiveness. College environment also did not moderate the relationship between racial discrimination and assertiveness. Additional results revealed a significant interaction between racial and gender discrimination, whereby racial discrimination was positively related to assertiveness among students who experienced gender discrimination. Findings suggest that irrespective of college environment, racism and sexism intersect to enhance assertiveness and may increase students’ academic success. However, law school administrators should ultimately seek to reduce incidents of racism and sexism because students’ assertive responses could make them vulnerable to mental health risks and to further acts of discrimination.

Tough or Tender

Although intersectional theory and empirical evidence suggest that race impacts how women are perceived, there is a dearth of research on how the dominant culture stereotypes Black women compared to White women. The current study addresses this gap using an intersectional framework to investigate White college students' stereotypes of Black and White women. How these stereotypes fit with stereotypic images found in theoretical/empirical literature was also examined. Analyses of data from 109 White college students revealed that Black women were perceived in ways consistent with the Matriarch/Sapphire stereotypic image (e.g., strong and domineering). This image stands in contrast to current and previous perceptions of (White) women as affective and communal. The impact of the Matriarch/Sapphire image on Black women is likely mixed. Internalizing the strength aspect of the Matriarch/Sapphire could help Black women cope with the negative effects of racism, sexism, and classism. Conversely, being perceived as innately strong and domineering could increase the blame attributed to Black women who are survivors of sexual assault and/or domestic violence, limiting avenues of support and justice available to these women. It could also lead to a minimization of Black women’s mental and physical health problems. Interventions that educate professionals about the Matriarch/Sapphire image could help reduce its negative impact.

A Socioecological Model of Rape Survivors' Decisions to Aid in Case Prosecution

The purpose of our study was to identify factors underlying rape survivors' post-assault prosecution decisions by testing a decision model that included the complex relations between the multiple social ecological systems within which rape survivors are embedded. We coded 440 police rape cases for characteristics of the assault and characteristics of the rape survivor congruent with rape mythology. In addition, support from friends/family members, social service providers, and police were assessed. Path analysis, using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) that included a bias-corrected bootstrap resampling procedure, supported our model. As hypothesized, rape survivors' final decisions to aid in case prosecution were predicted by support from the three social ecologies: family/friends, social service providers, and police. Social service provider support, in turn, was predicted by assault characteristics congruent with rape mythology, whereas family/friend and police support were significantly predicted by the interaction between assault and survivor characteristics congruent with rape mythology. Our results show the value of applying a socioecological framework to help understand factors that influence rape survivors' prosecution decisions. Moreover, our results highlight the need to challenge commonly held views of “typical” rape survivors and the “typical” circumstances surrounding their assault.

Prevalence and impact of childhood maltreatment in incarcerated youth

The prevalence of childhood maltreatment and the magnitude of the association of maltreatment with internalizing mental health symptoms were examined in 398 incarcerated youth. The prevalence of abuse greatly exceeded general population rates. The proportion of variance in mental health symptoms accounted for by maltreatment was small but developmentally significant. Sexual abuse is a markedly stronger predictor of internalizing mental health problems in incarcerated youth than physical abuse. Consistent with a bio-psychological model of trauma, dissociation at the time of sexual abuse was the strongest nondemographic predictor of mental health symptoms. Physical abuse was associated with more internalizing mental health problems for children from families with mental health problems and families with lower socioeconomic status. Implications for practice and research are discussed.

Shattering silence: exploring barriers to disclosure for African American sexual assault survivors

National-, community-, and college-based studies have documented the high prevalence of sexual assault among African American women. Although African American women experience sexual assault at alarming rates, they are less likely to disclose or seek help in the aftermath of sexual assault. The purpose of this literature review is to provide a critique of the current literature examining the barriers to disclosure for African American women, such as intrapsychic factors, the damaging effect of an unsupportive response to initial disclosure, stigmatization of African American female sexuality, apprehension regarding racism, and racial loyalty. The authors provide a summary of the literature, gaps in current empirical studies, and needs for future study. Culturally relevant intervention recommendations are described. Finally, implications for sexual assault policy are provided.

Disclosure of sexual assault: characteristics and implications for posttraumatic stress symptoms among African American and caucasian survivors

Although the general trauma literature links disclosure of abuse to positive psychological and physical health outcomes, findings for sexual assault survivors are mixed. Supportive responses can reaffirm self-worth; however, negative responses can increase feelings of shame and isolation. This study examined the effects of disclosure in a community sample of Caucasian and African American sexual assault survivors who completed computer-assisted self-interviews. Among the 58.6% of survivors who had disclosed to someone (n = 136), 96% had disclosed to at least 1 informal and 24% at least 1 formal support provider. The experiences of African American and Caucasian survivors were similar in many ways. Participants received more positive than negative responses from others, although only negative responses were related to posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, and particularly so for African American participants. Regretting disclosure and disclosure to formal providers were also related to posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Suggestions are made for programs to decrease negative responses to disclosure.

Struggling to survive: sexual assault, poverty, and mental health outcomes of African American women

A substantial body of research documents the mental health consequences of sexual assault including, but not limited to, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, substance use, and suicidality. Far less attention has been given to the mental health effects of sexual assault for ethnic minority women or women living in poverty. Given African American women's increased risk for sexual assault and increased risk for persistent poverty, the current study explores the relationship between income and mental health effects within a sample of 413 African American sexual assault survivors. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that after controlling for childhood sexual abuse there were positive relationships between poverty and mental health outcomes of depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, and illicit drug use. There was no significant relationship between poverty and suicidal ideation. Counseling and research implications are discussed.

From the margins to the center: ethnic minority women and the mental health effects of sexual assault

The trauma of sexual assault is heightened for many women by the interlocking experience of societal traumas such as racism, sexism, and poverty. The mental health effects of sexual assault are mediated by race and ethnicity. The investigators explore the experiences of African American, Asian American, Latina, and Native American female survivors of sexual assault. The sociohistorical context of intergenerational trauma in the lives of ethnic minorities is a part of the context for the contemporary experience of sexualized violence. Racial and ethnic dynamics related to sexual assault prevalence, mental health effects, and disclosure are examined. Literature related to cultural beliefs, community attitudes, and perceived social support in relation to sexualized violence are also reviewed. Finally, practice, research, and policy implications are discussed.

Disclosing sexual assault to parents: the influence of parental messages about sex

Without frank discussion of what sex is, women may not learn what sex is not and what experiences constitute sexual assault. This qualitative study explores the relation between parental discussion and messages about sex and women's decisions of whether to disclose sexual assault to parents. Participants were 18 women from diverse ethnic backgrounds. Data were analyzed using a grounded theory approach. Findings indicate that women more often disclosed sexual assault to parents who discussed sex with them in a frank and positive manner. In addition to the role of disclosure in recovery, implications for sex and parent education are discussed.

To blame or not to blame: influences of target race and observer sex on rape blame attribution

There is a paucity of research on the influence of racist and sexist stereotypes in rape blame attribution, including the jezebel and matriarch stereotypes of Black women. This study extends the literature by examining how victim race, perpetrator race, and participant sex affect perceptions of a rape survivor's promiscuity (jezebel stereotype) and strength and/or toughness (matriarch stereotype). The myth of the Black male sexual predator of White women is also investigated. Data provided partial support for the jezebel stereotype. There were also contradictory findings supporting and challenging the acceptance of the Black rapist of White women stereotype. No significant differences were found for the matriarch stereotype. Reasons for and implications of findings are explored.

Being silenced: the impact of negative social reactions on the disclosure of rape

Rape survivors who speak out about their assault experiences are often punished for doing so when they are subjected to negative reactions from support providers. These negative reactions may thereby serve a silencing function, leading some rape survivors to stop talking about their experiences to anyone at all. The current study sought to examine this worst case scenario. Focusing on the qualitative narratives of eight rape survivors who initially disclosed the assault but then stopped disclosing for a significant period of time, this study sought to provide an in-depth description of how negative reactions silenced these survivors. Three routes to silence were identified: 1) negative reactions from professionals led survivors to question whether future disclosures would be effective; 2) negative reactions from friends and family reinforced feelings of self-blame; and 3) negative reactions from either source reinforced uncertainty about whether their experiences qualified as rape. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

Childhood sexual abuse among Black women and White women from two-parent families

Differences in childhood sexual abuse (CSA) between Black women and White women are explored in a community sample of 290 women raised in two-parent families.A self-administered questionnaire and a face-to-face interview assessed CSA characteristics, aftermath, and prevalence as well as family structure and other childhood variables. Siblings served as collateral informants for the occurrence of CSA. Overall, comparisons of the nature, severity, and aftermath of CSA showed similarities by race; some differences, for example, in age of onset, are potentially relevant for the planning of prevention programs. Logistic regression models examined effects of childhood variables on CSA prevalence. Initial analyses showed a higher CSA prevalence among Black women (34.1% [45] of Black women vs. 22.8% [36] of White women) that was attenuated when family structure (e.g., living with two biological parents throughout childhood or not) and social class were considered. Of interest, differences in family structure remained important even among these two-parent families. Understanding the dynamics of abuse by race and family structure will facilitate the design of more targeted CSA prevention programs.

After-rape among three populations in the Southwest: a time of mourning, a time for recovery

Narrative analysis of open-ended interviews with 62 female survivors of rape from three populations in the Southwest (Native American, Mexican American, Anglo) uncovered commonalities and dissimilarities in women's description of their experience of afterrape (rape survival). Although all three groups reported experiences that confirm aspects of prior analyses of reactions to rape, the narrative analysis highlights variations in reactions to rape across the three groups. These variations, and more established commonalities, provide baseline material for strengthening primary and secondary interventions for women who have experienced sexual violence.

Associations of social support and sex life--the HeSSup Study

The present study characterized the associations of three sex life issues (importance of, satisfaction with, and ease in talking about sex life) with social support and reciprocity. We utilised survey data of working-aged men and women (n = 21,101) from the population-based random sample of the Health and Social Support (HeSSup) Study (40% response). The respondents with abundant social support considered sex life important, were satisfied with it, and found it easy to talk about sex life more often than those with less social support. Social support in sex life offered by one's own spouse/partner was important particularly to women, not available from the other sources to the same extent. Friends functioned as significant positive sources of support in sex life particularly among women, but relatives did not. Mutual reciprocity was associated with favourable perceptions of sex life. Persons lacking established primary social support should have easy access to services.

Disclosure of date/acquaintance rape: who reports and when

OBJECTIVE

To estimates rates and correlates of disclosure of date/acquaintance rape or attempted rape and verbally coercive sex among a diverse sample of adolescent and young adult females.

DESIGN

Secondary data analysis of cross sectional data.

SETTING

Urban adolescent healthcare facility.

PARTICIPANTS

Adolescents who were identified as having experienced rape/attempted rape (n = 86) or verbally coerced sex (n = 68) in the last 12 months from study examining sexual violence.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Disclosure of forced sex (logistic regression) and the timing of disclosure (survival analysis).

INTERVENTIONS

None.

RESULTS

Almost 60% of victims who experienced rape/attempted rape disclosed this information to one or more individuals, whereas only 47% of those who experienced verbally coerced sex told another person. Multivariate analyses found that drinking by the partner (AOR = 4.6) and shorter dating history (AOR = 6.3) were associated with disclosure of rape/attempted rape; timing of this disclosure was facilitated by Caucasian ethnicity (RR = 3.5), having a dating partner who drank > or = 1 drinks (RR = 2.5), and the perpetrator being someone other than the victim's boyfriend or partner (RR = 2.5). With regards to verbally coerced sex, reporting no pressure to use alcohol (AOR = 10.7) was the only factor associated with disclosure. No significant predictors of timing to disclosure were detected for this type of victimization.

CONCLUSIONS

Perpetrator's alcohol use and a shorter dating history are important variables associated with disclosure of rape/attempted rape as well as timing to disclosure. Factors affecting the disclosure of verbally coerced sex and the latency associated with disclosure are less well defined.

Conceptualizing the harm done by rape: applications of trauma theory to experiences of sexual assault

Based on a review of theory and evidence, this article highlights the limitations of trauma response models and applications of posttraumatic stress to characterize the experiences of women who are raped. There are two primary problems with trauma response theories. First, traditional notions of trauma are likely too narrow to accurately capture the complexities of women's experiences of sexual violence in a gendered society. Second, the symptoms emphasized by clinical applications of the trauma model may legitimate one sociocultural manifestation of distress while excluding others. Alternative conceptualizations are presented to stimulate more ecologically grounded and culturally inclusive study of sexual violence. Using the rape of women as an example, this article illustrates the limitations of Western views of trauma and encourages researchers and practitioners to expand notions of survivors' responses to painful events.

Immediate and delayed treatment seeking among adult sexual assault victims

There is a growing body of literature which seeks to better understand the needs of sexual assault victims presenting for specialized treatment. This study explored aspects of immediate and delayed treatment seeking among 1118 women who presented for treatment to a specialized sexual assault care centre within a large urban hospital. Variables related to demographic and assault-specific characteristics were examined for association with immediate (within 12 hours) or delayed (after 12 hours) treatment seeking. Results indicate the severity of the attack prompted women to seek treatment earlier and that women who were assaulted by a known perpetrator were more likely to delay seeking assistance. Findings are conceptualized under the rubric of sociological and feminist frameworks with suggestions for additional research.