Psychometric properties of a Mandarin Chinese version of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 among Chinese adolescents

In the present study, we explored the factor structure and psychometric properties of the Mandarin Chinese BAS-2 among adolescents residing in the Chinese mainland. Exploratory factor analysis in Study 1 (N = 790; 396 girls, 394 boys) supported the unidimensionality of the Mandarin Chinese BAS-2 among Chinese adolescents. Internal consistency reliability was upheld via McDonald's omega. Convergent validity was supported by its moderate-to-strong relationships with body satisfaction, functionality satisfaction, self-esteem, life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect, while its small-to-moderate correlation with social desirability provided somewhat weaker discriminant validity support. Criterion-related validity was upheld by its inverse correlation with eating disorder symptomatology and positive correlation with intuitive eating. It explained unique variance in self-esteem (for girls and boys), eating disorder symptomatology (for girls), and intuitive eating (for boys) beyond age, body satisfaction, and functionality satisfaction, providing incremental validity evidence. A subsample of 134 girls and 114 boys completed the Mandarin Chinese BAS-2 again after three months, and test-retest reliability was upheld. The confirmatory factor analysis in Study 2 (N = 337; 192 girls, 145 boys) replicated the unidimensional structure and supported measurement invariance across gender. Collectively, the present study supported the unidimensionality, reliability, and validity of the Mandarin Chinese BAS-2's scores among Chinese adolescents.

A comparison of functionality, rumination, and distraction tasks on women's state body image and mood after idealised media exposure

Writing tasks that encourage an appreciation of body functionality can improve women's body image and may buffer against negative effects of idealised media exposure. However, no research has examined whether these tasks can serve as a coping strategy after idealised exposure. To this end, young adult women (N = 217, Mage = 21.63) recruited from an Australian university and general community completed a writing task after idealised media exposure, with state body image measures taken at baseline, post-exposure, and post-task. Women were randomly allocated to one of three writing tasks and asked to appreciate their body functionality, to focus on the previously viewed images (rumination), or to describe a frequently travelled route (distraction). Improvements on outcome measures were equally found across both the functionality and distraction condition. Only body appreciation uniquely improved in the functionality condition. The functionality task was rated more helpful but also more challenging. These findings add to the evidence base regarding the usefulness of functionality-based writing tasks for improving women's body image. They can offer immediate benefits when experiencing body image distress, as can distraction, and future research should explore their utility in driving more sustained and deeper ways of engaging with one's body long-term.

The impact of fitspiration comments on adult women's body dissatisfaction and negative affect

The present study examined the impact of writing different types of comments in response to fitspiration (fitness inspiration) images on women's body dissatisfaction and negative affect. Women (N = 256) from the general population (age range: 18 to 49) were randomized to write one of three types of comments on the same fitspiration images: appearance (comment on the woman's appearance), functionality (comment on what the woman's body can do), or background (comment on the image background). Participants completed measures of state body dissatisfaction and negative affect pre- and post-exposure and measures of appearance comparison and functionality appreciation post-exposure. After controlling for pre-body dissatisfaction due to a baseline difference among groups, there was no difference among groups in body dissatisfaction at post-exposure. Negative affect decreased from pre- to post-exposure across all groups, but there was no difference by group or interaction by time and group. The background group reported lower state appearance comparison than the appearance group. There were no group differences in functionality appreciation. Our results suggest that commenting on image backgrounds might decrease appearance comparison relative to making appearance comments and that writing comments on appearance, functionality, or the background in response to fitspiration may be beneficial for mood.

The effect of appearance and functionality concerns, and weight status, on negative body image mental health literacy in women

Few studies have investigated community knowledge and beliefs about negative body image. Yet, low rates of recognition and help-seeking for body image concerns have been reported. Given the prevalence of body image problems and associated mental health risks in women, the current online study investigated negative body image mental health literacy in 260 women aged 18 to 64 years recruited via Prolific. The mental health literacy paradigm was employed in a 2 × 2 experimental design in which the effect of a target's domain of body image concern (appearance versus body functionality) and weight status ("normal weight" versus "overweight") was assessed on problem recognition, beliefs, and help-seeking recommendations. Overall, low symptom recognition was observed, and ratings for beliefs and help-seeking suggested low levels of stigma. However, significantly greater sympathy and lifestyle support recommendations were observed in the overweight compared to normal weight condition, and a domain × weight interaction suggested significantly fewer negative emotional reactions in the appearance overweight condition compared to appearance normal weight, and functionality overweight, conditions. The findings suggest a need for education about body image independent of weight status in women. Future research would benefit from examining diverse samples, broader functionality concerns, and stigma.

Positive Body Image and Psychological Wellbeing among Women and Men: The Mediating Role of Body Image Coping Strategies

This study aimed to examine the mediating role of body image coping strategies in the relationship between positive body image and wellbeing. Three hundred and seventy-two women and three hundred and seventy-seven men completed a questionnaire assessing body appreciation, body appreciation functionality, body compassion, body image coping strategies (appearance fixing, avoidance, positive rational acceptance), self-acceptance and overall psychological wellbeing. Path analysis showed that avoidance significantly mediated the relationship between body appreciation and overall psychological wellbeing among both women and men; its mediating role was confirmed for men's but not for women's self-acceptance. Positive rational acceptance was a significant mediator of the relationship between body compassion and both psychological wellbeing and self-acceptance among men but not among women. These findings show that higher body appreciation is associated with a lower tendency to avoid appearance-related cognitions or thoughts that are interpreted as threatening, with an indirect effect on women's and men's psychological wellbeing. Analogously, but only for men, body compassion is associated with mental activities and self-care behaviors that foster rational self-talk and the acceptance of one's experiences, which, in turn, are linked to higher wellbeing. These findings can help to plan programs aimed at fostering individuals' wellbeing by focusing on their positive body image considering gender differences.

Physical attributes of workout instructors and appearance-related messaging in a sample of home workout videos on YouTube: A content analysis

Given the popularity of home workouts and effects of exposure to media messaging regarding appearance ideals, the purpose of this analysis was to examine the content of YouTube home workout videos. A sample of 298 YouTube home workout videos was coded for demographic factors and body shape of instructors and the presence of body positivity messaging, appearance-related messaging, and other relevant themes. All videos in the sample included detailed instructions and demonstrations of the exercises by instructors. The majority of the videos depicted young White women with low body fat and thin/athletic bodies with visible muscles. Instructors often focused on burning fat/calories but also emphasized body functionality, exercising for fun/enjoyment, and the importance of taking care of one's body. Overall, findings demonstrate that workout instructors on YouTube conformed to unrealistic, narrowly defined appearance ideals present in Western culture, but the messaging in the videos contained many positive and affirming qualities.

Negative body image mental health literacy in women: Exploring aesthetic and functional concerns and the role of self-objectification

Despite its high prevalence in women, few studies have examined lay knowledge and beliefs about negative body image. Yet, studies applying mental health literacy to body image problems suggest recognition of appearance concerns is poor, which could impede help-seeking. The present study extended previous work by investigating problem recognition, beliefs and help-seeking for aesthetic and functional (physical ability focused) body image concerns in women, and the role of self-objectification in help-seeking. A within-subjects online survey design employing the mental health literacy paradigm was undertaken in a sample of 210 female-identifying adults residing in Australia (Mage = 31.25, SD = 12.76). Overall, results indicated that recognition of body image problems depicted via fictional text vignettes was limited. Moreover, recognition, as well as ratings of perceived prevalence, distress, sympathy, affective reactions, and help-seeking recommendations and intentions, were significantly greater for aesthetic compared to functional body image concerns. Self-objectification displayed significant negative associations with help-seeking recommendations for aesthetic (but not functional) concerns, and was not associated with help-seeking intentions. Findings suggest that negative body image mental health literacy is poor in women, particularly in relation to body functionality. More research is needed to facilitate help-seeking and reduce the impact of body image concerns in women.

An experimental investigation of whether body-positive messaging on fitspiration and diverse images can improve state body image in women

Viewing body-positive content on social media can benefit women's body image. Previous research has conceptualised body positivity broadly, and therefore it remains unclear whether some components are more useful than others. This study examined the impact of body appreciation or body functionality messages (in addition to a mixed condition) overlaid across different image types to influence women's body image. Young women (17-30 years, Mage= 21.53, N = 308) completed an online survey in which they were randomised to view either fitspiration or diverse images overlaid with messaging focusing on body appreciation, body functionality, or a combination. Participants completed pre- and post-test measures of appearance and functionality satisfaction, body appreciation, and body objectification / conceptualisation. Post-test measures of social comparison and perceptions of models were also taken. Results showed that message type did not interact with image type. Rather, exposure to diverse images increased appearance satisfaction and body appreciation, with no changes to functionality satisfaction (vs a decrease for the fitspiration condition). All conditions improved in self-objectification. Further, diverse images resulted in more favourable social comparisons. Our findings consider body positive content in a controlled way and show no differences across body appreciation or body functionality themes.

Developing a definition of body neutrality and strategies for an intervention

The aim of this study was to provide a definition for body neutrality and understand the key strategies recommended to improve body neutrality for testing in future interventions. There is minimal academic literature on body neutrality and thus this study focused on examining websites where the concept has been discussed for some time. This was achieved using a realist synthesis of websites and a common elements approach to extract the key definition elements of body neutrality, strategies to improve body neutrality, in addition to the common critiques of both the body positivity and body neutrality movements. The initial search found 175 websites, of which 107 were included in the final synthesis, and common elements analysis followed after removal of duplicates and ineligible websites. Three elements, with several sub-elements, best operationalised the definition of body neutrality. Six strategies were found for development of a body neutrality intervention. This innovative study paves the way for rigorous evaluation of body neutrality. Recommendations for future work are provided, including the use of current measures, creating a new measure, and evaluating prevention and intervention programs including Single Session Interventions (SSIs).

Women's response to, awareness of, and interest in body functionality content on Instagram

Body functionality is an emerging positive body image construct which may help women value what their body can do, rather than how it looks. In this online experimental study, we examined women's responses to functionality content on Instagram. Young women (N = 318, M_age =22.19) viewed one of four types of Instagram posts: functionality text and images, functionality text overlaid on fitspiration images, standard fitspiration images, or cityscapes. They completed pre- and post-test state measures of appearance and functionality satisfaction and self-care intent, and post-test social comparison. Familiarity with contemporary social media trends and interest in functionality content were also assessed. Surprisingly, appearance and functionality satisfaction were highest after viewing the functionality and functionality with fitspiration images. Social comparison did not differ between conditions. Women were familiar with body positive concepts, except body functionality, although they expressed interest in this content. We conclude body functionality content would be useful to include in women's social media feeds.

TikTok on the clock but the #fitspo don't stop: The impact of TikTok fitspiration videos on women's body image concerns

Fitspiration is a popular social media trend that aims to inspire individuals to improve their health and fitness through diet and exercise. However, viewing fitspiration content on Instagram has been identified as a contributor to negative body image, especially for young women. With the growing popularity of the video sharing platform TikTok and concerns over its content, the present study aimed to experimentally examine the effect of exposure to fitspiration TikTok videos on young women's body dissatisfaction, appearance comparison and mood. The roles of state appearance comparison as a mediator and trait fit ideal internalisation as a moderator were also considered. Young women (18-25, N = 120) from Australia were randomly allocated to view a set of fitspiration videos or a set of art control videos from TikTok. Results indicated that exposure to fitspiration TikTok videos increased state appearance comparison and state negative mood relative to art TikTok videos but did not directly increase state body dissatisfaction. State appearance comparison significantly mediated the effect of TikTok videos on body dissatisfaction and mood, however, there was no moderating effect of trait fit ideal internalisation. These findings highlight the importance of state appearance comparison in relation to viewing fitspiration content on TikTok.

Is a female physical empowerment campaign effective in improving positive body image, motivation for physical activity, and physical activity behavior in young female adults? A two-study experimental test of "This Girl Can"

This Girl Can is a campaign designed to empower women to increase physical activity. The campaign uses images/videos of women of diverse body weights/shapes, ages and ethnicities being physically active, emphasizing body functionality. First, we examined the effects of multi-session (N = 3) exposures to This Girl Can on body functionality, body appreciation and self-compassion (Study 1). Second, we explored if autonomous motivation for physical activity mediated effects of This Girl Can on physical activity (Study 2). Women (Study 1: N = 186, M (SD) age = 27.55 (14.01); Study 2: N = 153, M (SD) age = 28.31 (11.70)) were randomized to This Girl Can, or control videos/images depicting idealized women of thin/athletic body types being physically active (Study 1), or control videos highlighting physical activity benefits (Study 2). Outcomes were measured at baseline, post-test and 1-week follow-up. Study 1 results showed significant group by time interactions for body functionality (decreasing in the control group), body appreciation and self-compassion (both increased only in the experimental conditions). In Study 2, path analysis revealed no statistically significant mediation effect (ab = 13.18, 95 % CI [-107.92, 152.59]) of autonomous motivation. Future interventions designed to promote positive body image and self-compassion should incorporate media focusing on diverse women engaging in self-chosen physical activity.

Exploring the impact of a gratitude-focused meditation on body dissatisfaction: Can a brief auditory gratitude intervention protect young women against exposure to the thin ideal?

This study aimed to determine if a brief gratitude-focused meditation would significantly impact body dissatisfaction, and whether it would serve as a protective factor from exposure to thin idealized images in a sample of undergraduate women. 176 participants (M_age= 19.75) engaged in either a gratitude meditation, mindfulness meditation, or listened to a recording of a history textbook. Women were subsequently exposed to a set of neutral images or thin ideal images. Women reported significant decreases in state body dissatisfaction following all auditory conditions, regardless of auditory content. Decreased levels of body dissatisfaction persisted through exposure to neutral images, but not through exposure to thin ideal images. Results indicated that both the gratitude and mindfulness interventions were effective in eliciting a significant increase in self-reported levels of gratitude and mindfulness compared to controls. The results of the study suggest that auditory micro-interventions can decrease body dissatisfaction in young adult women. However, further investigation into the optimal modality, length, and frequency of micro-interventions aimed at buffering the negative effects of idealized thin image exposure on women is needed.

#Bopo: Enhancing body image through body positive social media- evidence to date and research directions

Body positive content aims to disrupt the monopoly of idealized appearance-focused media and encourage individuals to adopt a positive stance towards their body by increasing diversity and inclusiveness and rejecting harmful appearance ideals. This paper provides an historical context for the body positivity movement, discusses the presence and characteristics of the online body positivity movement, presents evidence of its relationship to body image, and finally offers directions for future research. Findings provide initial support for the potential for body positive social media content to be beneficial for body image, and lower state appearance comparison has received support as a mechanism underpinning these effects. However, efforts to identify individual-level moderators have met with less success, and the research is somewhat confined to comparative effects with idealized social media content, and young women. Additional work to bridge the gaps in the extant data is needed. In particular, expanding the understanding of which types of body positive social media content can be most helpful to both prevent and decrease body image concerns and promote positive body image using a layered lens that considers the interactions of the individual, their context, and the type of body positive social media content will be most fruitful.

Improving Body Satisfaction Through Fitness App Use: Explicating the Role of Social Comparison, Social Network Size, and Gender

Body dissatisfaction is prevalent worldwide, fueling the highly lucrative diet and plastic surgery industry, with many adverse outcomes. Yet, limited attention has been dedicated to noninvasive interventions that effectively enhance body satisfaction. We argue that, by altering the target of the social comparison process, people can shift their focus from body appearance to physical activity level. The present study investigated whether social comparison in terms of physical activity level provided by fitness apps could affect users' body satisfaction. A survey was conducted with 643 users of WeRun, the Chinese leading mobile fitness app. Subsequent analyses revealed that both upward and downward social comparison mediated the positive relationship between fitness app use and body satisfaction. Moreover, the users' social network size and gender played a moderating role in the social comparison processes. Fitness app use was positively related to downward comparison for male users; social network size moderated the relationship between fitness app use and upward comparison for female users. The utility of fitness apps in mitigating body dissatisfaction is also discussed.

Broad conceptualisations of beauty do not moderate women's responses to body positive content on instagram

Body positive content on Instagram may act as an antidote to the frequent depictions of thin and digitally modified images of women. Body positivity challenges narrow ideals by promoting diverse appearances and encouraging body appreciation. We examined the effects of congruent body positive messaging (unedited images of a diverse range of women presented with and without body acceptance captions) on state body image. This was the first study to investigate the moderating role of trait broad conceptualisation of beauty; a core component of body positive content and theories. Women 18-30 years (N = 233) were randomly assigned to view Instagram images of diverse women (e.g., varied body sizes, shapes, skin colour), either presented with or without body positive captions, or cityscape images. Pre- and post-test measures were taken of state body appreciation, appearance satisfaction, and positive mood, in addition to social comparison measures. Body appreciation and positive mood increased in all conditions. Appearance satisfaction only increased in the body positive conditions, with a larger effect size in the caption condition. Holding broad conceptualisations of beauty did not moderate findings. Captions did not change direction or amount of social comparison. Findings suggest that congruent body positive content may increase appearance satisfaction in viewers.

Practice or performance? A content analysis of yoga-related videos on Instagram

Representations of yoga within media have become increasingly idealised, depicting typical practitioners as young, thin, and physically competent. While previous content analyses of yoga have focused on still images, social media platforms such as Instagram encourage the use of video to enhance viewer engagement. Video may contain features which reflect a more nuanced view of the body, and therefore the current study analysed 400 women in yoga-related videos on Instagram for appearance characteristics, body conceptualisation, yoga pose type, risk, and perceived intention. The vast majority of women were perceived to be in their 20s and thin or athletic. Only 13.2 % of women showed average visible levels of body fat, while more than a third displayed visible muscularity across multiple muscle groups. There was little presence of objectification with the majority of women in active poses, though more than 60 % of poses/sequences were advanced and potentially risky. The vast majority of videos appeared to be for the purpose of demonstrating skill rather than instructing the viewer. The findings show that videos on Instagram perpetuate unrealistic appearance ideals in yoga and also provide a platform for content creators to engage viewers by representing yoga as a highly performative, predominantly advanced physical activity.

#Take idealized bodies out of the picture: A scoping review of social media content aiming to protect and promote positive body image

Much evidence has highlighted detrimental effects of social media on body image, and attention has turned towards identifying content that could support and promote positive body image. This study aimed to conduct a scoping review of the emerging evidence focused on social media content that might support positive body image. A total of n = 35 studies (21 experimental) examining social media were identified along with n = 11 studies not specifically focusing on social media but with clear implications. Overall, findings suggest that images that do not portray individuals are most helpful for body image, as well as those portraying appearances diverging from appearance ideals. Our review also identifies types of social media content that have so far not been found to protect body image, and those not sufficiently evaluated. Regarding textual captions and comments, the most promising avenue involves highlighting the contrived and unrealistic nature of social media content. However, empirical data are limited and not robust. Body acceptance-related statements have so far not been found to be helpful for body image, and findings regarding the usefulness of using social marketing strategies (such as hashtags) to identify content that may be more realistic is nascent and conflicted.

Body Compassion Scale

Abstract. Background: In recent years, body image research has focused on the aspects of positive body image ( Smolak & Cash, 2011 ). This represents an important change in this area from a primary focus on negative body image to a comprehensive exploration of the body image concept. Aims: Validation of measures to help understand the positive and healthy characteristics of body image is therefore particularly important. The Body Compassion Scale (BCS; Altman, Linfield, et al., 2017 ) is a self-report scale aimed at measuring how compassionate one feels toward one’s own body. This study is a validation of BCS to confirm its factor structure and to assess its reliability and validity. Method: The 23-item scale was translated into Italian and presented to a sample of 695 Italian women. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was performed to examine the factor structure of the Italian version of the BCS. Results: Results were largely comparable to those obtained for the original English version of the BCS. The three-factor structure was largely replicated and expected associations with body dissatisfaction, psychological inflexibility, and psychological well-being were found. Limitations: BCS reliability was assessed only in terms of internal consistency; a longitudinal research design could be useful to assess the test-retest reliability. It would also be important for future research to study body compassion in different populations. Conclusion: This scale could be a useful measure for structured psychological interventions aimed at promoting a positive body image, but also in empirical research to obtain information on how individuals relate to their bodies.

Real beauty: Effects of a body-positive video on body image and capacity to mitigate exposure to social media images

OBJECTIVE

Recent industry-created social marketing campaigns have targeted positive body image; however, research investigating the effects of such social media campaigns on body image has largely neglected non-Western English-speaking groups. This study explored the effects on body image of a video produced by Dove for a Japanese audience 'Real Beauty ID', and its capacity to modify the effects of subsequent exposure to celebrity social media images of young women.

METHOD

Young women from Japan (n = 568), mean age (SD) = 25.38 (3.52) years, were randomly allocated to view either the Dove Real Beauty ID video, or a control video, followed by exposure to celebrity social media images (female celebrities or landscapes). Finally, participants reported on state and trait appearance-based comparisons, thin ideal internalization, body appreciation, and media similarity scepticism.

RESULTS

Among participants with high levels of thin ideal internalization, those who viewed the Dove Real Beauty ID video reported significantly lower satisfaction with body and facial features, as well as more negative mood (p < .05) compared with the control video. Little support emerged for the capacity of the Dove Real Beauty ID video to modify the effects of exposure to celebrity social media images, nor were these effects moderated by risk and resilience factors.

CONCLUSIONS

In sum, no usefulness emerged for the Dove Real Beauty ID video in promoting positive body image, and limited usefulness was seen in buffering the effects of exposure to celebrity social media images among Japanese young women. Given the reach of such interventions, exploring whether interventions that are culturally adapted and theoretically driven are more helpful is warranted.

Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Words? Using Photo-Elicitation to Study Body Image in Middle-to-Older Age Women With and Without Multiple Sclerosis

In this study, we explored how women with varying relationships to disability and aging used photographs to represent their body image experiences. Seven middle-aged and older adult women with and without multiple sclerosis were asked to provide up to 10 photographs that represented their body image and complete a one-on-one interview. We used reflexive thematic analysis to develop themes and interpret the findings. Overall, the women expressed not only complicated relationships with their bodies, represented through symbolism, scrutiny of body features (e.g., posture, varicose veins, and arthritis) but also deep reflection linked to positive body image and resilience. These findings revealed not only the nuanced experiences women have with aging, disability, and gender but also the commonly experienced ingrained views of body appearance as each participant illustrated a difficult negotiation with the aesthetic dimension of their body image. Finally, we provide important implications of the use of visual methods in body image research.

Framing real beauty: A framing approach to the effects of beauty advertisements on body image and advertising effectiveness

Current literature is inconsistent about the effects of idealized (i.e., thin) vs. non-idealized (i.e., average or plus-size) models on young women's well-being. This inconsistency may be explained by different frames (i.e., passive body, active body, and subject) surrounding beauty ad models. The current experimental study among 568 women aged 18-30 years (M = 21.45, SD = 1.84) tested the effects of differently framed ads featuring idealized vs. non-idealized models on well-being and ad effectiveness while taking into account the mediating role of cognitive schemas and moderating role of thin-ideal internalization. Results showed that a passive body frame generated more appearance schemas compared to a subject frame. The effects of framing on body functionality schemas operated differently for idealized vs. non-idealized models. The passive body frame also induced inferior ad outcomes (i.e., lower attitudes to the advertisement and brand and lower purchase intent) compared to an active body frame. No other main framing effects nor moderating effects of thin-ideal internalization were found. These results for advertising outcomes can encourage beauty brands to stop using typical objectifying ads.

The effectiveness of positive appearance and functionality reflective writing tasks on state body image and response to idealised media exposure among 35-60 year-old women

Functionality and appearance-based reflective writing tasks can improve body image in young women. There is limited research investigating these tasks in mature women. This study tested (a) the effectiveness of writing tasks on women's state body image and (b) whether these tasks buffered responses to idealised media. Women (N = 240, M_age = 44.58) were randomly allocated to write about the positive aspects of their body functionality, their appearance, or their stress management techniques. They were then exposed to images of cities, or thin-ideal models presented in either posed or active ways. Body appreciation, appearance satisfaction, and functionality satisfaction were measured at pre-reflection, post-reflection, and post-image exposure. Social comparison was measured at post-image. The functionality writing task produced immediate improvements across all state measures, while the positive appearance and stress reflection tasks produced improvements in functionality satisfaction. Image exposure then produced a decrease across all measures, except for body appreciation which remained stable in women who had completed the functionality reflections. No difference in social comparison was found between reflection conditions. The active images resulted in more functionality-based comparison than posed images. These findings contribute to the literature showing benefits of writing tasks which focus on appreciating one's body functionality.

"I appreciate your body, because…" Does promoting positive body image to a friend affect one's own positive body image?

Research has shown that individuals with a positive body image promote positive body image to others, yet also have close others who unconditionally accept their body and feel positively about their own body, too. This mutual interdependence between the individual and the environment with respect to positive body image has been termed reciprocity. Inspired by this research, we investigated whether promoting positive body image to others leads to improvements in one's own positive body image. To do so, undergraduate women (N = 154) were randomised to write a letter to a friend, expressing either appreciation for their friend's body functionality (experimental group) or appreciation for their shared memories (control group). Participants completed pretest and posttest measures of state functionality appreciation and state body appreciation, and filler items. Unexpectedly, there were no group differences in state functionality appreciation and state body appreciation. Instead, participants within both groups experienced medium to large improvements in state functionality appreciation and state body appreciation. To our knowledge, this is the first study to test the effects of promoting positive body image to others. Future research can shed further light on the effects of promoting positive body image to others in particular, and on the phenomenon of reciprocity more broadly.

Does body appreciation or satisfaction buffer against idealised functionality-focused images of models?

Research suggests that greater levels of body appreciation and body satisfaction may protect women from negative outcomes when viewing media images of the thin-ideal. In this study, we compared the effectiveness of body appreciation and body satisfaction in ameliorating negative effects from viewing images of the traditional thin-ideal and the newer functional-ideal (i.e., models presented in active stances with a focus on the function of their body). A sample of 122 women (M_age = 24.43 years) from a regional university and the general community was recruited to complete an online study. Participants were randomly allocated to view images of models presented in either an active or posed stance, or images of scenery. Participants completed pre- and post-test measures of appearance and functionality satisfaction, as well as trait measures of body appreciation and satisfaction. Results showed that women had poorer outcomes after viewing the active but not the posed or scenery images. Neither body appreciation nor body satisfaction moderated effects. Active, functional images may be particularly insidious and further research is needed to identify effective protective strategies.

Body functionality: A review of the literature

Body functionality describes everything that the body is able to do, across diverse domains (e.g., bodily senses, creative endeavours). Nearly a decade ago, leading scholars identified research on body functionality as a priority for the body image field. The field has responded, as shown by the recent rise of body functionality research. We considered this an opportune time to (a) define body functionality (what it is and is not); (b) present theoretical frameworks of body functionality; (c) articulate first-generation and current measures relating to body functionality; (d) offer functionality-focused body image interventions that can improve appreciation for one's body functionality (and body image more broadly); (e) summarise additional areas of research related to body functionality and positive body image; and (f) provide considerations and directions for future research and interventions incorporating body functionality. Research has underscored body functionality as a valuable construct with respect to positive body image and well-being, particularly when individuals appreciate what their bodies can do and conceptualise their body functionality holistically. Yet, the experience of body functionality is nuanced across social identities. Overall, the field has greatly advanced knowledge about body functionality, and we are excited to see the next generation of research that emerges.

Sociocultural pressure: a model of body dissatisfaction for young women

The aim of the study was to verify the influence of pressure from sociocultural agents on dissatisfaction with face and body in young women mediated by the internalization of the lean and muscular body and to identify the contribution of individual characteristics to this model. A total of 612 university female students participated of study. The students completed the Portuguese versions of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-4 and of the Body Area Scale-Revised and a sociodemographic questionnaire. A hypothetical model was constructed using structural equation modeling to test the relationship between the variables. The model fit and the significance of the hypothetical paths were verified. The results provide evidence that the greater the pressure of sociocultural agents and the internalization of the lean body, the more women were dissatisfied with body and face appearance. The media contributed to a greater internalization of the muscular body, which reduced the body dissatisfaction. The practice of physical activity and a higher economic level contributed to a greater internalization of the muscular body, which reduced body dissatisfaction. A higher economic level also influenced the internalization of the lean body and increased the dissatisfaction with face and body. A higher body mass index contributed to a greater pressure from sociocultural agents, greater internalization of the lean body, and greater dissatisfaction with body and face. The relationships identified in the model can contribute to the development of strategies aimed at reducing body dissatisfaction and eating disorders in the population, such as body acceptance.

The impact of body diversity vs thin-idealistic media messaging on health outcomes: an experimental study

The recent rise in body dissatisfaction and weight bias has led to a call to the media to increase the diversity of their imagery, in efforts to challenge the thin-ideal. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of both body diversity and thin-ideal interventions on health outcomes. Female participants (n = 160) were randomly allocated into an intervention group: body diversity; thin-ideal; control. They completed measures of body satisfaction, body compassion, internalisation of the thin-ideal, weight bias and behavioural intentions at baseline and post-intervention. The results showed significant differences between groups for weight bias and intentions to eat healthily. Specifically, those in the body diversity intervention group reported a greater reduction in weight bias compared to the other conditions. Further, those in the thin-ideal intervention group reported a greater increase in intentions to eat healthily compared to the other conditions. There were no differences between groups for body satisfaction, body compassion, internalisation of the thin-ideal and behavioural intentions to exercise and manage weight. In conclusion, exposure to body diversity images reduced weight bias whereas exposure to the thin-ideal promoted intentions towards healthy eating. These findings therefore offer empirical evidence for the impact of using different types of imagery to change different health outcomes.

Are We There Yet? Progress in Depicting Diverse Images of Beauty in Instagram's Body Positivity Movement

As the literature on the narrowly defined standards of beauty portrayed in social media has increased, a newer focus on body positivity messages has also emerged. Body positivity challenges the unrealistic standards of beauty present in the media by the promotion and acceptance of diverse body sizes and appearances. In an effort to further understand the messages of body positivity in social media, this study examined the content of 246 body positive posts from the broad Instagram community. Results demonstrated an inclusion and appreciation of diverse physical appearances, as well as themes consistent with messages promoting body positivity. In contrast to content on popular body positivity accounts, several of the posts from the broader Instagram community did, however, contain contradictory messages, such as the promotion of weight loss or the praise of extreme thinness. Future research examining such contradictory messages in body positivity posts and their effects on body image and other related domains is warranted.

The effects of yoga on functionality appreciation and additional facets of positive body image

This study investigated the effects of yoga on functionality appreciation, and the potential mechanisms that could explain the impact of yoga on additional facets of positive body image. Young adult women (N = 114; M_age = 22.19) were randomised to a 10-week Hatha yoga programme or waitlist control group. Participants completed measures of functionality appreciation, body appreciation, body compassion, appearance evaluation, self-objectification, and embodiment at Pretest, Midtest, Posttest, and 1-month Follow-Up. Follow-up data could not be analysed due to high levels of attrition. The remaining data showed that, compared to the control group, women in the yoga programme experienced lower self-objectification at Midtest and greater embodiment over time. Further, all participants experienced improvements in body appreciation, body compassion, and appearance evaluation over time, regardless of their assigned group. Lower self-objectification contributed to improvements in body appreciation and body compassion. In addition, greater embodiment contributed to improvements in body appreciation, body compassion, and appearance evaluation. Contrary to our expectations, yoga did not lead to increased functionality appreciation, nor was functionality appreciation a mediator of the impact of yoga on positive body image. Instead, lower self-objectification, and greater embodiment, drove improvements in positive body image.

The effect of thin and average-sized models on women's appearance and functionality satisfaction: Does pose matter?

Idealised imagery depicting the functionality of a model's body (e.g., in fitness contexts) can trigger negative effects in viewers similar to, or worse than, traditionally posed images of models. Thus far, most of this research has been conducted on images of thin models. Building upon previous research, we examined the effect of pose (active versus posed) and body size (thin versus average-sized) on women's body satisfaction. In an online study, 379 women aged 17-30 years completed pre-test measures of appearance and functionality satisfaction before viewing models across one of five conditions: Thin Posed, Thin Active, Average Posed, Average Active, or Scenery images. Post-test measures were taken of body satisfaction and social comparison across appearance and functionality domains. Planned contrasts showed that exposure to thin models produced poorer appearance and functionality satisfaction and more upward comparison than exposure to average-sized models or scenery. Model pose was important only when the model had an average body size. Images of active average-sized models produced poorer appearance satisfaction and triggered more upward functionality-based comparison than when the average-sized models were posed. These findings suggest that although the thinness of the model is influential, how the body is presented can also affect satisfaction and comparison.

The protective role of self-compassion for women's positive body image: an open replication and extension

The development and maintenance of positive body image in women may be disrupted by sociocultural appearance-related pressures. Therefore, it is critical to explore factors that may safeguard women's positive body image. A recent study by Homan and Tylka (2015) found that in a large sample (N = 263) of female MTurk workers and university-aged women, both appearance-contingent self-worth and body-based social comparisons were linked to less positive body image, but these links were attenuated in the face of high self-compassion. This research, an independent direct replication of the original study, supported the original findings. In a new, larger sample (N = 363 female-identified MTurk workers), signals were detected that were similar in size and magnitude to the original study. Specifically, while appearance-contingent self-worth and body-based social comparisons were negatively linked to body appreciation, those who endorsed higher levels of self-compassion reported a more positive body image, even in the presence of these potential threats. Findings are extended to eating- and exercise-based social comparisons. All materials, including the replication protocol, data management plan, dataset, SPSS syntax, and output are publicly available on the Open Science Framework at: https://osf.io/r274y/. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Effectiveness of a multi-session positive self, appearance, and functionality program on women's body satisfaction and response to media

Women's relationship with their bodies may be improved through activities which encourage them to focus on the positive elements of their appearance, the functional qualities of their body, and positive aspects of themselves in general. This study examined the effectiveness a multi-session program addressing these elements. Across two online sessions, 117 Australian women (M_age = 23.48) completed writing tasks about the positive elements of their appearance, body functionality, and who they are as a person, as well as engaging with functionality-focused public health campaigns. A control group completed matched tasks on stress management. Results showed that both groups had improvements across trait body appreciation, self-objectification, and weight concern across the program. Within-session state improvements were found across stress, body appreciation, appearance and functionality satisfaction for both groups. An online media exposure task was used one week post-program completion (n = 81). Idealised media exposure reduced functionality satisfaction in both groups but did not impact any other outcome measure. Findings suggest that tasks encouraging positive reflections on appearance, functionality, and self are useful in improving women's body satisfaction. Issues around choice of control group are discussed.

Disordered eating behaviours, body image and social networking in a type 1 diabetes population

The purpose of this study was twofold: to examine predictors of disordered eating behaviours and body image dissatisfaction, including social networking, among type 1 diabetes population, and to qualitatively explore the relationship between type 1 diabetes management and body image. A convenience sample of 121 type 1 diabetes patients (F = 106; M_age = 36 ± 6.5) was collected via online questionnaires, of which 98 patients responded to two open-ended questions. Young age and negative body image explained 58.8 per cent of disordered eating variance, while body weight and social networking negatively contributed to poor body image (29.9%). Qualitative analysis revealed three themes: no control over body weight, limitation in clothing options and discomfort towards medical equipment.

Body Image Concern and Gender Identities between Transgender and Cisgender Persons from Iran

The aim was to compare body image concern and gender identities between post-operative transgender and cisgender persons. Participants included 48 transgender persons (25 trans men, 23 trans women) and 48 cisgender persons (24 cismen, 24 ciswomen). The data were collected with Littleton's Body Image Concern Inventory and the Singapore Androgyny Inventory. Results showed that body image concern was significantly higher in transgender participants compared to cisgender participants, and these scores were especially higher in trans women compared to other groups. Furthermore, trans women scored higher in the femininity subscale compared to ciswomen. Body image concern was also higher in participants with feminine gender identity compared to participants with masculine gender identity (whether they were transgender or not). Moreover, transgender persons with traditional gender identity had higher scores in body image concern in comparison to those who had nontraditional identities, as well as trans men had more Androgynous or undifferentiated identities than trans women. We also found a significant correlation between feminine subscale and body image concern. Based on our results, it seems hormonal and surgical treatments in transgender persons only can eliminate body dissatisfaction to a certain extent. The higher scores of trans women, both in body image concern and femininity, indicate that it may be harder for trans women to believe they are perceived as female by others and their bodies are adequate. Changing cultural beliefs, social values, and increasing social acceptance with the help of the media may play an important role in improving body image in the future.

"It's very valuable to me that I appear capable": A qualitative study exploring relationships between body functionality and appearance among women with visible physical disabilities

A current hypothesis is that women who learn to focus on their body's functionality versus appearance may experience improved body image outcomes. This research is underdeveloped in considering the perspectives of women with visible physical disabilities (WPD), who have differences in body functionality and appearance that influence their body image. Our study aimed to understand how WPD conceptualize body image and body functionality and to clarify relationships between these constructs. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 15 women representing a range of ages (21-53 years) and disabilities. We used a constructivist grounded theory approach, applying the constant comparative method and engaging in reflexivity throughout the research process. We interpreted themes and subthemes based on their emergence across and explanatory value within cases to develop a conceptual model of the findings. Four major themes emerged: meanings and definitions, body image stability, factors that influence body image, and the interaction of appearance and body functionality. A new concept, "functional-aesthetic body image," emerged describing women's perceptions about the appearance of their body when engaged in functions or activities. Results may stimulate advancements in body image theory and measurement, and guide further exploration of the complex appearance-functionality relationship and its links with holistic health outcomes.

Ideal comparisons: Body ideals harm women's body image through social comparison

Body dissatisfaction and self-objectification can arise when women view idealized thin bodies, as well as idealized athletic or curvy bodies. State-level social comparisons have been shown to mediate such effects, with mixed evidence for the moderating role of trait-level social comparison. An experiment tested the hypotheses that viewing messages idealizing thin, athletic, and curvy bodies would be associated with greater state social comparison as compared to a body acceptance condition, and that trait social comparison would moderate this association. Additionally, state social comparison was expected to mediate the association between viewing idealized images and negative body image. Data were collected online from 200 adult women. Regression analyses indicated that all three body ideals significantly increased state social comparison, which in turn predicted greater body surveillance, lower body appreciation, and, for thin and curvy conditions only, lower body esteem for looks. Further, trait social comparison moderated the association between viewing the curvy ideal and state social comparison. This study increases our knowledge of how state and trait social comparison function in relation to body ideals. Reducing social comparison to idealized images, as opposed to replacing the thin ideal with other body types, may be a superior approach to improving body image.

The associations of healthful weight-control behaviors with psychological distress and changes in body mass index among young adults

The aim of this research is to study young adults who try to lose weight using only healthful weight-control behaviors. Secondary analyses of the US National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add-Health, N = 3,882) were performed. Females who used only healthful weight-control behaviors had lower self-esteem than females who did not try to lose weight, and less depressive symptoms than females who used unhealthful weight-control behaviors. Data suggested that females who used only healthful weight-control behaviors were at higher risk for gains in body mass index than females who did not try to lose weight. This study adds to the extant literature about weight-control behaviors by highlighting that people who try to lose weight using only healthful weight-control behaviors merit special attention from both scientific and practical points of view.

Yoga and body image: How do young adults practicing yoga describe its impact on their body image?

This study explored the perceived impact of yoga on body image. Young adults (n= 34 female, 12 male; M_age = 30.6 [SD = 1.6]) practicing yoga were interviewed and data were analyzed for emerging themes across weight status. In general, participants discussed the positive impact of yoga on their body image, but some described both a positive and negative impact. Yoga was perceived as having a positive impact on body image via perceived physical changes, gratitude for one's body, a sense of accomplishment within one's yoga practice, self-confidence, and witnessing different types of bodies practicing yoga. Yoga was perceived to have a negative impact on body image via comparative critique (e.g., upward comparisons with others) and inner critique (e.g., negative self-talk). Themes were generally similar across weight status; exceptions were that participants at higher weight status were more likely than those at lower weight status to discuss accomplishment within one's yoga practice as a positive impact on body image and comparative critique as a negative impact on body image. Yoga studios and instructors can take steps to further enhance the positive impact of yoga and to provide environments that are inclusive of participants with diverse body shapes and sizes.

"You look great!": The effect of viewing appearance-related Instagram comments on women's body image

Instagram is an increasingly popular social networking site where users post and share photos. The aim of the present study was to experimentally investigate the effect of viewing appearance-related comments accompanying Instagram images on women's body image. Participants were 128 female undergraduate students who viewed a set of attractive images paired with a brief positive comment. For half the participants, comments were related to appearance; the other half viewed the same images with place-related comments. As predicted, exposure to appearance comments led to greater body dissatisfaction than exposure to place comments. There was no significant effect on state self-objectification, but trait self-objectification predicted increase in body dissatisfaction regardless of experimental condition. It was concluded that comments form an important and integral part of Instagram imagery, one that has implications for body image in its own right.

"I aspire to look and feel healthy like the posts convey": engagement with fitness inspiration on social media and perceptions of its influence on health and wellbeing

Background

Fitspiration is a popular social media trend containing images, quotes and advice related to exercise and healthy eating. This study aimed to 1) describe the types of fitspiration content that users access and how they engage with content, 2) investigate the disordered eating and exercise behaviours and psychological distress of individuals who access fitspiration, and 3) understand the perceived influence of fitspiration on health and wellbeing.

Methods

Participants who access fitspiration content were recruited via social media to complete a cross-sectional online survey. Participants’ psychological distress was measured using the Kessler 10 Psychological Distress Scale (K10); disordered eating behaviours using the Eating Attitudes Test-26 (EAT-26); and compulsive exercise behaviours using the Exercise Addiction Inventory (EAI). Participants also answered a series of open-ended questions about their experiences with fitspiration. A descriptive statistical analysis was conducted for quantitative data. Responses to open-ended questions were analysed for key themes using an iterative process of open, axial and thematic coding.

Results

Participants (N = 180, 151 female, median age 23.0 years (IQR 19.0, 28.5)) most commonly accessed content posted by personal trainers and athletes (59.4%), posts tagged with the ‘fitspiration’ hashtag (53.9%) and posted by ‘everyday’ people (53.3%). Overall, 17.7% of participants were classified as high risk for an eating disorder, 17.4% reported very high levels of psychological distress, and 10.3% were at risk of addictive exercise behaviours. Participants described both positive and negative influences of engaging with fitspiration content. The influence on their health beliefs and behaviours was explained through four key themes: 1) Setting the ‘healthy ideal’, 2) Failure to achieve the ‘ideal’, 3) Being part of a community, and 4) Access to reliable health information.

Conclusions

Many participants reported benefits of fitspiration content including increased social support and access to health information. However, participants also reported that fitspiration content could negatively influence their wellbeing and perception of healthy goals. Content posted by relatable individuals or qualified experts was perceived as most trustworthy. Future research is needed to determine the individual and content-related factors associated with negative and positive fitspiration experiences.

The effect of functionality-focused and appearance-focused images of models of mixed body sizes on women's state-oriented body appreciation

Research demonstrates that exposure to appearance-focused images of models depicting societal standards of beauty negatively affect women's state-oriented body dissatisfaction. The purpose of this research was to extend this experimental research to women's state-oriented body appreciation. The 374 women participants were randomly assigned to view images that were either depicting a model who was representative or not representative of the thin ideal (body size), while this model was in either an appearance-focused pose or a function-oriented pose (pose type). State body appreciation increased significantly after viewing images depicting models who did not conform to societal standards of thinness (p<0.001). Exposure to the control condition images, which were images of natural environments, also produced increases in state body appreciation (p=0.049). These findings provide insight into the construct of state body appreciation and offer implications for future positive body image research.

Yoga and body image: Findings from a large population-based study of young adults

This study explored the potential for yoga to promote body satisfaction in a general population of young adults. The sample included 1664 participants (M age: 31.1, SD=1.6years) in Project EAT, a 15-year longitudinal study. Data from the third and fourth waves (EAT-III and EAT-IV), collected five years apart, were utilized. Practicing yoga (≥30min/week) was reported by 16.2% of young adults. After adjusting for EAT-III body satisfaction and body mass index, yoga practitioners had higher concurrent body satisfaction at EAT-IV than those not practicing yoga (difference: 1.5 units [95% CI: 0.1-2.8], p=.03). Among participants within the lowest quartile of prior (EAT-III) body satisfaction, there was preliminary evidence that body satisfaction at EAT-IV was higher among yoga practitioners than in other young adults. Findings suggest that yoga may be associated with improved body satisfaction, particularly among young adults with low prior body satisfaction.

Should women be "All About That Bass?": Diverse body-ideal messages and women's body image

While most body image research emphasizes the thin ideal, a wider variety of body-ideal messages pervade U.S. popular culture today, including those promoting athleticism or curves. Two studies assessed women's reactions to messages conveying thin, athletic, and curvy ideals, compared to a control message that emphasized accepting all body types. Study 1 (N=192) surveyed women's responses to these messages and found they perceived body-acceptance and athletic messages most favorably, curvy messages more negatively, and thin messages most negatively. Further, greatest liking within each message category came from women who identified with that body type. Study 2 (N=189) experimentally manipulated exposure to these messages, then measured self-objectification and body satisfaction. Messages promoting a body-ideal caused more self-objectification than body-acceptance messages. Also, athletic messages caused more body dissatisfaction than thin messages. Together, these findings reveal the complexity of women's responses to diverse messages they receive about ideal bodies.

Fat is fashionable and fit: A comparative content analysis of Fatspiration and Health at Every Size® Instagram images

In step with the proliferation of Thinspiration and Fitspiration content disseminated in popular web-based media, the fat acceptance movement has garnered heightened visibility within mainstream culture via the burgeoning Fatosphere weblog community. The present study extended previous Fatosphere research by comparing the shared and distinct strategies used to represent and motivate a fat-accepting lifestyle among 400 images sourced from Fatspiration- and Health at Every Size^®-themed hashtags on Instagram. Images were systematically analyzed for the socio-demographic and body size attributes of the individuals portrayed alongside content reflecting dimensions of general fat acceptance, physical appearance pride, physical activity and health, fat shaming, and eating and weight loss-related themes. #fatspiration/#fatspo-tagged images more frequently promoted fat acceptance through fashion and beauty-related activism; #healthateverysize/#haes posts more often featured physically-active portrayals, holistic well-being, and weight stigma. Findings provide insight into the common and unique motivational factors and contradictory messages encountered in these fat-accepting social media communities.

Downward dog becomes fit body, inc.: A content analysis of 40 years of female cover images of Yoga Journal

The present analysis investigated temporal trends in physical appearance attributes and attire worn by female cover models of Yoga Journal magazine between the years 1975-2015. Covers featuring a single female model (N=168) were coded for: pose activity, amount of body visibility, perceived body size, body shape, breast size, skin exposure, and revealing or form-fitting attire. When collapsed across all decades, the majority of cover models was actively posed with high body visibility, rated as at most low normal weight, possessed either a "thin/lean" or "skinny/boney" body shape, and were "flat-chested" or "small-breasted". Greater body visibility, pose activity, thinness/leanness, skin exposure, and form-fitting attire were featured on more recent years' covers. Findings suggest that the female "yoga body" conforms to the contemporary thin- and-toned media fitness ideal, particularly recently, which may promote objectified body competence, an unhealthy drive for leanness, and dissuade higher weight women from considering yoga practice.

Can disclaimer labels or Dove Evolution commercial mitigate negative effects of thin-ideal exposure?

We examined the comparative effectiveness of the Dove Evolution commercial and disclaimer labels as media literacy interventions. Women ( N = 287) viewed thin-ideal images by themselves, preceded by the Dove Evolution commercial, or containing specific or generic disclaimer labels. Participants completed pre- and post-test measures of body satisfaction, post-test social comparison, and media literacy. Interventions were not effective in mitigating drops in body satisfaction, reducing social comparison, or increasing media literacy, despite women understanding their purpose. A 2-week follow-up showed no delayed effects on media literacy. None of these interventions were effective in counteracting the negative effects of media exposure in women.