Serum heat shock protein 70 levels as a biomarker for inflammatory processes in multiple sclerosis

Single-cell profiling indicates a high similarity between immune cells in the cerebrospinal fluid and in meningeal ectopic lymphoid tissue in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

Background and objectives

B cell depleting anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies (aCD20 mAbs) are highly effective in treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS) but fail to halt the formation of meningeal ectopic lymphoid tissue (mELT) in the murine model experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). While mELT can be examined in EAE, it is not accessible in vivo in MS patients. Our key objectives were to compare the immune cells in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which is accessible in patients, with those in mELT, and to study the effects of aCD20 mAbs on CSF and mELT in EAE.

Methods

Applying single cell RNA sequencing, we compared gene expression profiles in immune cells from (1) CSF with mELT and (2) aCD20 mAbs treated with control treated mice in a spontaneous 2D2xTh EAE model.

Results

The immune cell composition in CSF and mELT was very similar. Gene expression profiles and pathway enrichment analysis revealed no striking differences between the two compartments. aCD20 mAbs led not only to a virtually complete depletion of B cells in the CSF but also to a reduction of naïve CD4+ T cells and marked increase of macrophages. No remarkable differences in regulated genes or pathways were observed.

Discussion

Our results suggest that immune cells in the CSF may serve as a surrogate for mELT in EAE. Future studies are required to confirm this in MS patients. The observed increase of macrophages in B cell depleted CSF is a novel finding and requires verification in CSF of aCD20 mAbs treated MS patients. Due to unresolved technical challenges, we were unable to study the effects of aCD20 mAbs on mELT. This should be addressed in future studies.

Exploring the mRNA and Plasma Protein Levels of BDNF, NT4, SIRT1, HSP27, and HSP70 in Multiple Sclerosis Patients and Healthy Controls

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, autoimmune neurodegenerative disease affecting the central nervous system. It is a major cause of non-traumatic neurological disability among young adults in North America and Europe. This study focuses on neuroprotective genes (BDNF, NT4/5, SIRT1, HSP70, and HSP27). Gene expression and protein levels of these markers were compared between MS patients and healthy controls. Blood samples were collected from 42 patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) and 48 control subjects without MS. Quantitative real-time PCR was performed to measure the expression of specific genes. The samples were analyzed in duplicate, and the abundance of mRNA was quantified using the 2-ΔCt method. ELISA assay was used to measure the concentration of specific proteins in the plasma samples. The results show that a 3.5-fold decrease in the gene expression of BDNF corresponds to a 1.5-fold downregulation in the associated plasma protein concentration (p < 0.001). Similar trends were observed with NT-4 (five-fold decrease, slight elevation in protein), SIRT1 (two-fold decrease, two-fold protein decrease), HSP70 (four-fold increase, nearly two-fold protein increase), and HSP27 (four-fold increase, two-fold protein increase) (p < 0.001). This study reveals strong correlations between gene expression and protein concentration in MS patients, emphasizing the relevance of these neuroprotective markers in the disease.

Molecular biomarkers for assessing the heat-adapted phenotype: a narrative scoping review

Heat acclimation/acclimatisation (HA) mitigates heat-related decrements in physical capacity and heat-illness risk and is a widely advocated countermeasure for individuals operating in hot environments. The efficacy of HA is typically quantified by assessing the thermo-physiological responses to a standard heat acclimation state test (i.e. physiological biomarkers), but this can be logistically challenging, time consuming, and expensive. A valid molecular biomarker of HA would enable evaluation of the heat-adapted state through the sampling and assessment of a biological medium. This narrative review examines candidate molecular biomarkers of HA, highlighting the poor sensitivity and specificity of these candidates and identifying the current lack of a single 'standout' biomarker. It concludes by considering the potential of multivariable approaches that provide information about a range of physiological systems, identifying a number of challenges that must be overcome to develop a valid molecular biomarker of the heat-adapted state, and highlighting future research opportunities.

The selection of a hydrophobic 7-phenylbutyl-7-deazaadenine-modified DNA aptamer with high binding affinity for the Heat Shock Protein 70

Nucleic acids aptamers often fail to efficiently target some proteins because of the hydrophilic character of the natural nucleotides. Here we present hydrophobic 7-phenylbutyl-7-deaadenine-modified DNA aptamers against the Heat Shock Protein 70 that were selected via PEX and magnetic bead-based SELEX. After 9 rounds of selection, the pool was sequenced and a number of candidates were identified. Following initial screening, two modified aptamers were chemically synthesised in-house and their binding affinity analysed by two methods, bio-layer interferometry and fluorescent-plate-based binding assay. The binding affinities of the modified aptamers were compared with that of their natural counterparts. The resulting modified aptamers bound with higher affinity (low nanomolar range) to the Hsp70 than their natural sequence (>5 µM) and hence have potential for applications and further development towards Hsp70 diagnostics or even therapeutics.

IL-6 and HSPA1A Gene Polymorphisms May Influence the Levels of the Inflammatory and Oxidative Stress Parameters and Their Response to a Chronic Swimming Training

The aim of the study was to evaluate whether the most common polymorphisms in the IL-6 and HSP70 genes affect the circulating heat shock protein 70 (HSP70), as well as inflammatory and prooxidant-antioxidant parameters in healthy men undergoing chronic endurance training. The subjects were randomly assigned to a 12-week swimming training (ST group) or control group (CON). Fasting blood samples were collected pre- and post-study period to assessment: superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities, serum levels of lipid hydroperoxides (LHs), tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), and HSP70. Subjects were genotyped for IL-6-174G/C, HSPA1A + 190 G/C and HSPA1B + 1538 A/G single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) by real-time PCR. After a 12-week study period, a decrease in TNFα, HSP70, and GPx was observed in the ST group, but not the CON group. IL-6 SNP affected serum TNFα levels (main effect of genotype). Higher TNFα levels (pre- and post-study period) was observed in CC CON than in other IL-6 genotypes of CON and ST groups. However, a post-training decrease in TNFα was observed in both GG and CC IL-6 genotypes of ST group. In turn, only GG IL-6 genotype of the ST group was related to a post-training decrease in HSP70 (main time and genotype interaction). Moreover, pre- and post-training LHs were lower in GG than GC/CC HSPA1A genotypes of the ST group (main genotype effect). In conclusion, polymorphisms within the IL-6 and HSPA1A genes seem to affect baseline levels of some inflammatory parameters and prooxidant-antioxidant status and/or their changes after chronic swimming training. However, the results should be confirmed in a study with a larger sample size, one that includes individuals with sedentary lifestyles.

Current and Future Biomarkers in Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a debilitating autoimmune disorder. Currently, there is a lack of effective treatment for the progressive form of MS, partly due to insensitive readout for neurodegeneration. The recent development of sensitive assays for neurofilament light chain (NfL) has made it a potential new biomarker in predicting MS disease activity and progression, providing an additional readout in clinical trials. However, NfL is elevated in other neurodegenerative disorders besides MS, and, furthermore, it is also confounded by age, body mass index (BMI), and blood volume. Additionally, there is considerable overlap in the range of serum NfL (sNfL) levels compared to healthy controls. These confounders demonstrate the limitations of using solely NfL as a marker to monitor disease activity in MS patients. Other blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers of axonal damage, neuronal damage, glial dysfunction, demyelination, and inflammation have been studied as actionable biomarkers for MS and have provided insight into the pathology underlying the disease process of MS. However, these other biomarkers may be plagued with similar issues as NfL. Using biomarkers of a bioinformatic approach that includes cellular studies, micro-RNAs (miRNAs), extracellular vesicles (EVs), metabolomics, metabolites and the microbiome may prove to be useful in developing a more comprehensive panel that addresses the limitations of using a single biomarker. Therefore, more research with recent technological and statistical approaches is needed to identify novel and useful diagnostic and prognostic biomarker tools in MS.

Improper Proteostasis: Can It Serve as Biomarkers for Neurodegenerative Diseases?

Cells synthesize new proteins after multiple molecular decisions. Damage of existing proteins, accumulation of abnormal proteins, and basic requirement of new proteins trigger protein quality control (PQC)-based alternative strategies to cope against proteostasis imbalance. Accumulation of misfolded proteins is linked with various neurodegenerative disorders. However, how deregulated components of this quality control system and their lack of general mechanism-based long-term changes can serve as biomarkers for neurodegeneration remains largely unexplored. Here, our article summarizes the chief findings, which may facilitate the search of novel and relevant proteostasis mechanism-based biomarkers associated with neuronal disorders. Understanding the abnormalities of PQC coupled molecules as possible biomarkers can help to determine neuronal fate and their contribution to the aetiology of several nervous system disorders.

Mechanisms of nucleophosmin (NPM)-mediated regulated cell death elucidated by Hsp70 during renal ischemia

Nucleophosmin (NPM), a nucleolar-based protein chaperone, promotes Bax-mediated mitochondrial injury and regulates cell death during acute kidney injury. However, the steps that transform NPM from an essential to a toxic protein during stress are unknown. To localize NPM-mediated events causing regulated cell death during ischemia, wild type (WT) and Hsp70 mutant proteins with characterized intracellular trafficking defects that restrict movement to either the nucleolar region (M45) or cytosol (985A) were expressed in primary murine proximal tubule epithelial cells (PTEC) harvested from Hsp70 null mice. After ischemia in vitro, PTEC survival was significantly improved and apoptosis reduced in rank order by selectively overexpressing WT > M45 > 985A Hsp70 proteins. Only Hsp70 with nuclear access (WT and M45) inhibited T95 NPM phosphorylation responsible for NPM translocation and also reduced cytosolic NPM accumulation. In contrast, WT or 985A > M45 significantly improved survival in Hsp70 null PTEC that expressed a cytosol-restricted NPM mutant, more effectively bound NPM, and also reduced NPM-Bax complex formation required for mitochondrial injury and cell death. Hsp70 knockout prevented the cytoprotective effect of suppressing NPM in ischemic PTEC and also increased cytosolic NPM accumulation after acute renal ischemia in vivo, emphasizing the inhibitory effect of Hsp70 on NPM-mediated toxicity. Distinct cytoprotective mechanisms by wild type and mutant Hsp70 proteins identify dual nuclear and cytosolic events that mediate NPM toxicity during stress-induced apoptosis and are rational targets for therapeutic AKI interventions. Antagonizing these early events in regulated cell death promotes renal cell survival during experimental AKI.

3-Hydroxykynurenine as a Potential Ligand for Hsp70 Proteins and Its Effects on Drosophila Memory After Heat Shock

Kynurenine products of tryptophan metabolism are modifiers of the nervous activity and oxidative processes in mammals and invertebrates. 3-Hydroxykynurenine (3HOK) in moderate concentrations is a lipid peroxidation inhibitor. However, its accumulation and oxidative auto-dimerization lead to oxidative stress development manifested in age-related neurodegenerative diseases (NDD) and neurological disorders provoked by acute stress. Different forms of stress, the mostly studied being heat shock response, rely on functioning of heat shock proteins of the Hsp70 superfamily. Since kynurenines are called "kids of stress," we performed computational estimation of affinity of 3HOK and other kynurenines binding to predicted ATP site of Drosophila melanogaster Hsp cognate 71 protein (Dhsp71) using AutoDock Vina. The binding energy of 3HOK dimer is - 9.4 kcal/mol; its orientation within the active site is close to that of ATP. This might be a new mechanism of producing a competitive inhibitor of Hsp70 chaperones that decreases organism ability to adapt to heat shock. We also showed that the Drosophila cardinal (cd¹) mutant with 3HOK excess, serving as a model for Huntington's disease (HD), manifests severe defects of short-term memory after heat shock applied either in adults or at the prepupal stage.

Association of miRNA and mRNA Levels of the Clinical Onset of Multiple Sclerosis Patients

Simple Summary

In this study, we investigated the effect of microRNAs on the expression level of neuroprotective proteins, heat shock proteins, and sirtuin in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in the development of multiple sclerosis. Our results show that the gene expression of neurotrophins, heat shock proteins, SIRT1, and miRNAs by the immune cells of MS is d changed. A decrease in the expression of the BDNF and SIRT1 genes and an increase in the expression of miR-132-3p, miR-34a, and miR-132 in PBMCs may indicate an inhibition of the neuroprotective function of these cells, which may be associated with the transition of the immune system towards inflammation in the development of multiple sclerosis.

Abstract

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating disease characterized by chronic inflammation of the central nervous system, in which many factors can act together to influence disease susceptibility and progression. To date, the exact cause of MS is still unclear, but it is believed to result from an abnormal response of the immune system to one or more myelin antigens that develops in genetically susceptible individuals after their exposure to a, as yet undefined, causal agent. In our study, we assessed the effect of microRNAs on the expression level of neuroprotective proteins, including neurotrophins (BDNF and NT4/5), heat shock proteins (HSP70 and HSP27), and sirtuin (SIRT1) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in the development of multiple sclerosis. The analysis of dysregulation of miRNA levels and the resulting changes in target mRNA/protein expression levels could contribute to a better understanding of the etiology of multiple sclerosis, as well as new alternative methods of diagnosis and treatment of this disease. The aim of this study was to find a link between neurotrophins (BDNF and NT4), SIRT1, heat shock proteins (HSP27 and HSP27), and miRNAs that are involved in the development of multiple sclerosis. The analysis of the selected miRNAs showed a negative correlation of SIRT1 with miR-132 and miR-34a and of BDNF with 132-3p in PBMCs, which suggests that the miRNAs we selected may regulate the expression level of the studied genes.

Increased Levels of Plasma Extracellular Heat-Shock Proteins 60 and 70 kDa Characterized Early-Onset Neonatal Sepsis

Background: Extracellular heat-shock proteins (eHsp) are highly conserved molecules that play an important role in inflammatory diseases and have been quantified in plasma from patients with infectious diseases, including sepsis. There is a constant search for dependable biochemical markers that, in combination with conventional methods, could deliver a prompt and reliable diagnosis of early-onset neonatal sepsis. Objective: We sought to assess the level of eHsp-27, eHsp-60, eHsp-70, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) in plasma of healthy neonates at term and infants with early-onset neonatal sepsis. Methods: This study included 34 newborns that were classified as healthy neonates at term (blood samples from the umbilical cord, n = 23) or infants with early-onset neonatal sepsis (blood samples obtained from umbilical artery by standard sterile procedures before starting a systemic antibiotic intervention, n = 11). All blood samples were centrifuged, and the plasma recovered to determine eHsp-27, eHsp-60, eHsp-70, and TNFα levels by ELISA. Results: Our results indicate that the level of eHsp-27 in healthy neonates at term was 0.045 ± 0.024 pg/ml. This value decreased 2.5-fold in infants with early-onset neonate sepsis (0.019 ± 0.006 pg/ml, p = 0.004). In contrast, the levels of eHsp-60 and eHsp-70 in healthy neonates at term were 13.69 ± 5.3 and 4.03 ± 2.6 pg/ml, respectively. These protein levels increased significantly 1.8- and 1.9-fold in the plasma of infants with early-onset neonatal sepsis (p ≤ 0.001). The level of TNFα in healthy neonates at term was 2.94 ± 0.46 pg/ml, with a 3.0-fold increase in infants with early-onset neonatal sepsis (8.96 ± 0.72 pm/ml, p ≤ 0.001). The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV) of eHsp compared with that of C-reactive protein were 73.3, 60.0, 47.8, and 33.3%, respectively. Conclusion: This study demonstrated a consistent increase of eHsp-60 and eHsp-70 in the plasma of infants diagnosed with early-onset neonatal sepsis. These proteins showed higher sensitivity and specificity than C-reactive protein and blood culture test.

Could the Heat Shock Proteins 70 Family Members Exacerbate the Immune Response in Multiple Sclerosis? An in Silico Study

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. It represents one of the main causes of neurological disability in young people. In MS, the autoimmune response is directed against myelin antigens but other possible bio-molecular markers are investigated. The aim of this work was, through an in silico study, the evaluation of the transcriptional modifications between healthy subjects and MS patients in six brain areas (corpus callosum, hippocampus, internal capsule, optic chiasm, frontal and parietal cortex) in order to identify genes representative of the disease. Our results show the upregulation of the Heat Shock Proteins (HSPs) HSPA1A, HSPA1B, HSPA7, HSPA6, HSPH1 and HSPA4L of the HSP70 family, among which HSPA1A and HSPA1B are upregulated in all the brain areas. HSP70s are molecular chaperones indispensable for protein folding, recently associated with immune system maintenance. The little overexpression of the HSPs protects the cells from stress but extreme upregulation can contribute to the MS pathogenesis. We also investigated the genes involved in the immune system that result in overall upregulation in the corpus callosum, hippocampus, internal capsule, optic chiasm and are absent in the cortex. Interestingly, the genes of the immune system and the HSP70s have comparable levels of expression.

Biomarkers in Stress Related Diseases/Disorders: Diagnostic, Prognostic, and Therapeutic Values

Various internal and external factors negatively affect the homeostatic equilibrium of organisms at the molecular to the whole-body level, inducing the so-called state of stress. Stress affects an organism's welfare status and induces energy-consuming mechanisms to combat the subsequent ill effects; thus, the individual may be immunocompromised, making them vulnerable to pathogens. The information presented here has been extensively reviewed, compiled, and analyzed from authenticated published resources available on Medline, PubMed, PubMed Central, Science Direct, and other scientific databases. Stress levels can be monitored by the quantitative and qualitative measurement of biomarkers. Potential markers of stress include thermal stress markers, such as heat shock proteins (HSPs), innate immune markers, such as Acute Phase Proteins (APPs), oxidative stress markers, and chemical secretions in the saliva and urine. In addition, stress biomarkers also play critical roles in the prognosis of stress-related diseases and disorders, and therapy guidance. Moreover, different components have been identified as potent mediators of cardiovascular, central nervous system, hepatic, and nephrological disorders, which can also be employed to evaluate these conditions precisely, but with stringent validation and specificity. Considerable scientific advances have been made in the detection, quantitation, and application of these biomarkers. The present review describes the current progress of identifying biomarkers, their prognostic, and therapeutic values.

Biomarkers in Stress Related Diseases/Disorders: Diagnostic, Prognostic, and Therapeutic Values

Various internal and external factors negatively affect the homeostatic equilibrium of organisms at the molecular to the whole-body level, inducing the so-called state of stress. Stress affects an organism's welfare status and induces energy-consuming mechanisms to combat the subsequent ill effects; thus, the individual may be immunocompromised, making them vulnerable to pathogens. The information presented here has been extensively reviewed, compiled, and analyzed from authenticated published resources available on Medline, PubMed, PubMed Central, Science Direct, and other scientific databases. Stress levels can be monitored by the quantitative and qualitative measurement of biomarkers. Potential markers of stress include thermal stress markers, such as heat shock proteins (HSPs), innate immune markers, such as Acute Phase Proteins (APPs), oxidative stress markers, and chemical secretions in the saliva and urine. In addition, stress biomarkers also play critical roles in the prognosis of stress-related diseases and disorders, and therapy guidance. Moreover, different components have been identified as potent mediators of cardiovascular, central nervous system, hepatic, and nephrological disorders, which can also be employed to evaluate these conditions precisely, but with stringent validation and specificity. Considerable scientific advances have been made in the detection, quantitation, and application of these biomarkers. The present review describes the current progress of identifying biomarkers, their prognostic, and therapeutic values.

Relevance of Helicobacter pylori infection in Egyptian multiple sclerosis patients

Background

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune demyelinating disorder. The etiology of MS remains unknown exactly. Helicobacter pylori heat shock proteins were suggested as a potential trigger of immune system causing MS.

Objectives

The aim of this study was to assess the level of anti-Helicobacter pylori heat shock proteins 60 (Hp hsp60) antibodies at patients of MS and to correlate it with various epidemiological and clinical data.

Subjects and methods

This study design was a cross-sectional case control one. A total of 65 patients with multiple sclerosis diagnosed according to 2010 revised McDonald criteria and other 65 age- and sex-matched healthy controls were included in this study. All participants were subjected to full history taking, complete neurological examination including Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) for the patients, measurement of serum level of anti-Hp hsp60 IgG using ELISA technique, and MRI brain for all the patients, being a goldstone for inclusion in the study.

Results

There was statistically significant high level of anti-Hp hsp60 IgG at MS patients especially secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (SPMS) patients. Moreover, a positive statistically significant correlation was found between it and age of patients, duration of illness, and EDSS.

Conclusion

We conclude that hsp60 of Hp may be a useful biomarker for attesting course progression in MS.