Correlates of time spent walking and cycling to and from work: baseline results from the commuting and health in Cambridge study

The association between the child's age and mothers' physical activity: results from the population-based German National Cohort study

BACKGROUND

Since physical activity is an important determinant of physical and mental health, lower levels of physical activity among mothers reported in previous research are concerning. The aim of this study was to examine whether physical activity levels differ among mothers depending on the age of the youngest child.

METHODS

Cross-sectional data from the German National Cohort study, comprising 3959 mothers aged 22-72 years with offspring aged 0-54 years (grouped into 0-5, 6-11, 12-17, 18-29 and > 30 years) was used. The Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ) was used to assess physical activity among mothers in leisure time, transport and (occupational and non-occupational) work settings, quantified as MET-minutes per week. Means (with 95% confidence interval) of mothers' weekly MET-minutes were visualized in graphs, stratified by mothers' and the youngest child's age. Linear regression analyses assessed the association between the child's age and self-reported time and intensity of mothers' physical activity within each activity domain and for the total physical activity.

RESULTS

Adjusted results suggested that the MET-minutes in work settings were lower among mothers with younger children. This association was clearest in mothers whose youngest child was under 12 years old, among whom lower self-reported physical activity at work compared to mothers with children at age 30 and older was found. No association was observed between the age of the youngest child and mothers' MET-minutes in leisure nor in transport settings. The self-reported physical activity of mothers whose youngest child was in the same child age group was found to be lower with increased maternal age. As expected, the work related activity dominated the self-reported physical activity.

CONCLUSIONS

The results show differences in mothers' self-reported physical activity by the age of the youngest child. The strongest difference was related to physical activity in work settings, indicating the need for supportive actions.

Correlates and determinants of transport-related physical activity among adults: an interdisciplinary systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Transport-related physical activity (TRPA) has been identified as a way to increase physical activity due to its discretionary and habitual nature. Factors thought to influence TRPA span multiple disciplines and are rarely systematically considered in unison. This systematic review aimed to identify cross-sectional and longitudinal factors associated with adult TRPA across multiple research disciplines.

METHODS

Using four electronic databases, a systematic search of English, peer-reviewed literature from 2010 - 2020 was performed. Studies quantitatively examining factors associated with the outcome of adult TRPA were eligible.

RESULTS

Seventy-three studies (n = 66 cross-sectional; n = 7 longitudinal) were included, cumulatively reporting data from 1,278,632 observations. Thirty-six factors were examined for potential association with TRPA and presented in a social-ecological framework: individual (n = 15), social (n = 3), and environmental (n = 18). Seven factors were found to be consistently associated with higher adult TRPA: lower socio-economic status, higher self-efficacy, higher social normalization, lower distance of travel, higher destination concentration, more streetlighting, and higher public transportation frequency with a greater number of terminals near route start and endpoints.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first comprehensive compilation of the correlates and determinants of adult TRPA. Seven individual, social, and environmental factors demonstrated consistent associations with TRPA. Models formed using these factors may facilitate more effective promotion of TRPA. There is a lack of longitudinal studies as well as studies assessing cognitive/attitudinal and social factors, highlighting gaps for further research. Those developing policies and strategies targeting TRPA need to consider a range of factors at the individual, social, and environmental level to maximise the likelihood of effectiveness.

The Land Use and Individual Correlates of Pedestrian Commuting: Who Walks to Their Work or Place of Study in the Large Cities of the MENA Region?

The body of research on the determinants of pedestrian commuting and the characteristics of on-foot commuters at the international level and especially in the Global South is inconsistent; hence, this study focuses on this topic with the case of megacities in the Middle East and North Africa. The study is based on 8284 face-to-face interviews with respondents in the three cities, 4543 of whom worked, and of those 4543, 658 individuals walked to their work or place of study. By using binary logistic regression, the determinants of walking to work were identified. Age, household car ownership, last relocation time, intersection density, number of accessed facilities from home, average walking accessibility to neighborhood amenities, and commuting distance are the significant determinants of on-foot commuting. The study identifies younger commuters with fewer cars or no driving license living in neighborhoods with connected street networks as the walkers. The results of the Mann–Whitney U Test show that there is a significant difference between the values of these determinants for walking commuters and those who commute by other modes. Based on these findings, this paper encourages urban planners and decision-makers of the MENA region to use urban land use, including street networks and access to local facilities, to motivate commuters to commute on foot, especially those who work within a walkable distance to their work or place of study.

Workplace neighbourhood built environment and workers' physically-active and sedentary behaviour: a systematic review of observational studies

Background

Many desk-based workers can spend more than half of their working hours sitting, with low levels of physical activity. Workplace neighbourhood built environment may influence workers’ physical activities and sedentary behaviours on workdays. We reviewed and synthesised evidence from observational studies on associations of workplace neighbourhood attributes with domain-specific physical activity and sedentary behaviour and suggested research priorities for improving the quality of future relevant studies.

Methods

Published studies were obtained from nine databases (PubMed, Web of Science, PsycINFO, Scopus, Transport Research International Documentation, MEDLINE, Cochrane, Embase, and CINAHL) and crosschecked by Google Scholar. Observational studies with quantitative analyses estimating associations between workplace neighbourhood built environment attributes and workers’ physical activity or sedentary behaviour were included. Studies were restricted to those published in English language peer-reviewed journals from 2000 to 2019.

Results

A total of 55 studies and 455 instances of estimated associations were included. Most instances of potential associations of workplace neighbourhood built environment attributes with total or domain-specific (occupational, transport, and recreational) physical activity were non-significant. However, destination-related attributes (i.e., longer distances from workplace to home and access to car parking) were positively associated with transport-related sedentary behaviour (i.e., car driving).

Conclusions

The findings reinforce the case for urban design policies on designing mixed-use neighbourhoods where there are opportunities to live closer to workplaces and have access to a higher density of shops, services, and recreational facilities. Studies strengthening correspondence between the neighbourhood built environment attributes and behaviours are needed to identify and clarify potential relationships.

Protocol registration

The protocol of this systematic review was registered on the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) on 2 December 2019 (registration number: CRD42019137341).

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12966-020-01055-x.

Driving status, travel modes and accelerometer-assessed physical activity in younger, middle-aged and older adults: a prospective study of 90 810 UK Biobank participants

Background

Associations between driving and physical-activity (PA) intensities are unclear, particularly among older adults. We estimated prospective associations of travel modes with total PA, sedentary time (ST), light-intensity PA (LPA), and moderate-to-vigorous intensity PA (MVPA) among adults aged 39–70 years.

Methods

We studied 90 810 UK Biobank participants (56.1 ± 7.8 years). Driving status, specific travel modes (non-work travel; commuting to/from work) and covariates were assessed by questionnaire (2006–10). PA was assessed over 7 days by wrist-worn accelerometers (2013–15). We estimated associations using overall and age-stratified multivariable linear-regression models.

Results

Drivers accumulated 1.4% more total PA (95% confidence interval: 0.9, 1.9), 11.2 min/day less ST (–12.9, –9.5), 12.2 min/day more LPA (11.0, 13.3) and 0.9 min/day less MVPA (–1.6, –0.2) than non-drivers. Compared with car/motor-vehicle users, cyclists and walkers had the most optimal activity profiles followed by mixed-mode users (e.g. for non-work travel, cyclists: 10.7% more total PA, 9.0, 12.4; 20.5 min/day less ST, –26.0, –15.0; 14.5 min/day more MVPA, 12.0, 17.2; walkers: 4.2% more total PA, 3.5, 5.0; 7.5 min/day less ST –10.2, –4.9; 10.1 min/day more MVPA, 8.9, 11.3; mixed-mode users: 2.3% more total PA, 1.9, 2.7; 3.4 min/day less ST –4.8, –2.1; 4.9 min/day more MVPA, 4.3, 5.5). Some associations varied by age (p interaction < 0.05), but these differences appeared small.

Conclusions

Assessing specific travel modes rather than driving status alone may better capture variations in activity. Walking, cycling and, to a lesser degree, mixed-mode use are associated with more optimal activity profiles in adults of all ages.

Physical Activity in Peri-Urban Communities: Testing Intentional and Implicit Processes within an Ecological Framework

BACKGROUND

Given the substantive health inequalities in peri-urban communities and the potential for physical activity to promote health in these communities, identifying modifiable physical activity determinants in this population is important. This study explored effects of the peri-urban environment and psychological constructs on physical activity intentions and behavioural automaticity guided by an integrated theoretical framework.

METHODS

Peri-urban Australians (N = 271) completed self-report measures of environmental (i.e. physical/social environment, and neighbourhood selection), motivational (i.e. autonomous motivation), and social cognition (i.e. attitudes, norms, and perceived behavioural control [PBC]) constructs, past behaviour, intentions, and automaticity.

RESULTS

A well-fitting path analytic model revealed that: autonomous motivation predicted all social cognition constructs; subjective norms and PBC, but not attitudes; autonomous motivation predicted intentions and automaticity; and subjective norms and PBC mediated effects of autonomous motivation on intentions. Of the environmental constructs, only neighbourhood selection was related to intentions, mediated by PBC.

CONCLUSIONS

Autonomous motivation is an important correlate of physical activity intentions and automaticity, and subjective norms and PBC also related to intentions. Individuals perceiving a supportive environment were more likely to report positive PBC and intentions. Targeting change in autonomous motivation, and normative and control beliefs may help enhance physical activity intentions and automaticity in peri-urban communities.

Area-level and individual correlates of active transportation among adults in Germany: A population-based multilevel study

This study aimed at estimating the prevalence in adults of complying with the aerobic physical activity (PA) recommendation through transportation-related walking and cycling. Furthermore, potential determinants of transportation-related PA recommendation compliance were investigated. 10,872 men and 13,144 women aged 18 years or older participated in the cross-sectional 'German Health Update 2014/15 - EHIS' in Germany. Transportation-related walking and cycling were assessed using the European Health Interview Survey-Physical Activity Questionnaire. Three outcome indicators were constructed: walking, cycling, and total active transportation (≥600 metabolic equivalent, MET-min/week). Associations were analyzed using multilevel regression analysis. Forty-two percent of men and 39% of women achieved ≥600 MET-min/week with total active transportation. The corresponding percentages for walking were 27% and 28% and for cycling 17% and 13%, respectively. Higher population density, older age, lower income, higher work-related and leisure-time PA, not being obese, and better self-perceived health were positively associated with transportation-related walking and cycling and total active transportation among both men and women. The promotion of walking and cycling among inactive people has great potential to increase PA in the general adult population and to comply with PA recommendations. Several correlates of active transportation were identified which should be considered when planning public health policies and interventions.

Age, sex and other correlates with active travel walking and cycling in England: Analysis of responses to the Active Lives Survey 2016/17

Active travel (walking or cycling for transport) can generate personal and environmental benefits. We determined the frequency of participation in walking or cycling active travel by age and sex, as well as used multivariate analysis to find correlations with many other factors using a large cross-sectional 2016/17 survey of people living in England. Walking and cycling active travel were explored separately. Most respondents reported no active travel, but at least 25% of people under age 45 met activity recommendations only from active travel. Otherwise, (unlike other types of physical activity) active travel declined consistently with increased age. Men reported much more cycling active travel than women, who were more likely to do any active travel walking and therefore more likely to meet activity guidelines from just active travel walking. Lower levels of disability, fewer children in household, and working full time increased active travel. Season was sometimes relevant. BMI, personal-effectiveness, deprivation and rurality had mixed relationships with types of active travel. Understanding differences in correlates for cycling vs. walking active travel could help tailor local promotion programmes for each. The analysis suggests that motivators and barriers for active travel greatly by age.

Socio-Ecological Natural Experiment with Randomized Controlled Trial to Promote Active Commuting to Work: Process Evaluation, Behavioral Impacts, and Changes in the Use and Quality of Walking and Cycling Paths

Active commuting to work (ACW) has beneficial effects on health, traffic, and climate. However, more robust evidence is needed on how to promote ACW. This paper reports the findings of a multilevel natural experiment with a randomized controlled trial in 16 Finnish workplaces. In Phase 1, 11 workplaces (1823 employees) from Area 1 were exposed to environmental improvements in walking and cycling paths. In Phase 2, five more workplaces (826 employees) were recruited from Area 2 and all workplaces were randomized into experimental group (EXP) promoting ACW with social and behavioral strategies and comparison group (COM) participating only in data collection. Process and impact evaluation with questionnaires, travel diaries, accelerometers, traffic calculations, and auditing were conducted. Statistics included Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test, Mann-Whitney U-test, and after-before differences with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). After Phase 1, positive change was seen in the self-reported number of days, which the employees intended to cycle part of their journey to work in the following week (p = 0.001). After Phase 2, intervention effect was observed in the proportion of employees, who reported willingness to increase walking (8.7%; 95% CI 1.8 to 15.6) and cycling (5.5%; 2.2 to 8.8) and opportunity to cycle part of their journey to work (5.9%; 2.1 to 9.7). To conclude, the intervention facilitated employees’ motivation for ACW, which is the first step towards behavior change.

Cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis of the active commuting behaviors of U.S. Department of the Interior employees

BACKGROUND

Despite evolving evidence of the health and economic benefits of active transportation (AT) to work, few studies have examined the determinants of AT in large organizations with multiple worksites nor how trends in commuting change over time.

METHODS

The data were obtained from the U.S. Department of the Interior Employee Commuting Census of 2010 (n = 23,230), and 2012-2016 (n = 21,725-25,974). The respondents were grouped into four commuting categories: non-active mode, walking, biking, and mixed-mode. Multinomial logistic regression analysis was utilized to examine the correlates of choosing AT to work for the 2010 data. Next, a repeated cross-sectional analysis was completed for all six years of data.

RESULTS

In 2010, AT modes were only chosen by approximately 10% of respondents. Employees who lived farther from work and did not have a public transit station within 0.5 miles from home were generally less likely to choose AT. Respondents working in non-metro workplaces were less likely to bike or take mixed-modes to work, but more likely to walk. Men were more likely to choose AT modes, particularly biking. Respondents aged ≤30 yrs. were less likely to bike than those 31 to 40 yrs., but more likely than those ≥61 yrs. In 2010, the number of respondents that walked was higher, and biked and took mixed-modes was lower when compared to 2016, while the choice to take mixed-modes was higher in 2012 and 2013 when compared to 2016. Daily commuting distances in 2016 tended to be lower than 2010 and 2012, and higher than 2013. However, overall AT choice and commute distance remained reasonably stable over time.

CONCLUSIONS

Respondents who lived close to their workplace and a public transportation station, worked in a metro location, were male and younger were more likely to choose AT modes to work. The results provide insight for the U.S. Department of the Interior and other large organizations to develop intervention strategies that support AT to work. Further research is warranted to understand the concurrent individual, social, and environmental barriers and facilitators for choosing AT to work.

A workplace-based intervention to increase levels of daily physical activity: the Travel to Work cluster RCT

Background

There may be opportunities for working adults to accumulate recommended physical activity levels (≥ 150 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity in bouts of ≥ 10 minutes throughout the week) during the commute to work. Systematic reviews of interventions to increase active transport indicate that studies are predominantly of poor quality, rely on self-report and lack robust statistical analyses.

Objectives

To assess the effectiveness, cost and consequences of a behavioural intervention to increase walking during the commute to work.

Design

A multicentre, parallel-arm, cluster randomised controlled trial incorporating economic and process evaluations. Physical activity outcomes were measured using accelerometers and GPS (Global Positioning System) receivers at baseline and the 12-month follow-up.

Setting

Workplaces in seven urban areas in south-west England and south Wales.

Participants

Employees (n = 654) in 87 workplaces.

Interventions

Workplace-based Walk to Work promoters were trained to implement a 10-week intervention incorporating key behaviour change techniques.

Main outcome measures

The primary outcome was the daily number of minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Secondary outcomes included MVPA during the commute, overall levels of physical activity and modal shift (from private car to walking). Cost–consequences analysis included employer, employee and health service costs and consequences. Process outcomes included barriers to, and facilitators of, walking during the daily commute.

Results

There was no evidence of an intervention effect on MVPA at the 12-month follow-up [adjusted difference in means 0.3 minutes, 95% confidence interval (CI) –5.3 to 5.9 minutes]. The intervention cost was on average, £181.97 per workplace and £24.19 per participating employee. In comparison with car users [mean 7.3 minutes, standard deviation (SD) 7.6 minutes], walkers (mean 34.3 minutes, SD 18.6 minutes) and public transport users (mean 25.7 minutes, SD 14.0 minutes) accrued substantially higher levels of daily MVPA during the commute. Participants who walked for ≥ 10 minutes during their commute were more likely to have a shorter commute distance (p < 0.001). No access to a car (p < 0.001) and absence of free workplace car parking (p < 0.01) were independently related to walking to work and using public transport. Higher quality-of-life scores were observed for the intervention group in a repeated-measures analysis (mean 0.018, 95% CI 0.000 to 0.036; scores anchored at 0 indicated ‘no capability’ and scores anchored at 1 indicated ‘full capability’).

Conclusions

Although this research showed that walking to work and using public transport are important contributors to physical activity levels in a working population, the behavioural intervention was insufficient to change travel behaviour. Broader contextual factors, such as length of journey, commuting options and availability of car parking, may influence the effectiveness of behavioural interventions to change travel behaviour. Further analyses of statistical and qualitative data could focus on physical activity and travel mode and the wider determinants of workplace travel behaviour.

Trial registration

Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN15009100.

Funding

This project was funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Public Health Research programme and will be published in full in Public Health Research; Vol. 7, No. 11. See the NIHR Journals Library website for further project information. Living Streets, a UK charity promoting everyday walking, provided funding for the intervention booklets and free pedometers for distribution to participants in the intervention group.

Evaluation of an intervention to promote walking during the commute to work: a cluster randomised controlled trial

Background

Opportunities for working adults to accumulate recommended physical activity levels (at least 150 min of moderate intensity physical activity in bouts of at least 10 min throughout the week) may include the commute to work. Systematic reviews of interventions to increase active transport suggest studies have tended to be of poor quality, relying on self-report and lacking robust statistical analyses.

Methods

We conducted a multi-centre parallel-arm cluster randomised controlled trial, in workplaces in south-west England and south Wales, to assess the effectiveness of a behavioural intervention to increase walking during the commute. Workplace-based Walk to Work promoters were trained to implement a 10-week intervention incorporating key behavioural change techniques: providing information; encouraging intention formation; identifying barriers and solutions; goal setting; self-monitoring; providing general encouragement; identifying social support; reviewing goals, and; relapse prevention. Physical activity outcomes were objectively measured using accelerometers and GPS receivers at baseline and 12-month follow-up. The primary outcome was daily minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Secondary outcomes included overall levels of physical activity and modal shift (from private car to walking). Cost-consequences analysis included employer, employee and health service costs and outcomes.

Results

Six hundred fifty-four participants were recruited across 87 workplaces: 10 micro (5–9 employees); 35 small (10–49); 22 medium (50–250); 20 large (250+). The majority of participants lived more than two kilometres from their place of work (89%) and travelled to work by car (65%). At 12-month follow-up, 84 workplaces (41 intervention, 43 control) and 477 employees (73% of those originally recruited) took part in data collection activities. There was no evidence of an intervention effect on MVPA or overall physical activity at 12-month follow-up. The intervention cost on average £181.97 per workplace and £24.19 per participating employee.

Conclusions

The intervention, focusing primarily on individual behaviour change, was insufficient to change travel behaviour. Our findings contribute to the argument that attention should be directed towards a whole systems approach, focusing on interactions between the correlates of travel behaviour.

Trial registration

ISRCTN15009100. Prospectively registered. (Date assigned: 10/12/2014).

Exploring changes in active travel uptake and cessation across the lifespan: Longitudinal evidence from the UK Household Longitudinal Survey

This study aims to explore changes in uptake and cessation of walking, cycling and public transport use across the lifespan in a representative sample of UK adults aged 16 and older. A longitudinal analysis of 11,559 individuals in waves two (2010–2012) and six (2014–2016) of the General Population Sample (GPS) of the UK Household Longitudinal Survey (UKHLS) was performed. The outcome variables were self-reported and categorised as changes to and from 1) walking or cycling and 2) public transport. In adjusted models compared to younger adults (aged 16–34), middle-aged adults (aged 45–55: OR 0.66, p = 0.050) and older adults (aged >55: OR 0.53, p = 0.017) were significantly less likely to initiate walking/cycling during the study period. Middle and older aged adults were also significantly less likely to cease walking/cycling (aged 45–55: OR 0.68, p = 0.019; aged >55: OR 0.46, p < 0.001) and public transport use (aged 45–55: OR 0.33, p < 0.001; aged >55: OR 0.28, p < 0.001). Dose response relationships were observed where increasing age was associated with increased stability in transport mode. Developmental processes in early adulthood may contribute to self-selection and sustainability of active commuting in later life. Active travel programs and policies that target younger adults may be an efficient means to increase and sustain participation in active commuting.

•

In the UK younger adults are more likely to initiate and cease active travel than older adults.

•

Advancing age is associated with increased stability in commuting modes.

•

A developmental perspective may help to understand drivers of transport behaviour change.

•

Potential exists for active travel programs and policies to be tailored to age groups.

Associations of mode of travel to work with physical activity, and individual, interpersonal, organisational, and environmental characteristics

INTRODUCTION

Encouraging walking during the daily commute is a potential strategy for increasing physical activity levels. This study aimed: (i) to examine, and compare by travel mode, the objectively measured physical activity of a working adult population, and, (ii) to identify associations between mode of travel to work and a range of individual, interpersonal, organisational and environmental characteristics.

METHODS

Employees (n=654) recruited from 87 workplaces in geographically distinct areas provided data through accelerometers, Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers, travel diaries and questionnaires. Separate multivariable logistic regression models were developed to examine factors associated with physical activity during the commute and mode of travel to work.

RESULTS

In comparison to car users (7.3 minutes±Standard Deviation 7.6), walkers (34.3±18.6) and public transport users (25.7±14.0) accrued substantially higher levels of daily moderate to vigorous physical activity during the commute. Combined accelerometer and GPS data showed that participants who walked at least ten minutes during their commute were more likely to have a shorter commute distance (p<0.001), occupy a sedentary job (p<0.01), and be classified as 'underweight or normal weight' (p<0.03). No car access (p<0.001), and absence of free work car parking (p<0.01) were independently related to walking to work and using public transport. Shorter commuting distances were also related to walking to work (p<0.001). Public transport users were more likely to be younger (p=0.04), have more positive environmental perceptions (p=0.01), and less likely to combine their commute with caring responsibilities (p=0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows that walking to work and using public transport are important contributors to physical activity levels in a working population. Planning, transport and behavioural interventions to promote walking during the commute should take into account the wider determinants. Reducing availability of free work car parking is one possible strategy to discourage car use.

Meteorologic and Geographic Barriers to Physical Activity in a Workplace Wellness Program

BACKGROUND

Inclement weather and home environment can act as barriers to physical activity. However, it is unclear if they reduce the activity of persons participating in activity-promoting programs.

METHODS

Data from a 6-month workplace financial incentives program were used to establish the association between meteorologic (temperature, rain, snow, and wind) and geographic factors (urban/nonurban home location and distance between home and work) and moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Multivariable models were built to estimate mean weekly minutes of MVPA adjusting for demographic factors, clinical factors, and impulsivity.

RESULTS

The 292 participants had a mean age of 38 (SD = 11) years. Eighty-three percent were female and 62% were white. Twenty-nine percent lived within 3 miles of work, and 35% lived in urban areas. Participants who lived more than 3 miles from work averaged 75 [95% confidence interval (CI), 65-84] minutes of weekly MVPA compared with 105 (95% CI, 88-122) minutes for those who lived within 3 miles of work. Urban participants averaged 70 (95% CI, 57-83) minutes of MVPA compared with 91 (95% CI, 80-102) minutes for nonurban participants. Colder temperatures were associated with decreased MVPA, and impulsivity modified the effect.

CONCLUSIONS

Colder temperatures, greater distance from work, and an urban residence are associated with fewer minutes of MVPA.

Does exposure to new transport infrastructure result in modal shifts? Patterns of change in commute mode choices in a four-year quasi-experimental cohort study

BACKGROUND

Intervention studies suggest that changing the built environment may encourage a modal shift from car travel towards active travel. However, little is known about the detail of patterns of changes in travel behaviour.

METHOD

Adult commuters working in Cambridge (UK) completed annual questionnaires between 2009 and 2012. Commuting was assessed using a validated seven-day travel-to-work record. The intervention consisted of the opening of a guided busway with a path for walking and cycling in 2011. Exposure to the intervention was defined as the negative of the square root of the shortest road distance from home to the busway. We investigated the association between exposure to the intervention and specific modal shifts and patterns of change, along with individual mode choice patterns over the entire four-year period.

RESULTS

Five groups of patterns of change were found in our in-depth explorations: (1) no change, (2) a full modal shift, (3) a partial modal shift, (4) non-stable but patterned behaviour, and (5) complicated or apparently random patterns. A minority of participants had a directed change of either a full modal shift or, more commonly, a partial modal shift, whereas a large proportion showed a highly variable pattern. No significant associations were found between exposure to the intervention and specific modal shifts or patterns of change.

CONCLUSION

Our analyses revealed a large diversity in (changes in) travel behaviour patterns over time, and showed that the intervention did not result in one specific pattern of behaviour change or produce only full modal shifts. These insights are important for improving the measurement of travel behaviour, improving our understanding of how changes in travel behaviour patterns occur, and fully capturing the potential impacts of interventions.

Individual, employment and psychosocial factors influencing walking to work: Implications for intervention design

BACKGROUND

Promoting walking for the journey to and from work (commuter walking) is a potential strategy for increasing physical activity. Understanding the factors influencing commuter walking is important for identifying target groups and designing effective interventions. This study aimed to examine individual, employment-related and psychosocial factors associated with commuter walking and to discuss the implications for targeting and future design of interventions.

METHODS

1,544 employees completed a baseline survey as part of the 'Walking Works' intervention project (33.4% male; 36.3% aged <30 years). Multivariate logistic regression was used to examine the associations of individual (age, ethnic group, educational qualifications, number of children <16 and car ownership), employment-related (distance lived from work, free car parking at work, working hours, working pattern and occupation) and psychosocial factors (perceived behavioural control, intention, social norms and social support from work colleagues) with commuter walking.

RESULTS

Almost half of respondents (n = 587, 49%) were classified as commuter walkers. Those who were aged <30 years, did not have a car, had no free car parking at work, were confident of including some walking or intended to walk to or from work on a regular basis, and had support from colleagues for walking were more likely to be commuter walkers. Those who perceived they lived too far away from work to walk, thought walking was less convenient than using a car for commuting, did not have time to walk, needed a car for work or had always travelled the same way were less likely to be commuter walkers.

CONCLUSIONS

A number of individual, employment-related and psychosocial factors were associated with commuter walking. Target groups for interventions to promote walking to and from work may include those in older age groups and those who own or have access to a car. Multi-level interventions targeting individual level behaviour change, social support within the workplace and organisational level travel policies may be required in order to promote commuter walking.

Longitudinal associations of active commuting with body mass index

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the longitudinal associations between active commuting (walking and cycling to work) and body mass index (BMI).

METHOD

We used self-reported data on height, weight and active commuting from the Commuting and Health in Cambridge study (2009 to 2012; n=809). We used linear regression to test the associations between: a) maintenance of active commuting over one year and BMI at the end of that year; and b) change in weekly time spent in active commuting and change in BMI over one year.

RESULTS

After adjusting for sociodemographic variables, other physical activity, physical wellbeing and maintenance of walking, those who maintained cycle commuting reported a lower BMI on average at one year follow-up (1.14kg/m(2), 95% CI: 0.30 to 1.98, n=579) than those who never cycled to work. No significant association remained after adjustment for baseline BMI. No significant associations were observed for maintenance of walking. An increase in walking was associated with a reduction in BMI (0.32kg/m(2), 95% CI: 0.03 to 0.62, n=651, after adjustment for co-variates and baseline BMI) only when restricting the analysis to those who did not move. No other significant associations between changes in weekly time spent walking or cycling on the commute and changes in BMI were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

This work provides further evidence of the contribution of active commuting, particularly cycling, to preventing weight gain or facilitating weight loss. The findings may be valuable for employees choosing how to commute and engaging employers in the promotion of active travel.

Variability in baseline travel behaviour as a predictor of changes in commuting by active travel, car and public transport: a natural experimental study

PURPOSE

To strengthen our understanding of the impact of baseline variability in mode choice on the likelihood of travel behaviour change.

METHODS

Quasi-experimental analyses in a cohort study of 450 commuters exposed to a new guided busway with a path for walking and cycling in Cambridge, UK. Exposure to the intervention was defined using the shortest network distance from each participant's home to the busway. Variability in commuter travel behaviour at baseline was defined using the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index, the number of different modes of transport used over a week, and the proportion of trips made by the main (combination of) mode(s). The outcomes were changes in the share of commute trips (i) involving any active travel, (ii) involving any public transport, and (iii) made entirely by car. Variability and change data were derived from a self-reported seven-day record collected before (2009) and after (2012) the intervention. Separate multinomial regression models were estimated to assess the influence of baseline variability on behaviour change, both independently and as an interaction effect with exposure to the intervention.

RESULTS

All three measures of variability predicted changes in mode share in most models. The effect size for the intervention was slightly strengthened after including variability. Commuters with higher baseline variability were more likely to increase their active mode share (e.g. for HHI: relative risk ratio [RRR] for interaction 3.34, 95% CI 1.41, 7.89) and decrease their car mode share in response to the intervention (e.g. for HHI: RRR 7.50, 95% CI 2.52, 22.34).

CONCLUSIONS

People reporting a higher level of variability in mode choice were more likely to change their travel behaviour following an intervention. Future research should consider such variability as a potential predictor and effect modifier of travel and physical activity behaviour change, and its significance for the design and targeting of interventions.

Longitudinal associations of active commuting with wellbeing and sickness absence

OBJECTIVE

Our aim was to explore longitudinal associations of active commuting (cycling to work and walking to work) with physical wellbeing (PCS-8), mental wellbeing (MCS-8) and sickness absence.

METHOD

We used data from the Commuting and Health in Cambridge study (2009 to 2012; n=801) to test associations between: a) maintenance of cycling (or walking) to work over a one year period and indices of wellbeing at the end of that one year period; and b) associations between change in cycling (or walking) to work and change in indices of wellbeing. Linear regression was used for testing associations with PCS-8 and MCS-8, and negative binomial regression for sickness absence.

RESULTS

After adjusting for sociodemographic variables, physical activity and physical limitation, those who maintained cycle commuting reported lower sickness absence (0.46, 95% CI: 0.14-0.80; equivalent to one less day per year) and higher MCS-8 scores (1.50, 0.10-2.10) than those who did not cycle to work. The association for sickness absence persisted after adjustment for baseline sickness absence. No significant associations were observed for PCS-8. Associations between change in cycle commuting and change in indices of wellbeing were not significant. No significant associations were observed for walking.

CONCLUSIONS

This work provides some evidence of the value of cycle commuting in improving or maintaining the health and wellbeing of adults of working age. This may be important in engaging employers in the promotion of active travel and communicating the benefits of active travel to employees.

Impact of New Transport Infrastructure on Walking, Cycling, and Physical Activity

INTRODUCTION

Walking and cycling bring health and environmental benefits, but there is little robust evidence that changing the built environment promotes these activities in populations. This study evaluated the effects of new transport infrastructure on active commuting and physical activity.

STUDY DESIGN

Quasi-experimental analysis nested within a cohort study.

SETTING/PARTICIPANTS

Four hundred and sixty-nine adult commuters, recruited through a predominantly workplace-based strategy, who lived within 30 kilometers of Cambridge, United Kingdom and worked in areas of the city to be served by the new transport infrastructure.

INTERVENTION

The Cambridgeshire Guided Busway opened in 2011 and comprised a new bus network and a traffic-free walking and cycling route. Exposure to the intervention was defined using the shortest distance from each participant's home to the busway.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Change in weekly time spent in active commuting between 2009 and 2012, measured by validated 7-day recall instrument. Secondary outcomes were changes in total weekly time spent walking and cycling and in recreational and overall physical activity, measured using the validated Recent Physical Activity Questionnaire. Data were analyzed in 2014.

RESULTS

In multivariable multinomial regression models--adjusted for potential sociodemographic, geographic, health, and workplace confounders; baseline active commuting; and home or work relocation-exposure to the busway was associated with a significantly greater likelihood of an increase in weekly cycle commuting time (relative risk ratio=1.34, 95% CI=1.03, 1.76) and with an increase in overall time spent in active commuting among the least active commuters at baseline (relative risk ratio=1.76, 95% CI=1.16, 2.67). The study found no evidence of changes in recreational or overall physical activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Providing new sustainable transport infrastructure was effective in promoting an increase in active commuting. These findings provide new evidence to support reconfiguring transport systems as part of public health improvement strategies.

Health impacts of the Cambridgeshire Guided Busway: a natural experimental study

Background

Improving transport infrastructure to support walking and cycling on the journey to and from work – active commuting – could help to promote physical activity and improve population health.

Aims

To assess whether or not investment in new high-quality transport infrastructure was associated with an increase in active commuting; wider health impacts of changes in travel behaviour; determinants of the use and uptake of active commuting; and how changes in travel behaviour were distributed in the population and related to the wider social context.

Design

The Commuting and Health in Cambridge study, comprising a quasi-experimental cohort study combined with both nested and supplementary in-depth quantitative and qualitative studies.

Setting

Cambridgeshire, UK.

Participants

A cohort of 1143 adults living within 30 km of Cambridge, working in the city and recruited in 2009; and a separate sample of 1710 users intercepted on the Cambridgeshire Guided Busway in 2012.

Intervention

The Cambridgeshire Guided Busway, comprising a new bus network using 22 km of guideway (segregated bus track) accompanied by a traffic-free path for pedestrians and cyclists, opened in 2011.

Main outcome measure

Change in time spent in active commuting from 2009 to 2012, using a self-reported measure validated using georeferenced combined heart rate and movement sensor data.

Methods

A delay from 2009 to 2011 in completing the intervention entailed some changes to the original design and attrition of the cohort. A period of methodological and observational research on active commuting preceded the evaluation, which was based on a quasi-experimental cohort analysis together with the intercept and qualitative data. A graded measure of each participant’s exposure to the intervention, based on the proximity of the busway to his or her home, served as the basis for controlled comparisons.

Results

Commuting practices were complex and shaped by various changeable social and environmental factors. Walking and cycling were often incorporated into longer commuting journeys made predominantly by car or public transport. In multivariable multinomial regression analyses, exposure to the intervention was associated with a greater likelihood of a large increase in the proportion of commuting trips involving any active travel [adjusted relative risk ratio (RRR) 1.80, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.27 to 2.55], of a large decrease in the proportion of trips made entirely by car (RRR 2.09, 95% CI 1.35 to 3.21), and of an increase in weekly cycle commuting time (RRR 1.34, 95% CI 1.03 to 1.76). There was a mixed pattern of effects at the individual level, with the intervention providing a more supportive environment for active commuting for some and not for others. There was some evidence that the effect was most pronounced among those who reported no active commuting at baseline, and observational evidence suggesting a relationship between active commuting, greater overall physical activity, and improved well-being and weight status.

Conclusions

These findings provide new empirical support and direction for reconfiguring transport systems to improve population health and reduce health inequalities. They should be combined with evidence from research evaluating related environmental changes in other settings, preferably using longer periods of observation and controlled comparisons, to support more generalisable causal inference.

Funding

The National Institute for Health Research Public Health Research programme.

Changes in active commuting and changes in physical activity in adults: a cohort study

Background

Active travel is associated with greater physical activity, but there is a dearth of research examining this relationship over time. We examined the longitudinal associations between change in time spent in active commuting and changes in recreational and total physical activity.

Methods

Adult commuters working in Cambridge, United Kingdom completed questionnaires in 2009 and 2012, and a sub-set completed objective physical activity monitoring in 2010 and 2012. Commuting was assessed using a validated seven-day travel to work record. Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity was assessed using the Recent Physical Activity Questionnaire and combined heart rate and movement sensing. We used multivariable multinomial logistic regression models to examine associations between change in time spent in active commuting and tertiles of changes in time spent in recreational and total physical activity.

Results

Four hundred sixty-nine participants (67 % female, mean age 44 years) provided valid travel and self-reported physical activity data. Seventy-one participants (54 % female, mean age 45 years) provided valid travel and objectively measured physical activity data. A decrease in active commuting was associated with a greater likelihood of a decrease in self-reported total physical activity (relative risk ratio [RRR] 2.1, 95 % CI 1.1, 4.1). Correspondingly, an increase in active commuting was associated with a borderline significantly greater likelihood of an increase in self-reported total physical activity (RRR 1.8, 95 % CI 1.0, 3.4). No associations were seen between change in time spent in active commuting and change in time spent in either self-reported recreational physical activity or objectively measured physical activity.

Conclusions

Changes in active commuting were associated with commensurate changes in total self-reported physical activity and we found no compensatory changes in self-reported recreational physical activity. Promoting active commuting has potential as a public health strategy to increase physical activity. Future longitudinal research would be useful to verify these findings.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12966-015-0323-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Changes in mode of travel to work: a natural experimental study of new transport infrastructure

BACKGROUND

New transport infrastructure may promote a shift towards active travel, thereby improving population health. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of a major transport infrastructure project on commuters' mode of travel, trip frequency and distance travelled to work.

METHODS

Quasi-experimental analysis nested within a cohort study of 470 adults working in Cambridge, UK. The intervention consisted of the opening of a guided busway with a path for walking and cycling in 2011. Exposure to the intervention was defined as the negative of the square root of the shortest distance from home to busway. The outcome measures were changes in commute mode share and number of commute trips - both based on a seven-day travel-to-work record collected before (2009) and after (2012) the intervention - and change in objective commute distance. The mode share outcomes were changes in the proportions of trips (i) involving any active travel, (ii) involving any public transport, and (iii) made entirely by car. Separate multinomial regression models were estimated adjusting for commute and sociodemographic characteristics, residential settlement size and life events.

RESULTS

Proximity to the busway predicted an increased likelihood of a large (>30 %) increase in the share of commute trips involving any active travel (relative risk ratio [RRR] 1.80, 95 % CI 1.27, 2.55) and a large decrease in the share of trips made entirely by car (RRR 2.09, 95 % CI 1.35, 3.21), as well as a lower likelihood of a small (<30 %) reduction in the share of trips involving any active travel (RRR 0.47, 95 % CI 0.28, 0.81). It was not associated with changes in the share of commute trips involving any public transport, the number of commute trips, or commute distance.

CONCLUSIONS

The new infrastructure promoted an increase in the share of commuting trips involving active travel and a decrease in the share made entirely by car. Further analysis will show the extent to which the changes in commute mode share were translated into an increase in time spent in active commuting and consequent health gain.

Sociospatial patterning of the use of new transport infrastructure: Walking, cycling and bus travel on the Cambridgeshire guided busway

BACKGROUND

New transport infrastructure may help promote active travel, thereby contributing to increasing overall physical activity and population health gain. In 2011 a guided busway with a path for walking and cycling was opened in Cambridgeshire, UK. This paper investigates the predictors of walking, cycling and bus use on the busway.

METHODS

Cross-sectional analyses of the final questionnaire wave (2012) of the Commuting and Health in Cambridge cohort study following the opening of the busway. Participants were 453 adult commuters who had not moved home or workplace. Busway use was self-reported and proximity calculated using GIS. Separate multivariable logistic regression models were used to assess predictors of walking, cycling and bus use on the busway.

RESULTS

Exposure to the intervention (proximity: the negative square root of the distance from home to busway in kilometres) increased the odds of use for cycling (OR 2.18; 95% CI 1.58 to 3.00), bus travel (OR 1.53, 95% CI 1.15 to 2.02) and walking (OR 1.34; 95% CI 1.05 to 1.70). The effect of exposure was strengthened in towns for bus use, and in towns and villages for walking, compared with urban areas. Men were more likely than women to have cycled on the busway, whereas individual socioeconomic characteristics did not predict bus use or walking.

CONCLUSION

New high-quality transport infrastructure attracts users, determined by geographical exposure and spatial contextual factors such as settlement size and availability of parking at work. Future longitudinal analyses will determine effects on overall travel and physical activity behaviour change.

Choice of commuting mode among employees: Do home neighborhood environment, worksite neighborhood environment, and worksite policy and supports matter?

BACKGROUND

Promoting the use of public transit and active transport (walking and cycling) instead of car driving is an appealing strategy to increase overall physical activity.

PURPOSE

To quantify the combined associations between self-reported home and worksite neighborhood environments, worksite support and policies, and employees' commuting modes.

METHOD

Between 2012 and 2013, participants residing in four Missouri metropolitan areas were interviewed via telephone (n = 1,338) and provided information on socio-demographic characteristics, home and worksite neighborhoods, and worksite support and policies. Commuting mode was self-reported and categorized into car driving, public transit, and active commuting. Commuting distance was calculated using geographic information systems. Commuters providing completed data were included in the analysis. Multivariate logistic regression models were used to examine the correlates of using public transit and active commuting.

RESULT

The majority of participants reported commuting by driving (88.9%); only 4.9% used public transit and 6.2% used active modes. After multivariate adjustment, having transit stops within 10-15 minutes walking distance from home (p=0.05) and using worksite incentive for public transit (p<0.001) were associated with commuting by public transit. Commuting distance (p<0.001) was negatively associated with active commuting. Having free or low cost recreation facilities around the worksite (p=0.04) and using bike facilities to lock bikes at the worksite (p<0.001) were associated with active commuting.

CONCLUSION

Both environment features and worksite supports and policies are associated with the choice of commuting mode. Future studies should use longitudinal designs to investigate the potential of promoting alternative commuting modes through worksite efforts that support sustainable commuting behaviors as well as the potential of built environment improvements.

Are GIS-modelled routes a useful proxy for the actual routes followed by commuters?

Active commuting offers the potential to increase physical activity among adults by being built into daily routines. Characteristics of the route to work may influence propensity to walk or cycle. Geographic information system (GIS) software is often used to explore this by modelling routes between home and work. However, if the validity of modelled routes depends on the mode of travel used, studies of environmental determinants of travel may be biased. We aimed to understand how well modelled routes reflect those actually taken, and what characteristics explain these differences. We compared modelled GIS shortest path routes with actual routes measured using QStarz BT-Q1000X Global Positioning System (GPS) devices in a free-living sample of adults working in Cambridge and using varying travel modes. Predictors of differences, according to length and percentage overlap, between the two route sets were assessed using multilevel regression models and concordance coefficients. The 276 trips, made by 51 participants, were on average 27% further than modelled routes, with an average geographical overlap of 39%. However, predictability of the route depended on travel mode. For route length, there was moderate-to-substantial agreement for journeys made on foot and by bicycle. Route overlap was lowest for trips made by car plus walk (22%). The magnitude of difference depended on other journey characteristics, including travelling via intermediate destinations, distance, and use of busy roads. In conclusion, GIS routes may be acceptable for distance estimation and to explore potential routes, particularly active commuting. However, GPS should be used to obtain accurate estimates of environmental contexts in which commuting behaviour actually occurs. Public health researchers should bear these considerations in mind when studying the geographical determinants and health implications of commuting behaviour, and when recommending policy changes to encourage active travel.

Changes in mode of transportation to work or school from pre-pregnancy to early pregnancy in the Norwegian Fit for Delivery study

Objective

To describe changes in mode of transportation to work or school from pre-pregnancy to early pregnancy, to describe levels of physical activity related to mode of transportation to work or school, and to examine associations between changes in mode of transportation to work or school and educational level, body mass index (BMI) and age.

Methods

Between September 2009 and February 2013, 575 healthy pregnant nulliparous women were included into the Norwegian Fit for Delivery (NFFD) trial. At inclusion they reported their current and their pre-pregnancy mode of transportation to work or school. Data were analysed by multilevel mixed models with dichotomized modes of transportation as dependent variables.

Results

There was a significant change towards less active transportation to work or school and a decrease in level of physical activity from pre-pregnancy to early pregnancy. Pre-pregnancy, 58% used private transportation to work or school, compared to 64% in early pregnancy (p = 0.001). The percentage of women who biked (11% v. 5%, p < 0.001) decreased significantly from pre-pregnancy to early pregnancy.

Conclusions

In this sample of Norwegian women there was a significant change towards less active transportation to work or school and lower levels of physical activity from pre-pregnancy to early pregnancy.

•

We examined mode of transportation to work/school among pregnant women.

•

Private transport was the dominant mode of transportation.

•

There was a change towards less active transportation and less physical activity in early pregnancy.

•

Only 46% continued biking to work/school in early pregnancy.

•

High education was associated with decreased public and increased private transportation.

Transport choice when travelling to a sports facility: the role of perceived route features - Results from a cross-sectional study in the Netherlands

Background

Physical activity and sedentary behaviour are independently associated with health outcomes, where physical activity (PA) is associated with health benefits and sedentary behaviour is associated with health risks. One possible strategy to counteract sedentary behaviour is to stimulate active transport use. As monitoring studies in the Netherlands have shown that among sedentary people the proportion of adults who engage in sports (hereafter: sports practitioners) is 62.3%, sports practitioners seem a feasible target group for this strategy. Previous studies have generally reported associations between neighbourhood characteristics and active transport use. However, the neighbourhood covers only part of the route to a certain destination. Therefore, we examined the association between perceived route features and transport choice when travelling up to 7.5 kilometres to a sports facility among sports practitioners.

Methods

For 1118 Dutch sports practitioners – who indicated that they practice a sport and travel to a sports facility – age 18 and older, data on transport choice and perceived features of the route to a sports facility were gathered. Participants were classified into one of three transport groups based on their transport choice: car users, cyclists and walkers. Participants were asked whether perceived route features influenced their transport choice. Logistic regression was used to model the odds of cycling versus car use and walking versus car use in the association with perceived route features, adjusted for potential confounders.

Results

Perceived traffic safety was associated with lower odds of cycling (OR: 0.36, 95% CI: 0.15-0.86). Perceived route duration was associated with lower odds of both cycling (OR: 0.54, 95%CI: 0.39-0.75) and walking (OR: 0.60, 95%CI: 0.36-1.00). Perceived distance to a sports facility and having to make a detour when using other transport modes than the chosen transport mode were associated with higher odds of both cycling and walking (OR_range: 1.82-5.21). What and who people encountered during their trip (i.e. visual aspects) was associated with higher odds of both cycling and walking (OR_range: 2.40-3.69).

Conclusions

Perceived traffic safety, duration, distance, detour, and visual aspects, when travelling to a sports facility were associated with transport choice. Therefore, the perception of route features should be considered when stimulating active transport use among sports practitioners.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13102-015-0009-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Active commuting and perceptions of the route environment: a longitudinal analysis

OBJECTIVE

To assess associations between changes in perceptions of the environment en route to work and changes in active commuting.

METHODS

655 commuters in Cambridge, UK reported perceptions of their commuting route and past-week commuting trips in postal questionnaires in 2009 and 2010. Associations between changes in route perceptions and changes in time spent walking and cycling, proportion of car trips, and switching to or from the car on the commute were modelled using multivariable regression.

RESULTS

Changes in only a few perceptions were associated with changes in travel behaviour. Commuters who reported that it became less pleasant to walk recorded a 6% (95% CI: 1, 11) net increase in car trips and a 12 min/week (95% CI: -1, -24) net decrease in walking. Increases in the perceived danger of cycling or of crossing the road were also associated with increases in car trips. Increases in the perceived convenience of public transport (OR: 3.31, 95% CI: 1.27, 8.63) or safety of cycling (OR: 3.70, 95% CI: 1.44, 9.50) were associated with taking up alternatives to the car.

CONCLUSIONS

Interventions to improve the safety of routes and convenience of public transport may help promote active commuting and should be evaluated.

Development of methods to objectively identify time spent using active and motorised modes of travel to work: how do self-reported measures compare?

Background

Active commuting may make an important contribution to population health. Accurate measures of these behaviours are required, but it is unknown how self-reported estimates compare to those derived from objective measures. We sought to develop methods for objectively deriving time spent in specific travel behaviours from a combination of locational and activity data, and to assess the convergent validity of two self-reported estimates.

Methods

In 2010 and 2011, a sub-sample of participants from the Commuting and Health in Cambridge study concurrently completed objective monitoring using combined heart rate and movement sensors and global positioning system devices and reported their past-week commuting in a questionnaire (modes used, and usual time spent walking and cycling per trip) and in a day-by-day diary (all modes and durations). Automated and manual approaches were used to objectively identify total time spent using active and motorised modes. Agreement between self-reported and objectively-derived times was assessed using Lin’s concordance coefficients, Bland-Altman plots and signed-rank tests.

Results

Compared to objective assessments, day-by-day diary estimates of time spent using active modes on the commute were overestimated by a mean of 1.1 minutes/trip (95% limits of agreement (LOA): −7.7 to 9.9, p < 0.001). The magnitude of overestimation was slightly larger, but not significant (p = 0.247), when walking or cycling was used alone (mean: 2.4 minutes/trip, 95% LOA: −6.8 to 11.5). Total time spent on the commute was overestimated by a mean of 1.9 minutes/trip (95% LOA: −15.3 to 19.0, p < 0.001). The mean differences between self-reported usual time and objective estimates were −1.1 minutes/trip (95% LOA: −8.7 to 6.4) for cycling and +2.4 minutes/trip (95% LOA: −10.9 to 15.7) for walking. Mean differences between usual and daily estimates of time were <1 minute/trip for both walking and cycling.

Conclusions

We developed a novel method of combining objective data to identify time spent using active and motorised modes, and total time spent commuting. Compared to objectively-derived times, self-reported times spent active commuting were slightly overestimated with wide LOA, suggesting that they should be used with caution to infer aggregate weekly quantities of activity on the commute at the individual level.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12966-014-0116-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Sociodemographic and environmental correlates of active commuting in rural America

PURPOSE

This research investigated participation rates in 3 modes of active commuting (AC) and their sociodemographic and physical environmental correlates in rural America.

METHODS

The 2000 Census supplemented with other data sets were used to analyze AC rates in percentage of workers walking, biking, and taking public transportation to work in 14,209 nonmetropolitan rural tracts identified by RUCA codes, including 4,067 small rural and 10,142 town-micropolitan rural tracts. Sociodemographic and physical environmental variables were correlated with 3 AC modes simultaneously using Seemingly Unrelated Regression for nonmetro rural, and for small rural and town-micropolitan rural separately.

FINDINGS

The average AC rates in rural tracts were 3.63%, 0.26%, and 0.56% for walking, biking, and public transportation to work, respectively, with small rural tracts having a higher rate of walking but lower rates of biking and public transportation to work than town-micropolitan tracts. In general, better economic well-being was negatively associated with AC but percentage of college-educated was a positive correlate. Population density was positively associated with AC but greenness and proximity to parks were negative correlates. However, significant differences existed for different AC modes, and between small rural and town-micropolitan rural tracts.

CONCLUSIONS

Sociodemographic factors explained more variance in AC than physical environmental factors but the detailed relationships were complex, varying by AC mode and by degree of rurality. Any strategy to promote AC in rural America needs to be sensitive to the population size of the area and assessed in a comprehensive manner to avoid a "one size fits all" approach.

Individual characteristics associated with mismatches between self-reported and accelerometer-measured physical activity

Background

Accurate assessment tools are required for the surveillance of physical activity (PA) levels and the assessment of the effect of interventions. In addition, increasing awareness of PA is often used as the first step in pragmatic behavioural interventions, as discrepancies between the amount of activity an individual perceives they do and the amount actually undertaken may act as a barrier to change. Previous research has demonstrated differences in the amount of activity individuals report doing, compared to their level of physical activity when measured with an accelerometer. Understanding the characteristics of those whose PA level is ranked differently when measured with either self-report or accelerometry is important as it may inform the choice of instrument for future research. The aim of this project was to determine which individual characteristics are associated with differences between self-reported and accelerometer measured physical activity.

Methods

Participant data from the 2009 wave of the Commuting and Health in Cambridge study were used. Quartiles of self-reported and accelerometer-measured PA were derived by ranking each measure from lowest to highest. These quartiles were compared to determine whether individuals’ physical activity was ranked higher by either method. Multinomial logistic regression models were used to investigate the individual characteristics associated with different categories of mismatch.

Results

Data from 486 participants (70% female) were included in the analysis. In adjusted analyses, the physical activity of overweight or obese individuals was significantly more likely to be ranked higher by self-report than by accelerometer than that of normal-weight individuals (OR = 2.07, 95%CI = 1.28–3.34), particularly among women (OR = 3.97, 95%CI = 2.11–7.47).

Conclusions

There was a greater likelihood of mismatch between self-reported and accelerometer measured physical activity levels in overweight or obese adults. Future studies in overweight or obese adults should consider employing both methods of measurement.

The contribution of media analysis to the evaluation of environmental interventions: the commuting and health in Cambridge study

Background

Media content can increase awareness of, and shape interactions with, public health interventions. As part of a natural experimental evaluation of the travel, physical activity and health impacts of the Cambridgeshire Guided Busway, we analysed print and social media discourse and interview data to understand the nature of new transport infrastructure and how it was experienced.

Methods

Newspaper articles were systematically retrieved from the LexisNexis database and tweets were identified from an online archive. Interviews were conducted as part of the larger evaluation study with 38 adults. Inductive thematic analysis was performed and comparisons were drawn between datasets.

Results

The findings are discussed in relation to five themes. First, an understanding of the intervention context and how the intervention was experienced was developed through accounts of events occurring pre and post the busway’s opening. Second, the media captured the dynamic nature of the intervention. Third, the media constructed idealised portrayals of the anticipated busway which in some cases were contradicted by the impact of the busway on the existing context and people’s lived experiences. Fourth, differential media coverage of the intervention components suggested that a lesser value was placed on promoting active travel compared with public transport. Lastly, interview data provided support for the hypothesis that the media increased awareness of the busway and served as a frame of reference for constructing expectations and comparing experiences.

Conclusions

This analysis has contributed to the wider evaluation of the busway, helping to understand its nature and implementation and informing hypotheses about how the local population interact with the infrastructure by attending to the significance of representations in the media.

Patterns and predictors of changes in active commuting over 12 months

OBJECTIVE

To assess the predictors of uptake and maintenance of walking and cycling, and of switching to the car as the usual mode of travel, for commuting.

METHODS

655 commuters in Cambridge, UK reported all commuting trips using a seven-day recall instrument in 2009 and 2010. Individual and household characteristics, psychological measures relating to car use and environmental conditions on the route to work were self-reported in 2009. Objective environmental characteristics were assessed using Geographical Information Systems. Associations between uptake and maintenance of commuting behaviours and potential predictors were modelled using multivariable logistic regression.

RESULTS

Mean within-participant changes in commuting were relatively small (walking: +3.0 min/week, s.d.=66.7; cycling: -5.3 min/week, s.d.=74.7). Self-reported and objectively-assessed convenience of public transport predicted uptake of walking and cycling respectively, while convenient cycle routes predicted uptake of cycling and a pleasant route predicted maintenance of walking. A lack of free workplace parking predicted uptake of walking and alternatives to the car. Less favourable attitudes towards car use predicted continued use of alternatives to the car.

CONCLUSIONS

Improving the convenience of walking, cycling and public transport and limiting the availability of workplace car parking may promote uptake and maintenance of active commuting.

Associations between active commuting and physical and mental wellbeing

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether a relationship exists between active commuting and physical and mental wellbeing.

METHOD

In 2009, cross-sectional postal questionnaire data were collected from a sample of working adults (aged 16 and over) in the Commuting and Health in Cambridge study. Travel behaviour and physical activity were ascertained using the Recent Physical Activity Questionnaire (RPAQ) and a seven-day travel-to-work recall instrument from which weekly time spent in active commuting (walking and cycling) was derived. Physical and mental wellbeing were assessed using the Medical Outcomes Study Short Form survey (SF-8). Associations were tested using multivariable linear regression.

RESULTS

An association was observed between physical wellbeing (PCS-8) score and time spent in active commuting after adjustment for other physical activity (adjusted regression coefficients 0.48, 0.79 and 1.21 for 30-149 min/week, 150-224 min/week and ≥ 225 min/week respectively versus < 30 min/week, p=0.01 for trend; n=989). No such relationship was found for mental wellbeing (MCS-8) (p=0.52).

CONCLUSION

Greater time spent actively commuting is associated with higher levels of physical wellbeing. Longitudinal studies should examine the contribution of changing levels of active commuting and other forms of physical activity to overall health and wellbeing.

Correlates of walking and cycling for transport and recreation: factor structure, reliability and behavioural associations of the perceptions of the environment in the neighbourhood scale (PENS)

Background

Emerging evidence suggests that walking and cycling for different purposes such as transport or recreation may be associated with different attributes of the physical environment. Few studies to date have examined these behaviour-specific associations, particularly in the UK. This paper reports on the development, factor structure and test-retest reliability of a new scale assessing perceptions of the environment in the neighbourhood (PENS) and the associations between perceptions of the environment and walking and cycling for transport and recreation.

Methods

A new 13-item scale was developed for assessing adults’ perceptions of the environment in the neighbourhood (PENS). Three sets of analyses were conducted using data from two sources. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were used to identify a set of summary environmental variables using data from the iConnect baseline survey (n = 3494); test-retest reliability of the individual and summary environmental items was established using data collected in a separate reliability study (n = 166); and multivariable logistic regression was used to determine the associations of the environmental variables with walking for transport, walking for recreation, cycling for transport and cycling for recreation, using iConnect baseline survey data (n = 2937).

Results

Four summary environmental variables (traffic safety, supportive infrastructure, availability of local amenities and social order), one individual environmental item (street connectivity) and a variable encapsulating general environment quality were identified for use in further analyses. Intraclass correlations of these environmental variables ranged from 0.44 to 0.77 and were comparable to those seen in other similar scales. After adjustment for demographic and other environmental factors, walking for transport was associated with supportive infrastructure, availability of local amenities and general environment quality; walking for recreation was associated with supportive infrastructure; and cycling for transport was associated only with street connectivity. There was limited evidence of any associations between environmental attributes and cycling for recreation.

Conclusion

PENS is acceptable as a short instrument for assessing perceptions of the urban environment. Previous findings that different attributes of the environment may be associated with different behaviours are confirmed. Policy action to create supportive environments may require a combination of environmental improvements to promote walking and cycling for different purposes.

Neighbourhood, Route and Workplace-Related Environmental Characteristics Predict Adults' Mode of Travel to Work

Objective

Commuting provides opportunities for regular physical activity which can reduce the risk of chronic disease. Commuters' mode of travel may be shaped by their environment, but understanding of which specific environmental characteristics are most important and might form targets for intervention is limited. This study investigated associations between mode choice and a range of objectively assessed environmental characteristics.

Methods

Participants in the Commuting and Health in Cambridge study reported where they lived and worked, their usual mode of travel to work and a variety of socio-demographic characteristics. Using geographic information system (GIS) software, 30 exposure variables were produced capturing characteristics of areas around participants' homes and workplaces and their shortest modelled routes to work. Associations between usual mode of travel to work and personal and environmental characteristics were investigated using multinomial logistic regression.

Results

Of the 1124 respondents, 50% reported cycling or walking as their usual mode of travel to work. In adjusted analyses, home-work distance was strongly associated with mode choice, particularly for walking. Lower odds of walking or cycling rather than driving were associated with a less frequent bus service (highest versus lowest tertile: walking OR 0.61 [95% CI 0.20–1.85]; cycling OR 0.43 [95% CI 0.23–0.83]), low street connectivity (OR 0.22, [0.07–0.67]; OR 0.48 [0.26–0.90]) and free car parking at work (OR 0.24 [0.10–0.59]; OR 0.55 [0.32–0.95]). Participants were less likely to cycle if they had access to fewer destinations (leisure facilities, shops and schools) close to work (OR 0.36 [0.21–0.62]) and a railway station further from home (OR 0.53 [0.30–0.93]). Covariates strongly predicted travel mode (pseudo r-squared 0.74).

Conclusions

Potentially modifiable environmental characteristics, including workplace car parking, street connectivity and access to public transport, are associated with travel mode choice, and could be addressed as part of transport policy and infrastructural interventions to promote active commuting.

Walking and cycling to work despite reporting an unsupportive environment: insights from a mixed-method exploration of counterintuitive findings

Background

Perceptions of the environment appear to be associated with walking and cycling. We investigated the reasons for walking and cycling to or from work despite reporting an unsupportive route environment in a sample of commuters.

Methods

This mixed-method analysis used data collected as part of the Commuting and Health in Cambridge study. 1164 participants completed questionnaires which assessed the travel modes used and time spent on the commute and the perceived environmental conditions on the route to work. A subset of 50 also completed qualitative interviews in which they discussed their experiences of commuting. Participants were included in this analysis if they reported unsupportive conditions for walking or cycling on their route (e.g. heavy traffic) in questionnaires, walked or cycled all or part of the journey to work, and completed qualitative interviews. Using content analysis of these interviews, we investigated their reasons for walking or cycling.

Results

340 participants reported walking or cycling on the journey to work despite unsupportive conditions, of whom 15 also completed qualitative interviews. From these, three potential explanations emerged. First, some commuters found strategies for coping with unsupportive conditions. Participants described knowledge of the locality and opportunities for alternative routes more conducive to active commuting, as well as their cycling experience and acquired confidence to cycle in heavy traffic. Second, some commuters had other reasons for being reliant on or preferring active commuting despite adverse environments, such as childcare arrangements, enjoyment, having more control over their journey time, employers’ restrictions on car parking, or the cost of petrol or parking. Finally, some survey respondents appeared to have reported not their own environmental perceptions but those of others such as family members or ‘the public’, partly to make a political statement regarding the adversity of active commuting in their setting.

Conclusions

Participants report walking and cycling to work despite adverse environmental conditions. Understanding this resilience might be just as important as investigating ‘barriers’ to cycling. These findings suggest that developing knowledge of safe walking and cycling routes, improving cycling confidence and restricting workplace parking may help to encourage walking and cycling to and from work.

The factors influencing car use in a cycle-friendly city: the case of Cambridge

Encouraging people out of their cars and into other modes of transport, which has major advantages for health, the environment and urban development, has proved difficult. Greater understanding of the influences that lead people to use the car, particularly for shorter journeys, may help to achieve this. This paper examines the predictors of car use compared with the bicycle to explore how it may be possible to persuade more people to use the bicycle instead of the car. Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the socio-demographic, transport and health-related correlates of mode choice for work, shopping and leisure trips in Cambridge, a city with high levels of cycling by UK standards. The key findings are that commuting distance and free workplace parking were strongly associated with use of the car for work trips, and car availability and lower levels of education were associated with car use for leisure, shopping and short-distanced commuting trips. The case of Cambridge shows that more policies could be adopted, particularly a reduction in free car parking, to increase cycling and reduce the use of the car, especially over short distances.

Incorporating walking or cycling into car journeys to and from work: the role of individual, workplace and environmental characteristics

OBJECTIVE

Small increases in walking or cycling for transport could contribute to population health improvement. We explore the individual, workplace and environmental characteristics associated with the incorporation of walking and cycling into car journeys.

METHODS

In 2009, participants from the Commuting and Health in Cambridge study (UK) reported transport modes used on the commute in the last week as well as individual, workplace and environmental characteristics. Logistic regression was used to assess the explanatory variables associated with incorporating walking or cycling into car commuting journeys.

RESULTS

31% of car commuters (n=419, mean age 43.3 years, SD 0.3) regularly incorporated walking or cycling into their commute. Those without access to car parking at work (OR: 26.0, 95% CI:11.8 to 57.2) and who reported most supportive environments for walking and cycling en route to work (highest versus lowest tertile, OR: 2.7, 95% CI 1.4 to 5.5) were more likely to incorporate walking or cycling into their car journeys.

CONCLUSIONS

Interventions that provide pleasant and convenient routes, limit or charge for workplace car parking and provide free off-site car parking may encourage car commuters to incorporate walking and cycling into car journeys. The effects of such interventions remain to be evaluated.

The feasibility of rapid baseline objective physical activity measurement in a natural experimental study of a commuting population

Background

Studies of the effects of environmental interventions on physical activity should include valid measures of physical activity before and after the intervention. Baseline data collection can be difficult when the timetable for introduction of an intervention is outside researchers’ control. This paper reports and reflects on the practical issues, challenges and results of rapid baseline objective physical activity measurement using accelerometers distributed by post in a natural experimental study.

Methods

A sample of working adults enrolling for the Commuting and Health in Cambridge study and expressing willingness to wear an activity monitor was selected to undertake baseline accelerometer assessment. Each selected participant received a study pack by post containing the core study questionnaire and an accelerometer to wear for seven consecutive days, and was asked to return their accelerometer and completed questionnaire in person or by post using the prepaid special delivery envelope provided. If a pack was not returned within two weeks of issue, a reminder was sent to the participant. Each participant received up to five reminders by various methods including letter, email, telephone and letter sent by recorded delivery.

Results

95% of participants registering for the study were willing in principle to undertake accelerometer assessment. Using a pool of 221 accelerometers, we achieved a total of 714 issues of accelerometers to participants during a six month period. 116 (16%) participants declined to use the accelerometer after receiving it. Three accelerometers failed, 45 (6% of 714) were lost and many were returned with insufficient data recorded, resulted in 109 (15%) participants re-wearing their accelerometer for a second week of measurement. 550 (77%) participants completed data collection, 478 (87% of 550) to the required standard. A total of 694 reminders were issued to retrieve unreturned accelerometers. More than 90% of accelerometers were retrieved after a maximum of two reminders.

Conclusions

It is feasible to use accelerometers to collect baseline objective physical activity data by post from a large number of participants in a limited time period. However, a substantial pool of devices is required and researchers need to be prepared to make significant efforts to recover some of the devices.

Healthy travel and the socio-economic structure of car commuting in Cambridge, UK: a mixed-methods analysis

Car use is associated with substantial health and environmental costs but research in deprived populations indicates that car access may also promote psychosocial well-being within car-oriented environments. This mixed-method (quantitative and qualitative) study examined this issue in a more affluent setting, investigating the socio-economic structure of car commuting in Cambridge, UK. Our analyses involved integrating self-reported questionnaire data from 1142 participants in the Commuting and Health in Cambridge study (collected in 2009) and in-depth interviews with 50 participants (collected 2009-2010). Even in Britain's leading 'cycling city', cars were a key resource in bridging the gap between individuals' desires and their circumstances. This applied both to long-term life goals such as home ownership and to shorter-term challenges such as illness. Yet car commuting was also subject to constraints, with rush hour traffic pushing drivers to start work earlier and with restrictions on, or charges for, workplace parking pushing drivers towards multimodal journeys (e.g. driving to a 'park-and-ride' site then walking). These patterns of car commuting were socio-economically structured in several ways. First, the gradient of housing costs made living near Cambridge more expensive, affecting who could 'afford' to cycle and perhaps making cycling the more salient local marker of Bourdieu's class distinction. Nevertheless, cars were generally affordable in this relatively affluent, highly-educated population, reducing the barrier which distance posed to labour-force participation. Finally, having the option of starting work early required flexible hours, a form of job control which in Britain is more common among higher occupational classes. Following a social model of disability, we conclude that socio-economic advantage can make car-oriented environments less disabling via both greater affluence and greater job control, and in ways manifested across the full socio-economic range. This suggests the importance of combining individual-level 'healthy travel' interventions with measures aimed at creating travel environments in which all social groups can pursue healthy and satisfying lives.