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Lloyd EM, Pinniger GJ, Murphy RM, Grounds MD. Slow or fast: Implications of myofibre type and associated differences for manifestation of neuromuscular disorders. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2023; 238:e14012. [PMID: 37306196 DOI: 10.1111/apha.14012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Many neuromuscular disorders can have a differential impact on a specific myofibre type, forming the central premise of this review. The many different skeletal muscles in mammals contain a spectrum of slow- to fast-twitch myofibres with varying levels of protein isoforms that determine their distinctive contractile, metabolic, and other properties. The variations in functional properties across the range of classic 'slow' to 'fast' myofibres are outlined, combined with exemplars of the predominantly slow-twitch soleus and fast-twitch extensor digitorum longus muscles, species comparisons, and techniques used to study these properties. Other intrinsic and extrinsic differences are discussed in the context of slow and fast myofibres. These include inherent susceptibility to damage, myonecrosis, and regeneration, plus extrinsic nerves, extracellular matrix, and vasculature, examined in the context of growth, ageing, metabolic syndrome, and sexual dimorphism. These many differences emphasise the importance of carefully considering the influence of myofibre-type composition on manifestation of various neuromuscular disorders across the lifespan for both sexes. Equally, understanding the different responses of slow and fast myofibres due to intrinsic and extrinsic factors can provide deep insight into the precise molecular mechanisms that initiate and exacerbate various neuromuscular disorders. This focus on the influence of different myofibre types is of fundamental importance to enhance translation for clinical management and therapies for many skeletal muscle disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin M Lloyd
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Human Biology, School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin Medical School, Curtin University, Bentley, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Gavin J Pinniger
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Human Biology, School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Robyn M Murphy
- Department of Biochemistry and Chemistry, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Miranda D Grounds
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Human Biology, School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
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Is the fundamental pathology in Duchenne's muscular dystrophy caused by a failure of glycogenolysis–glycolysis in costameres? J Genet 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s12041-022-01410-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Wu X, Dong N, Yu L, Liu M, Jiang J, Tang T, Zhao H, Fang Q. Identification of immune-related features involved in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: A bidirectional transcriptome and proteome-driven analysis. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1017423. [PMID: 36483550 PMCID: PMC9724784 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1017423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background We aimed to investigate the biological mechanism and feature genes of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) by multi-omics and experimental verification strategy. Methods We integrated the transcriptomic and proteomic methods to find the differentially expressed mRNAs (DEMs) and proteins (DEPs) between DMD and Control groups. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) was then used to identify modules of highly correlated genes and hub genes. In the following steps, the immune and stromal cells infiltrations were accomplished by xCELL algorithm. Furthermore, TF and miRNA prediction were performed with Networkanalyst. ELISA, western blot and external datasets were performed to verify the key proteins/mRNAs in DMD patient and mouse. Finally, a nomogram model was established based on the potential biomarkers. Results 4515 DEMs and 56 DEPs were obtained from the transcriptomic and proteomic study respectively. 14 common genes were identified, which is enriched in muscle contraction and inflammation-related pathways. Meanwhile, we observed 33 significant differences in the infiltration of cells in DMD. Afterwards, a total of 22 miRNAs and 23 TF genes interacted with the common genes, including TFAP2C, MAX, MYC, NFKB1, RELA, hsa-miR-1255a, hsa-miR-130a, hsa-miR-130b, hsa-miR-152, and hsa-miR-17. In addition, three genes (ATP6AP2, CTSS, and VIM) showed excellent diagnostic performance on discriminating DMD in GSE1004, GSE3307, GSE6011 and GSE38417 datasets (all AUC > 0.8), which is validated in patients (10 DMD vs. 10 controls), DMD with exon 55 mutations, mdx mouse, and nomogram model. Conclusion Taken together, ATP6AP2, CTSS, and VIM play important roles in the inflammatory response in DMD, which may serve as diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Wu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China,Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Nan Dong
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Liqiang Yu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Meirong Liu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Jianhua Jiang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Tieyu Tang
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Hongru Zhao
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China,*Correspondence: Hongru Zhao, ; Qi Fang,
| | - Qi Fang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China,*Correspondence: Hongru Zhao, ; Qi Fang,
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Schneider SM, Sansom GT, Guo LJ, Furuya S, Weeks BR, Kornegay JN. Natural History of Histopathologic Changes in Cardiomyopathy of Golden Retriever Muscular Dystrophy. Front Vet Sci 2022; 8:759585. [PMID: 35252412 PMCID: PMC8892215 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.759585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an X-linked inherited myopathy that causes progressive skeletal and cardiac muscle disease. Heart lesions were described in the earliest DMD reports, and cardiomyopathy is now the leading cause of death. However, diagnostics and treatment for cardiomyopathy have lagged behind those for appendicular and respiratory skeletal muscle disease. Most animal model studies have been done in the mdx mouse, which has a relatively mild form of cardiomyopathy. Dogs with the genetically homologous condition, Golden Retriever muscular dystrophy (GRMD), develop progressive cardiomyopathy analogous to that seen in DMD. Previous descriptive studies of GRMD cardiomyopathy have mostly been limited to selective sampling of the hearts from young dogs. Methods and Results We systematically assessed cardiac lesions in 31 GRMD and carrier dogs aged 3 to 76 months and a separate cohort of 2–10-year-old normal hounds. Both semi-quantitative lesion scoring and quantitation of the cross-sectional area of fibrosis distinguished dogs with GRMD disease from normal dogs. The carriers generally had intermediate involvement but had even greater fibrosis than GRMD dogs. Fatty infiltration was the most prominent feature in some older GRMD dogs. Vascular hypertrophy was increased in GRMD dogs and correlated positively with lesion severity. Purkinje fiber vacuolation was also increased but did not correlate with lesion severity. Histopathologic changes correlated with late gadolinium enhancement on cardiac MRI. Conclusion These features are generally compatible with those of DMD and further validate GRMD as a useful model to study cardiomyopathy pathogenesis and treatment. Additionally, the nature of some degenerative lesions suggests that functional hypoxia or non-thrombotic ischemia may contribute to disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M. Schneider
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
- *Correspondence: Sarah M. Schneider
| | - Garett T. Sansom
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Lee-Jae Guo
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Shinji Furuya
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Brad R. Weeks
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Joe N. Kornegay
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
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Barthélémy I, Hitte C, Tiret L. The Dog Model in the Spotlight: Legacy of a Trustful Cooperation. J Neuromuscul Dis 2020; 6:421-451. [PMID: 31450509 PMCID: PMC6918919 DOI: 10.3233/jnd-190394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Dogs have long been used as a biomedical model system and in particular as a preclinical proof of concept for innovative therapies before translation to humans. A recent example of the utility of this animal model is the promising myotubularin gene delivery in boys affected by X-linked centronuclear myopathy after successful systemic, long-term efficient gene therapy in Labrador retrievers. Mostly, this is due to unique features that make dogs an optimal system. The continuous emergence of spontaneous inherited disorders enables the identification of reliable complementary molecular models for human neuromuscular disorders (NMDs). Dogs’ characteristics including size, lifespan and unprecedented medical care level allow a comprehensive longitudinal description of diseases. Moreover, the highly similar pathogenic mechanisms with human patients yield to translational robustness. Finally, interindividual phenotypic heterogeneity between dogs helps identifying modifiers and anticipates precision medicine issues. This review article summarizes the present list of molecularly characterized dog models for NMDs and provides an exhaustive list of the clinical and paraclinical assays that have been developed. This toolbox offers scientists a sensitive and reliable system to thoroughly evaluate neuromuscular function, as well as efficiency and safety of innovative therapies targeting these NMDs. This review also contextualizes the model by highlighting its unique genetic value, shaped by the long-term coevolution of humans and domesticated dogs. Because the dog is one of the most protected research animal models, there is considerable opposition to include it in preclinical projects, posing a threat to the use of this model. We thus discuss ethical issues, emphasizing that unlike many other models, the dog also benefits from its contribution to comparative biomedical research with a drastic reduction in the prevalence of morbid alleles in the breeding stock and an improvement in medical care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inès Barthélémy
- U955 - IMRB, Team 10 - Biology of the neuromuscular system, Inserm, UPEC, EFS, École nationale vétérinaire d'Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Christophe Hitte
- CNRS, University of Rennes 1, UMR 6290, IGDR, Faculty of Medicine, SFR Biosit, Rennes, France
| | - Laurent Tiret
- U955 - IMRB, Team 10 - Biology of the neuromuscular system, Inserm, UPEC, EFS, École nationale vétérinaire d'Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, France
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Hor KN, Johnston P, Kinnett K, Mah ML, Stiver C, Markham L, Cripe L. Progression of Duchenne Cardiomyopathy Presenting with Chest Pain and Troponin Elevation. J Neuromuscul Dis 2019; 4:307-314. [PMID: 28984614 DOI: 10.3233/jnd-170253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Improved neuromuscular and respiratory therapies have altered the natural history of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) such that the most common cause of mortality is progressive cardiomyopathy. Despite imaging evidence of progressive cardiomyopathy, troponin I (cTn) is not significantly elevated in asymptomatic DMD patients. RESULTS We describe eight boys with DMD evaluated for acute chest pain (ACP) and found to have acute cTn elevation with depressed left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). Of our eight patients, five presented with a primary complaint of ACP, while three presented with secondary myocardial injury in the context of systemic illness requiring hospitalization. Electrocardiograms showed diffuse ST changes and mean peak cTn level was 44±15.4 ng/mL (reference range <0.03 ng/mL). cTn levels normalized with only supportive care. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) was performed during the event on all but one patient, demonstrating increased late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) from 12.4±11.4% to 36.5±10.3% with associated deterioration of LVEF from 61±4.4% to 47.6±6.6% which remained depressed on follow-up CMR study (49.1±7.8%). All viral studies were negative. Additional investigations varied among patients, but no causative findings were demonstrated. CONCLUSIONS ACP with cTn elevation occurs in DMD boys and may be indicative of cardiomyopathy progression as evidenced by acute left ventricular dysfunction and development or progression of myocardial fibrosis. This clinical presentation is under recognized. These events may represent an important pathophysiological mechanism in cardiomyopathy progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kan N Hor
- Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
| | | | - Kathi Kinnett
- Parent Project Muscular Dystrophy, Hackensack, NJ, USA
| | - May Ling Mah
- Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Corey Stiver
- Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Larry Markham
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Linda Cripe
- Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
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Schneider SM, Sridhar V, Bettis AK, Heath-Barnett H, Balog-Alvarez CJ, Guo LJ, Johnson R, Jaques S, Vitha S, Glowcwski AC, Kornegay JN, Nghiem PP. Glucose Metabolism as a Pre-clinical Biomarker for the Golden Retriever Model of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. Mol Imaging Biol 2019; 20:780-788. [PMID: 29508262 PMCID: PMC6153676 DOI: 10.1007/s11307-018-1174-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Purpose Metabolic dysfunction in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is characterized by reduced glycolytic and oxidative enzymes, decreased and abnormal mitochondria, decreased ATP, and increased oxidative stress. We analyzed glucose metabolism as a potential disease biomarker in the genetically homologous golden retriever muscular dystrophy (GRMD) dog with molecular, biochemical, and in vivo imaging. Procedures Pelvic limb skeletal muscle and left ventricle tissue from the heart were analyzed by mRNA profiling, qPCR, western blotting, and immunofluorescence microscopy for the primary glucose transporter (GLUT4). Physiologic glucose handling was measured by fasting glucose tolerance test (GTT), insulin levels, and skeletal and cardiac positron emission tomography/X-ray computed tomography (PET/CT) using the glucose analog 2-deoxy-2-[18F]fluoro-d-glucose ([18F]FDG). Results MRNA profiles showed decreased GLUT4 in the cranial sartorius (CS), vastus lateralis (VL), and long digital extensor (LDE) of GRMD vs. normal dogs. QPCR confirmed GLUT4 downregulation but increased hexokinase-1. GLUT4 protein levels were not different in the CS, VL, or left ventricle but increased in the LDE of GRMD vs. normal. Microscopy revealed diffuse membrane expression of GLUT4 in GRMD skeletal but not cardiac muscle. GTT showed higher basal glucose and insulin in GRMD but rapid tissue glucose uptake at 5 min post-dextrose injection in GRMD vs. normal/carrier dogs. PET/ CT with [18F]FDG and simultaneous insulin stimulation showed a significant increase (p = 0.03) in mean standard uptake values (SUV) in GRMD skeletal muscle but not pelvic fat at 5 min post-[18F]FDG /insulin injection. Conversely, mean cardiac SUV was lower in GRMD than carrier/normal (p < 0.01). Conclusions Altered glucose metabolism in skeletal and cardiac muscle of GRMD dogs can be monitored with molecular, biochemical, and in vivo imaging studies and potentially utilized as a biomarker for disease progression and therapeutic response. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s11307-018-1174-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Morar Schneider
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843-4458, USA
| | - Vidya Sridhar
- Texas A&M Institute for Preclinical Studies, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843-4458, USA
| | - Amanda K Bettis
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, 4458 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843-4458, USA
| | - Heather Heath-Barnett
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, 4458 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843-4458, USA
| | - Cynthia J Balog-Alvarez
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, 4458 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843-4458, USA
| | - Lee-Jae Guo
- Texas A&M Institute for Preclinical Studies, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843-4458, USA.,Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, 4458 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843-4458, USA
| | - Rachel Johnson
- Texas A&M Institute for Preclinical Studies, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843-4458, USA
| | - Scott Jaques
- Texas A&M Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843-4458, USA
| | - Stanislav Vitha
- Microscopy Imaging Center, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843-4458, USA
| | - Alan C Glowcwski
- Texas A&M Institute for Preclinical Studies, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843-4458, USA
| | - Joe N Kornegay
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, 4458 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843-4458, USA
| | - Peter P Nghiem
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, 4458 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843-4458, USA.
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Abdullah M, Kornegay JN, Honcoop A, Parry TL, Balog-Alvarez CJ, O'Neal SK, Bain JR, Muehlbauer MJ, Newgard CB, Patterson C, Willis MS. Non-Targeted Metabolomics Analysis of Golden Retriever Muscular Dystrophy-Affected Muscles Reveals Alterations in Arginine and Proline Metabolism, and Elevations in Glutamic and Oleic Acid In Vivo. Metabolites 2017; 7:E38. [PMID: 28758940 PMCID: PMC5618323 DOI: 10.3390/metabo7030038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2017] [Revised: 07/21/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Like Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), the Golden Retriever Muscular Dystrophy (GRMD) dog model of DMD is characterized by muscle necrosis, progressive paralysis, and pseudohypertrophy in specific skeletal muscles. This severe GRMD phenotype includes moderate atrophy of the biceps femoris (BF) as compared to unaffected normal dogs, while the long digital extensor (LDE), which functions to flex the tibiotarsal joint and serves as a digital extensor, undergoes the most pronounced atrophy. A recent microarray analysis of GRMD identified alterations in genes associated with lipid metabolism and energy production. METHODS We, therefore, undertook a non-targeted metabolomics analysis of the milder/earlier stage disease GRMD BF muscle versus the more severe/chronic LDE using GC-MS to identify underlying metabolic defects specific for affected GRMD skeletal muscle. RESULTS Untargeted metabolomics analysis of moderately-affected GRMD muscle (BF) identified eight significantly altered metabolites, including significantly decreased stearamide (0.23-fold of controls, p = 2.89 × 10-3), carnosine (0.40-fold of controls, p = 1.88 × 10-2), fumaric acid (0.40-fold of controls, p = 7.40 × 10-4), lactamide (0.33-fold of controls, p = 4.84 × 10-2), myoinositol-2-phosphate (0.45-fold of controls, p = 3.66 × 10-2), and significantly increased oleic acid (1.77-fold of controls, p = 9.27 × 10-2), glutamic acid (2.48-fold of controls, p = 2.63 × 10-2), and proline (1.73-fold of controls, p = 3.01 × 10-2). Pathway enrichment analysis identified significant enrichment for arginine/proline metabolism (p = 5.88 × 10-4, FDR 4.7 × 10-2), where alterations in L-glutamic acid, proline, and carnosine were found. Additionally, multiple Krebs cycle intermediates were significantly decreased (e.g., malic acid, fumaric acid, citric/isocitric acid, and succinic acid), suggesting that altered energy metabolism may be underlying the observed GRMD BF muscle dysfunction. In contrast, two pathways, inosine-5'-monophosphate (VIP Score 3.91) and 3-phosphoglyceric acid (VIP Score 3.08) mainly contributed to the LDE signature, with two metabolites (phosphoglyceric acid and inosine-5'-monophosphate) being significantly decreased. When the BF and LDE were compared, the most significant metabolite was phosphoric acid, which was significantly less in the GRMD BF compared to control and GRMD LDE groups. CONCLUSIONS The identification of elevated BF oleic acid (a long-chain fatty acid) is consistent with recent microarray studies identifying altered lipid metabolism genes, while alterations in arginine and proline metabolism are consistent with recent studies identifying elevated L-arginine in DMD patient sera as a biomarker of disease. Together, these studies demonstrate muscle-specific alterations in GRMD-affected muscle, which illustrate previously unidentified metabolic changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Abdullah
- Department of Biochemistry, QuaidiAzam University, 45320 Islamabad, Pakistan.
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7525, USA.
- McAllister Heart Institute, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7126, USA.
| | - Joe N Kornegay
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA.
| | - Aubree Honcoop
- Toxicology Curriculum, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
| | - Traci L Parry
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7525, USA.
- McAllister Heart Institute, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7126, USA.
| | - Cynthia J Balog-Alvarez
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA.
| | - Sara K O'Neal
- Sarah W. Stedman Nutrition and Metabolism Center, Duke Molecular Physiology Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
| | - James R Bain
- Sarah W. Stedman Nutrition and Metabolism Center, Duke Molecular Physiology Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27703, USA.
| | - Michael J Muehlbauer
- Sarah W. Stedman Nutrition and Metabolism Center, Duke Molecular Physiology Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
| | - Christopher B Newgard
- Sarah W. Stedman Nutrition and Metabolism Center, Duke Molecular Physiology Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27703, USA.
| | - Cam Patterson
- Presbyterian Hospital/Weill-Cornell Medical Center, New York, NY 10065, USA.
| | - Monte S Willis
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7525, USA.
- McAllister Heart Institute, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7126, USA.
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
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