Inhibition of ERK1/2 in cancer-associated pancreatic stellate cells suppresses cancer-stromal interaction and metastasis

Insight into the regulatory mechanism of β-arrestin2 and its emerging role in diseases

β-arrestin2, a member of the arrestin family, mediates the desensitization and internalization of most G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and functions as a scaffold protein in signalling pathways. Previous studies have demonstrated that β-arrestin2 expression is dysregulated in malignant tumours, fibrotic diseases, cardiovascular diseases and metabolic diseases, suggesting its pathological roles. Transcription and post-transcriptional modifications can affect the expression of β-arrestin2. Furthermore, post-translational modifications, such as phosphorylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation and S-nitrosylation affect the cellular localization of β-arrestin2 and its interaction with downstream signalling molecules, which further regulate the activity of β-arrestin2. This review summarizes the structure and function of β-arrestin2 and reveals the mechanisms involved in the regulation of β-arrestin2 at multiple levels. Additionally, recent studies on the role of β-arrestin2 in some major diseases and its therapeutic prospects have been discussed to provide a reference for the development of drugs targeting β-arrestin2.

Establishment of a prognostic model for pancreatic cancer based on mitochondrial metabolism related genes

AIM

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PAAD) is recognized as an exceptionally aggressive cancer that both highly lethal and unfavorable prognosis. The mitochondrial metabolism pathway is intimately involved in oncogenesis and tumor progression, however, much remains unknown in this area. In this study, the bioinformatic tools have been used to construct a prognostic model with mitochondrial metabolism-related genes (MMRGs) to evaluate the survival, immune status, mutation profile, and drug sensitivity of PAAD patients.

METHOD

Univariate Cox regression and LASSO regression were used to screen the differentially expressed genes (DEGs), and multivariate Cox regression was used to develop the risk model. Kaplan-Meier estimator was employed to identify MMRGs signatures associated with overall survival (OS). ROC curves were utilized to evaluate the model's performance. Maftools, immunedeconv and CIBERSORT R packages were applied to analyze the gene mutation profiles and immune status. The corresponding sensitivity to pharmaceutical agents was assessed using oncoPredict R packages.

RESULTS

A prognostic model with five MMRGs was developed, which defined the patients as high-risk showed lower survival rates. There was good consistency among individuals categorized as high-risk, showing elevated rates of genetic alterations, particularly in the TP53 and KRAS genes. Furthermore, these patients exhibited increased levels of immunosuppression, characterized by an increased presence of macrophages, neutrophils, Th2 cells, and regulatory T cells. Additionally, high-risk patients showed increased sensitivity to Sabutoclax and Venetoclax.

CONCLUSION

By utilizing a gene signature associated with mitochondrial metabolism, a prognostic model has been established which could be a highly efficient method for predicting the outcomes of PAAD patients.

Ginsenoside Rg3 Restores Mitochondrial Cardiolipin Homeostasis via GRB2 to Prevent Parkinson's Disease

Regulating cardiolipin to maintain mitochondrial homeostasis is a promising strategy for addressing Parkinson's disease (PD). Through a comprehensive screening and validation process involving multiple models, ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) as a compound capable of enhancing cardiolipin levels is identified. This augmentation in cardiolipin levels fosters mitochondrial homeostasis by bolstering mitochondrial unfolded protein response, promoting mitophagy, and enhancing mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. Consequently, this cascade enhances the survival of tyrosine hydroxylase positive (TH+) dopaminergic neurons, leading to an amelioration in motor performance within PD mouse models. Using limited proteolysis-small-molecule mapping combined with molecular docking analysis, it has confirmed Growth Factor Receptor-Bound Protein 2 (GRB2) as a molecular target for Rg3. Furthermore, these investigations reveal that Rg3 facilitates the interaction between GRB2 and TRKA (Neurotrophic Tyrosine Kinase, Receptor, Type 1), thus promotes EVI1 (Ecotropic Virus Integration Site 1 Protein Homolog) phosphorylation by ERK, subsequently increases CRLS1 (Cardiolipin Synthase 1) gene expression and boosts cardiolipin synthesis. The absence of GRB2 or CRLS1 significantly attenuates the beneficial effects of Rg3 on PD symptoms. Finally, Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate (TDF) that also promotes the binding between GRB2 and TRKA is further identified. The identified compounds, Rg3 and TDF, exhibit promising potential for the prevention of PD by bolstering cardiolipin expression and reinstating mitochondrial homeostasis.

Pancreatic head carcinoma derived from the dorsal pancreas is more likely to metastasize early than from the ventral pancreas through microvascular invasion

The development of the pancreatic head originates from the fusion of the ventral and dorsal pancreatic primordia during embryonic development. Theoretically, the origin of pancreatic head cancer also exists from the ventral pancreas and the dorsal pancreas. Among 49 patients with pancreatic head cancer, pancreatic head cancer was divided into pancreatic head cancer originating from the ventral (PHCv) or dorsal pancreas (PHCd) through imaging and pathological classification. The clinical data was collected and compared between the PHCv group and the PHCd group. The results showed that the patients from the PHCd group had worse long-term survival than those from the PHCv group (10 months vs 14.5 months). Similarly, the progression-free survival (PFS) results also indicate that patients from the PHCd group had a shorter time than those from the PHCv group (5 months vs 9.5 months). Further stratified analysis of potentially related factors showed that microvascular invasion is related to poor prognosis, and patients with pancreatic head cancer derived from the dorsal pancreas are more likely to develop microvascular invasion.

Analysis of key targets for 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furfural-induced lung cancer based on network toxicology, network informatics, and in vitro experiments

5-hydroxymethyl-2-furfural (5-HMF) is a by-product of Maillard reaction and widely exists in food and environment, which may lead to lung cancer. However, the relevant mechanism is unknown. This study aims to predict the key targets of 5-HMF-induced lung cancer through network toxicology, analyze the relationship between the key targets and lung cancer through network informatics, and further validate them through in vitro experiments. By using ChEMBL, STITCH, GeneCards, and OMIM databases, 51 toxic targets were identified. GO and KEGG enrichment analyses indicated a strong correlation between toxic targets and lung cancer. Through protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis, MAPK3, MAPK1, and SRC were identified as key targets implicated in 5-HMF-induced lung cancer. The HPA database showed high expression of these three key targets in lung cancer tissues. Kaplan-Meier database demonstrated that the higher expression of these key targets in lung cancer patients was associated with a poorer prognosis. The TIMER database revealed that the high expression of these key targets had a significant impact on the level of immune cell infiltration in lung cancer, particularly impacting CD4+ T cells and macrophages. Finaly, in In vitro experiments demonstrated that prolonged exposure to 5-HMF induced malignant transformation of BEAS-2B cells and the upregulation of key targets. The findings suggest that 5-HMF is a contributing factor in the development of lung cancer, with MAPK3, MAPK1, and SRC potentially playing crucial roles in this process.

Effect of Bioactive Black Phosphorus Nanomaterials on Cancer-Associated Fibroblast Heterogeneity in Pancreatic Cancer

Tumor-stromal interactions and stromal heterogeneity in the tumor microenvironment are critical factors that influence the progression, metastasis, and chemoresistance of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Here, we used spatial transcriptome technology to profile the gene expression landscape of primary PDAC and liver metastatic PDAC after bioactive black phosphorus nanomaterial (bioactive BP) treatment using a murine model of PDAC (LSL-KrasG12D/+; LSL-Trp53R172H/+; and Pdx-1-Cre mice). Bioinformatic and biochemical analyses showed that bioactive BP contributes to the tumor-stromal interplay by suppressing cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF) activation. Our results showed that bioactive BP contributes to CAF heterogeneity by decreasing the amount of inflammatory CAFs and myofibroblastic CAFs, two CAF subpopulations. Our study demonstrates the influence of bioactive BP on tumor-stromal interactions and CAF heterogeneity and suggests bioactive BP as a potential PDAC treatment.

LILRB2 inhibition enhances radiation sensitivity in non-small cell lung cancer by attenuating radiation-induced senescence

Radiotherapy (RT) in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) triggers cellular senescence, complicating tumor microenvironments and affecting treatment outcomes. This study examines the role of lymphocyte immunoglobulin-like receptor B2 (LILRB2) in modulating RT-induced senescence and radiosensitivity in NSCLC. Through methodologies including irradiation, lentivirus transfection, and various molecular assays, we assessed LILRB2's expression and its impact on cellular senescence levels and tumor cell behaviors. Our findings reveal that RT upregulates LILRB2, facilitating senescence and a senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP), which in turn enhances tumor proliferation and resistance to radiation. Importantly, LILRB2 silencing attenuates these effects by inhibiting the JAK2/STAT3 pathway, significantly increasing radiosensitivity in NSCLC models. Clinical data correlate high LILRB2 expression with reduced RT response and poorer prognosis, suggesting LILRB2's pivotal role in RT-induced senescence and its potential as a therapeutic target to improve NSCLC radiosensitivity.

Systemic loss of CD36 aggravates NAFLD-related HCC through MEK1/2-ERK1/2 signaling pathway

BACKGROUND & AIMS

CD36, a membrane protein widely present in various tissues, is crucial role in regulating energy metabolism. The rise of HCC as a notable outcome of NAFLD is becoming more apparent. Patients with hereditary CD36 deficiency are at increased risk of NAFLD. However, the impact of CD36 deficiency on NAFLD-HCC remains unclear.

METHODS

Global CD36 knockout mice (CD36KO) and wild type mice (WT) were induced to establish NAFLD-HCC model by N-nitrosodiethylamine (DEN) plus high fat diet (HFD). Transcriptomics was employed to examine genes that were expressed differentially.

RESULTS

Compared to WT mice, CD36KO mice showed more severe HFD-induced liver issues and increased tumor malignancy. The MEK1/2-ERK1/2 pathway activation was detected in the liver tissues of CD36KO mice using RNA sequencing and Western blot analysis.

CONCLUSION

Systemic loss of CD36 leaded to the advancement of NAFLD to HCC by causing lipid disorders and metabolic inflammation, a process that involves the activation of MAPK signaling pathway. We found that CD36 contributes significantly to the maintenance of metabolic homeostasis in NAFLD-HCC.

Improving the power of drug toxicity measurements by quantitative nuclei imaging

Imaging-based anticancer drug screens are becoming more prevalent due to development of automated fluorescent microscopes and imaging stations, as well as rapid advancements in image processing software. Automated cell imaging provides many benefits such as their ability to provide high-content data, modularity, dynamics recording and the fact that imaging is the most direct way to access cell viability and cell proliferation. However, currently most publicly available large-scale anticancer drugs screens, such as GDSC, CTRP and NCI-60, provide cell viability data measured by assays based on colorimetric or luminometric measurements of NADH or ATP levels. Although such datasets provide valuable data, it is unclear how well drug toxicity measurements can be integrated with imaging data. Here we explored the relations between drug toxicity data obtained by XTT assay, two quantitative nuclei imaging methods and trypan blue dye exclusion assay using a set of four cancer cell lines with different morphologies and 30 drugs with different mechanisms of action. We show that imaging-based approaches provide high accuracy and the differences between results obtained by different methods highly depend on drug mechanism of action. Selecting AUC metrics over IC50 or comparing data where significantly drugs reduced cell numbers noticeably improves consistency between methods. Using automated cell segmentation protocols we analyzed mitochondria activity in more than 11 thousand drug-treated cells and showed that XTT assay produces unreliable data for CDK4/6, Aurora A, VEGFR and PARP inhibitors due induced cell size growth and increase in individual mitochondria activity. We also explored several benefits of image-based analysis such as ability to monitor cell number dynamics, dissect changes in total and individual mitochondria activity from cell proliferation, and ability to identify chromatin remodeling drugs. Finally, we provide a web tool that allows comparing results obtained by different methods.

CircRNA circRREB1 promotes tumorigenesis and progression of breast cancer by activating Erk1/2 signaling through interacting with GNB4

Current investigations have illuminated the essential roles played by circular RNAs (circRNAs) in driving breast cancer (BC) tumorigenesis. However, the functional implications and molecular underpinnings of most circRNAs in BC are not well characterized. Here, Circular RNA (circRNA) expression profiles were analyzed in four surgically resected BC cases along with adjacent non-cancerous tissues applying RNA microarray analysis. The levels and prognostic implications of circRREB1 in BC were subjected to quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and in situ hybridization (ISH). Experimental manipulation of circRREB1 levels in both in vivo and in vitro settings further delineated its role in BC cell growth, invasion, and metastasis. The mechanical verification of circRREB1's interaction with GNB4 was established through RNA pull-down, mass spectrometry, Western blot analysis, RNA immunoprecipitation assays (RIP), fluorescence ISH (FISH), and rescue experiments. We found that circRREB1 exhibited significant upregulation in BC tissues and cells, implicating its association with an unfavorable prognosis in BC patients. CircRREB1 knockdown elicited anti-proliferative, anti-migratory, anti-invasive, and pro-apoptotic effects in BC cells, whereas its upregulation exerted opposing influences. Follow-up mechanistic examinations suggested that circRREB1 might interact with GNB4 directly, inducing the activation of Erk1/2 signaling and driving BC progression. Our findings collectively indicate that the interplay of circRREB1 with GNB4 promotes Erk1/2 signaling, thereby fostering BC progression, and positioning circRREB1 as a candidate therapeutic target for intervention in BC.

Exploring the logic and conducting a comprehensive evaluation of AdipoRon-based adiponectin replacement therapy against hormone-related cancers-a systematic review

The potential benefits of adiponectin replacement therapy extend to numerous human diseases, with current research showing particular interest in its effectiveness against specific cancer forms, especially hormone-related. However, limitations in the pharmacological use of the intact protein have led to a focus on alternative options. AdipoRon is an extensively studied non-peptidic drug candidate for adiponectin replacement therapy. While researchers have explored the efficacy and therapeutic applications of AdipoRon in various disease conditions, their effects against cancer models advanced more, with no review regarding AdipoRon's efficacy against hormone-related cancers being published. The present systematic review aims to fill this gap. Preclinical evidence was compiled from PubMed, EMBASE, COCHRANE, and Google Scholar following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, and the manuscript's quality assessment was conducted using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Checklist Critical Appraisal Tool for Systematic Reviews' Quality. The included nine studies incorporated various cell and animal models of the pancreas, gynaecological system, and osteosarcoma cancers. AdipoRon demonstrated effectiveness against pancreatic cancer by activating p44/42 MAPK, mitochondrial dysfunction, and AMPK-mediated inhibition of ACC1. In gynaecological cancers, it exhibited promising anticancer effects through the activation of AMPK, potential inhibition of mTOR, and modulation of the SET1B/BOD1/AdipoR1 signaling cascade. Against osteosarcoma, AdipoRon worked by perturbing ERK1/2 signaling and reducing p70S6K phosphorylation. AdipoRon shows promise in preclinical studies, but human trials are crucial for clinical safety and effectiveness. Caution is needed due to potential off-target effects, especially in cancer therapy with multi-target approaches. Structural biology and computational methods can help predict these effects.

Inactivation of ERK1/2 in cancer-associated hepatic stellate cells suppresses cancer-stromal interaction by regulating extracellular matrix in fibrosis

The ERK1/2 pathway is involved in epithelial-mesenchymal transformation and cell cycle of tumor cells in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In the present study, we investigated the involvement of ERK1/2 activation on hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). We identified ERK1/2 phosphorylation in activated HSCs of HCC samples. We found that tumor cells promoted the migration and invasion capacity of HSCs by activating ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Using high throughput transcriptome sequencing analysis, we found that ERK1/2 inhibition altered genes significantly correlated to signaling pathways involved in extracellular matrix remodeling. We screened genes and demonstrated that the ERK1/2 inhibition-related gene set significantly correlated to cancer-associated fibroblast infiltration in TCGA HCC tumor samples. Moreover, inhibition of ERK1/2 suppressed tumor cell-induced enhancement of HSC migration and invasion by regulating expression of fibrosis markers FAP, FN1 and COL1A1. In a tumor cell and HSC splenic co-transplanted xenograft mouse model, inhibition of ERK1/2 suppressed liver tumor formation by downregulating fibrosis, indicating ERK1/2 inhibition suppresses tumor-stromal interactions in vivo. Taken together, our data indicate that inhibition of ERK1/2 in tumor-associated HSCs suppresses tumor-stromal interactions and progression. Furthermore, inhibition of ERK1/2 may be a potential target for HCC treatment.

Ginsenoside Rg1 promotes β‑amyloid peptide degradation through inhibition of the ERK/PPARγ phosphorylation pathway in an Alzheimer's disease neuronal model

β-Amyloid peptide (Aβ) deposition in the brain is an important pathological change in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE), which is regulated transcriptionally by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), is able to proteolyze Aβ. One of the members of the MAPK family, ERK, is able to mediate the phosphorylation of PPARγ at Ser112, thereby inhibiting its transcriptional activity. Ginsenoside Rg1 is one of the active ingredients in the natural medicine ginseng and has inhibitory effects on Aβ production. The present study was designed to investigate whether ginsenoside Rg1 is able to affect the regulation of PPARγ based on the expression of its target gene, IDE, and whether it is able to promote Aβ degradation via inhibition of the ERK/PPARγ phosphorylation pathway. In the present study, primary cultured rat hippocampal neurons were treated with Aβ1-42, ginsenoside Rg1 and the ERK inhibitor PD98059, and subsequently TUNEL staining was used to detect the level of neuronal apoptosis. ELISA was subsequently employed to detect the intra- and extracellular Aβ1-42 levels, immunofluorescence staining and western blotting were used to detect the translocation of ERK from the cytoplasm to the nucleus, immunofluorescence double staining was used to detect the co-expression of ERK and PPARγ, and finally, western blotting was used to detect the phosphorylation of PPARγ at Ser112 and IDE expression. The results demonstrated that ginsenoside Rg1 or PD98059 were able to inhibit primary cultured hippocampal neuron apoptosis induced by Aβ1-42 treatment, reduce the levels of intra- and extraneuronal Aβ1-42 and inhibit the translocation of ERK from the cytoplasm to the nucleus. Furthermore, administration of ginsenoside Rg1 or PD98059 resulted in attenuated co-expression of ERK and PPARγ, inhibition of phosphorylation of PPARγ at Ser112 mediated by ERK and an increase in IDE expression. In addition, the effects when PD98059 to inhibit ERK followed by treatment with ginsenoside Rg1 were found to be more pronounced than those when using PD98059 alone. In conclusion, ginsenoside Rg1 was demonstrated to exert neuroprotective effects on AD via inhibition of the ERK/PPARγ phosphorylation pathway, which led to an increase in IDE expression, the promotion of Aβ degradation and the decrease of neuronal apoptosis. These results could provide a theoretical basis for the clinical application of ginsenoside Rg1 in AD.

Title Expression of FOXO3 and MAPK1 Genes in Patients with Benign Salivary Gland Tumors

Pleomorphic adenomas (PAs) and Warthin tumors (WTs) are the most common benign tumors that occur in the salivary gland. PA has a tendency towards malignant transformation. Thus, searching for new methods to diagnose salivary gland tumors and treatment is important. The members of the class O forehead box transcription factor (FOXO3) and mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 (MAPK1) genes participate in the cellular processes, including in cell proliferation. The aim of this study was to analyze these genes' expression in the salivary gland tissues and in salivary gland tumors. The study group consisted of 50 patients treated for salivary gland tumors. For genetic tests, fresh samples of tissue collected during the surgery were used. The expression levels of the FOXO3 and MAPK1 genes were statistically significantly lower in PA tissue than in normal salivary gland tissue and WT tissue. This research revealed that the FOXO3 and MAPK1 genes are present in benign salivary gland tumors and also indicated a role of these genes in the development of benign salivary gland tumors. The cause of the development of pleomorphic adenomas may be apoptotic disorder and the activation of the inflammatory process. The examined genes may have potential to be new therapeutic targets for the treatment of pleomorphic adenomas.

Targeting KRAS for the potential treatment of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: Recent advancements provide hope (Review)

Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KRAS) is one of the most frequently mutated oncogenes in solid tumors. More than 90% of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) are driven by mutations in the KRAS gene, suggesting the importance of targeting this oncogene in PDAC. Initial efforts to target KRAS have been unsuccessful due to its small size, high affinity for guanosine triphosphate/guanosine diphosphate, and lack of distinct drug‑binding pockets. Therefore, much of the focus has been directed at inhibiting the activation of major signaling pathways downstream of KRAS, most notably the PI3K/AKT and RAF/MAPK pathways, using tyrosine kinase inhibitors and monoclonal antibodies. While preclinical studies showed promising results, clinical data using the inhibitors alone and in combination with other standard therapies have shown limited practicality, largely due to the lack of efficacy and dose‑limiting toxicities. Recent therapeutic approaches for KRAS‑driven tumors focus on mutation‑specific drugs such as selective KRASG12C inhibitors and son of sevenless 1 pan‑KRAS inhibitors. While KRASG12C inhibitors showed great promise against patients with non‑small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) harboring KRASG12C mutations, they were not efficacious in PDAC largely because the major KRAS mutant isoforms in PDAC are G12D, G12V, and G12R. As a result, KRASG12D and pan‑KRAS inhibitors are currently under investigation as potential therapeutic options for PDAC. The present review summarized the importance of KRAS oncogenic signaling, challenges in its targeting, and preclinical and clinical targeted agents including recent direct KRAS inhibitors for blocking KRAS signaling in PDAC.

SMYD2 Imparts Gemcitabine Resistance to Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma Cells by Upregulating EVI2A

Although gemcitabine (GEM) is the first‑line drug for advanced pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PAAD), the development of GEM resistance severely limits the effectiveness of this chemotherapy. This study investigated the mechanisms of ecotropic viral integration site 2 A (EVI2A) for resistance to GEM and immune evasion in PAAD. GEM resistance-related biomarkers were predicted using GEO datasets, and GEM-resistant PAAD cells were generated. EVI2A was found expressed highly in GEM-resistant PAAD cells. Gain-of-function analyses revealed that EVI2A encouraged the proliferation and motility of GEM-resistant cells and prevented apoptosis. In addition, EVI2A reduced T cell effector activation. SMYD2 was overexpressed in GEM-resistant cells, and SMYD2 enhanced H3K36me2 modification of EVI2A, thereby promoting EVI2A expression. SMYD2 reduced the sensitivity of GEM-resistant cells, which was reversed by EVI2A knockdown. SMYD2 increased the amount of M2 macrophages (co-cultured with PAAD cells) and decreased T cell effector activation (co-cultured with macrophage supernatant), and the number of M2 macrophages was decreased and T cell effectors were activated following EVI2A knockdown. Our findings indicate that EVI2A, manipulated by the SMYD2-H3K36me2 epigenetic axis, promoted GEM resistance and M2 macrophage-mediated immune evasion in PAAD. Therefore, EVI2A might represent a therapeutic target for overcoming GEM resistance and immunosuppressive environment in PAAD.

Cancer-associated fibroblast-related prognostic signature predicts prognosis and immunotherapy response in pancreatic adenocarcinoma based on single-cell and bulk RNA-sequencing

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) influence many aspects of pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PAAD) carcinogenesis, including tumor cell proliferation, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. A six-gene prognostic signature was constructed for PAAD based on the 189 CAF marker genes identified in single-cell RNA-sequencing data. Multivariate analyses showed that the risk score was independently prognostic for survival in the TCGA (P < 0.001) and ICGC (P = 0.004) cohorts. Tumor infiltration of CD8 T (P = 0.005) cells and naïve B cells (P = 0.001) was greater in the low-risk than in the high-risk group, with infiltration of these cells negatively correlated with risk score. Moreover, the TMB score was lower in the low-risk than in the high-risk group (P = 0.0051). Importantly, patients in low-risk group had better immunotherapy responses than in the high-risk group in an independent immunotherapy cohort (IMvigor210) (P = 0.039). The CAV1 and SOD3 were highly expressed in CAFs of PAAD tissues, which revealed by immunohistochemical staining. In summary, this comprehensive analysis resulted in the development of a novel prognostic signature, which was associated with immune cell infiltration, drug sensitivity, and TMB, and could predict the prognosis and immunotherapy response of patients with PAAD.

Suppression of migration and invasion by taraxerol in the triple-negative breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 via the ERK/Slug axis

As one of the triterpene extracts of Taraxacum, a traditional Chinese plant, taraxerol (TRX) exhibits antitumor activity. In this study, we evaluated the effects of TRX on the migration and invasion of MDA-MB-231 cells, analyzed the molecular mechanism through network pharmacology and molecular docking, and finally verified it by in vitro experiments. The results showed that TRX could inhibit the migration and invasion of MDA-MB-231 cells in a time- and concentration-dependent manner, while MAPK3 was the most promising target and could stably combine with TRX. In addition, the relative protein expression levels were detected by Western blot, and we observed that TRX could inhibit the migration and invasion of MDA-MB-231 cells via the ERK/Slug axis. Moreover, an ERK activator (tert-butylhydroquinone, tBHQ) partially reversed the suppressive effect of TRX on MDA-MB-231 cells. In conclusion, TRX inhibited the migration and invasion of MDA-MB-231 cells via the ERK/Slug axis.

Partner of NOB1 homolog transcriptionally activated by E2F transcription factor 1 promotes the malignant progression and inhibits ferroptosis of pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is one of the deadliest malignancies. Partner of NOB1 homolog (PNO1) has been reported to be involved in tumorigenesis. However, the role of PNO1 in PC remains to be elucidated. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of PNO1 on the progression of PC and the possible mechanism related to E2F transcription factor 1 (E2F1), a transcription factor predicted by the JASPAR database to bind to the PNO1 promoter region and promoted the proliferation of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. First, PNO1 expression in PC tissues and its association with survival rate were analyzed by the Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis database. Western blot and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction were used to evaluate PNO1 expression in several PC cell lines. After PNO1 silencing, cell proliferation, migration, and invasion were measured by colony formation assay, 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine staining, wound healing, and transwell assays. Then, the lipid reactive oxygen species in PANC-1 cells was estimated by using C11-BODIPY581/591 probe. The levels of glutathione, malondialdehyde, and iron were measured. The binding between PNO1 and E2F1 was confirmed by luciferase and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays. Subsequently, E2F1 was overexpressed in PANC-1 cells with PNO1 knockdown to perform the rescue experiments. Results revealed that PNO1 was highly expressed in PC tissues and PNO1 expression was positively correlated with overall survival rate and disease-free survival rate. Significantly elevated PNO1 expression was also observed in PC cell lines. PNO1 knockdown inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion of PANC-1 cells. Moreover, ferroptosis was promoted in PNO1-silenced PANC-1 cells. Results of luciferase and ChIP assays indicated that E2F1 could bind to PNO1 promoter region. Rescue experiments suggested that E2F1 overexpression reversed the impacts of PNO1 depletion on the malignant behaviors and ferroptosis in PANC-1 cells. Summing up, PNO1 transcriptionally activated by E2F1 promotes the malignant progression and inhibits the ferroptosis of PC.

Auricularia auricula Peptides Nutritional Supplementation Delays H2O2-Induced Senescence of HepG2 Cells by Modulation of MAPK/NF-κB Signaling Pathways

Auricularia auricula is a traditional medicinal and edible mushroom with anti-aging effects. Many studies focused on polysaccharides and melanin. However, the anti-aging effects and mechanism of the nutritional supplementation of Auricularia auricula peptides (AAPs) were not elucidated. In this study, AAPs were prepared by enzymolysis of flavor protease and the protective effects on H2O2-induced senescence of HepG2 cells were explored for the first time. The potential mechanism was also investigated. AAPs were mostly composed of low molecular weights with less than 1000 Da accounting for about 79.17%, and contained comprehensive amino acids nutritionally, including seven essential amino acids, aromatic, acidic, and basic amino acids. AAPs nutritional supplementation could significantly decrease the levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA), and increase the activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px). In addition, the senescence-associated-β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal) activity was restrained, and the expression levels of senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) (IL-6, IL-8, IL-1β, and CXCL2) were also decreased. Ribonucleic acid sequencing (RNA-Seq) was carried out to screen the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between different groups. GO and KEGG enrichment analysis showed that the mechanism was related to the MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathways. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis and Western blot were carried out to verify the key genes and proteins in the pathways, respectively. AAPs nutritional supplementation resulted a significant down-regulation in key the genes c-fos and c-jun and up-regulation in DUSP1 of the MAPK signaling pathway, and down-regulation in the key genes CXCL2 and IL-8 of the NF-κB signaling pathway. The results of Western blot demonstrate that AAPs nutritional supplementation could inhibit MAPK/NF-κB pathways by reducing the expression levels of IKK, IκB, P65, and phosphorylation of ERK, thus decreasing the inflammatory reaction and delaying cell senescence. It is the first time that AAPs nutritional supplementation was proved to have protective effects on H2O2-induced oxidative damage in HepG2 cells. These results implicate that dietary AAPs could be used as nutrients to reduce the development or severity of aging.

Identifying a baicalein-related prognostic signature contributes to prognosis prediction and tumor microenvironment of pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is one of the most malignant and lethal human cancers in the world due to its high metastatic potential, and patients with PDAC have a poor prognosis, yet quite little is understood regarding the underlying biological mechanisms of its high metastatic capacity. Baicalein has a dramatic anti-tumor function in the treatment of different types of cancer. However, the therapeutic effects of baicalein on human PDAC and its mechanisms of action have not been extensively understood. In order to explore the biological characteristic, molecular mechanisms, and potential clinical value of baicalein in inhibiting the metastatic capacity of PDAC. We performed several in vitro, in vivo, and in silico studies. We first examined the potential regulation of baicalein in the metastatic capacity of PDAC cells. We showed that baicalein could dramatically suppress liver metastasis of PDAC cells with highly metastatic potential in mice model. The high-throughput sequencing analysis was employed to explore the biological roles of baicalein in PDAC cells. We found that baicalein might be involved in the infiltration of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts (CAF) in PDAC. Moreover, a baicalein-related risk model and a lncRNA-related model were built by Cox analysis according to the data set of PDAC from TCGA database which suggested a clinical value of baicalein. Finally, we revealed a potential downstream target of baicalein in PDAC, we proposed that baicalein might contribute to the infiltration of CAF via FGFBP1. Thus, we uncovered a novel role for baicalein in regulation of PDAC liver metastasis that may contribute to its anti-cancer effect. We proposed that baicalein might suppress PDAC liver metastasis via regulation of FGFBP1-mediated CAF infiltration. Our results provide a new perspective on clinical utility of baicalein and open new avenues for the inhibition of liver-metastasis of PDAC.

GNA13 inhibits glioblastoma metastasis via the ERKs/FOXO3 signaling pathway

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a malignant tumor characterized by poor prognosis and low overall survival (OS) rate. Identification of novel biological markers for the diagnosis and treatment of GBM is crucial to developing interventions to improve patient survival. GNA13, a member of the G12 family, has been reported to play important roles in a variety of biological processes involved in tumorigenesis and development. However, its role in GBM is currently unknown. Here, we explored the expression patterns and functions of GNA13 in GBM, as wells its impact on metastasis process. Results showed that GNA13 was downregulated in GBM tissues and correlated with poor prognosis of GBM. Downregulation of GNA13 promoted the migration, invasion and proliferation of GBM cells; whereas its overexpression abolished these effects. Western blots revealed that GNA13 knockdown and overexpression upregulated and inhibited the phosphorylation of ERKs, respectively. Moreover, GNA13 was the upstream of ERKs signaling to regulating ERKs phosphorylation level. Furthermore, U0126 alleviated the metastasis effect induced by GNA13 knockdown. Bioinformatics analyses and qRT-PCR experiments demonstrated that GNA13 could regulate FOXO3, a downstream signaling molecule of ERKs pathway. Overall, our results demonstrate that GNA13 expression is negatively correlated with GBM and can suppress tumor metastasis by inhibiting the ERKs signaling pathway and upregulating FOXO3 expression.

Pancreatic stellate cells in pancreatic cancer: as potential targets for future therapy

Pancreatic cancer is a strongly malignant gastrointestinal carcinoma characterized by late detection, high mortality rates, poor patient prognosis and lack of effective treatments. Consequently, there is an urgent need to identify novel therapeutic strategies for this disease. Pancreatic stellate cells, which constitute a significant component of the mesenchymal cellular layer within the pancreatic tumor microenvironment, play a pivotal role in modulating this environment through their interactions with pancreatic cancer cells. This paper reviews the mechanisms by which pancreatic stellate cells inhibit antitumor immune responses and promote cancer progression. We also discuss preclinical studies focusing on these cells, with the goal of providing some theoretical references for the development of new therapeutic approaches for pancreatic cancer.

Exploration and Validation of Pancreatic Cancer Hub Genes Based on Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis and Immune Infiltration Score Analysis

Objective

To find pancreatic cancer (PC)-related hub genes based on weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) construction and immune infiltration score analysis and validate them immunohistochemically by clinical cases, to generate new concepts or therapeutic targets for the early diagnosis and treatment of PC.

Material and Methods

In this study, WGCNA and immune infiltration score were utilized to identify the relevant core modules of PC and the hub genes within these core modules.

Results

Using WGCNA analysis, data from PC and normal pancreas integrated with TCGA and GTEX were analyzed and brown modules were chosen from the six modules. Five hub genes, including DPYD, FXYD6, MAP6, FAM110B, and ANK2, were discovered to have differential survival significance via validation tests utilizing survival analysis curves and the GEPIA database. The DPYD gene was the only gene associated with PC survival side effects. Validation of the Human Protein Atlas (HPA) database and immunohistochemical testing of clinical samples showed positive results for DPYD expression in PC.

Conclusion

In this study, we identified DPYD, FXYD6, MAP6, FAM110B, and ANK2, as immune-related candidate markers for PC. Only the DPYD gene had a negative impact on the survival of PC patients. Through validation of the HPA database and immunohistochemical testing of clinical cases, we believe that the DPYD gene brings novel ideas and therapeutic targets in the diagnosis and treatment of PC.

The "Self-eating" of cancer-associated fibroblast: A potential target for cancer

Autophagy helps maintain energy homeostasis and protect cells from stress effects by selectively removing misfolded/polyubiquitylated proteins, lipids, and damaged mitochondria. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are cellular components of tumor microenvironment (TME). Autophagy in CAFs inhibits tumor development in the early stages; however, it has a tumor-promoting effect in advanced stages. In this review, we aimed to summarize the modulators responsible for the induction of autophagy in CAFs, such as hypoxia, nutrient deprivation, mitochondrial stress, and endoplasmic reticulum stress. In addition, we aimed to present autophagy-related signaling pathways in CAFs, and role of autophagy in CAF activation, tumor progression, tumor immune microenvironment. Autophagy in CAFs may be an emerging target for tumor therapy. In summary, autophagy in CAFs is regulated by a variety of modulators and can reshape tumor immune microenvironment, affecting tumor progression and treatment.

Purinergic P2X7R as a potential target for pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer is one of the deadliest types of cancer, with a death rate nearly equal to the incidence. The P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) is a kind of extracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-gated ion channel with special permeability, which exists in most tissues of human body and mediates inflammation-related signaling pathways and immune signal transduction after activation. P2X7R is also present on the surface of several tumor cells and is involved in tumor growth and progression. P2X7R expression in pancreatic cancer has also been identified in recent studies. Activation of P2X7R in pancreatic cancer can support the proliferation of pancreatic stellate cells, participate in protein interactions, and mediate ERK1/2, IL-6/STAT3, hCAP-18/LL-37, PI3K/AKT signaling pathways to promote pancreatic cancer progression. Inhibitors targeting P2X7R can inhibit the development of pancreatic cancer and are expected to be used in clinical therapy. Therefore, P2X7R is promising as a potential therapeutic target for pancreatic cancer. This article reviews the progress of research on P2X7R in pancreatic cancer.

A pyroptosis-related gene signature provides an alternative for predicting the prognosis of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC) is a common malignant neoplasm with limited treatment options and poor outcomes. Thus, there is an urgent need to find sensitive biomarkers for HCC.

METHODS

Gene expression and clinicopathological information were obtained from public databases, based on which a pyroptosis-related gene signature was constructed by the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator Cox regression. The applicability of the signature was evaluated via Kaplan-Meier curve and time-dependent ROC curve. TIMER, QUANTISEQ, MCPCOUNTER, EPIC, CIBERSORT, ssGSEA, and ESTIMATE were employed to assess the immune status. Comparisons between groups were analyzed with Wilcoxon test. Pearson and Spearman correlation analyses were adopted for linear correlation analysis. Genetic knockdown was conducted using siRNA transfection and the mRNA expression levels of interest genes were measured using quantitative reverse transcription PCR. Finally, protein levels in 10 paired tumor tissues and adjacent non-tumor tissues from HCC patients were measured using immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

A pyroptosis-related gene signature was established successfully to calculate independent prognostic risk scores. It was found that survival outcomes varied significantly between different risk groups. In addition, an attenuated antitumor immune response was found in the high-risk group. Meanwhile, multiple immune checkpoints were up-regulated in high-risk score patients. Cell cycle-related genes, angiogenesis-related genes and tumor drug resistance genes were also markedly elevated. Knockdown of prognostic genes in the signature significantly inhibited the expression of immune checkpoint genes and angiogenesis-related genes. Besides, each prognostic gene was expressed at a higher level in HCC tissues than in adjacent normal tissues.

CONCLUSIONS

We successfully established a novel pyroptosis-related gene signature which could help predict the overall survival and assess the immune status of HCC patients.

Involvement of angiogenesis in cancer-associated acinar-to-ductal metaplasia lesion of pancreatic cancer invasive front

PURPOSE

This study aimed to demonstrate the involvement of angiogenesis in cancer-associated acinar-to-ductal metaplasia (CA-ADM) lesion of invasive front pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) and investigate the possible mechanism.

METHODS

Tissue samples from 128 patients with PDAC and 36 LSL-Kras^G12D/+; LSL-Trp53^R172H/+; Pdx-1-Cre mice were analyzed. Immunohistochemical assay was performed using HE, anti-CK19 and anti-amylase to confirm the presence of CA-ADM lesions, using anti-CD34 and anti-CD31 to measure microvessel density (MVD), and using anti-CD68, anti-CD163, anti-iNOS, or anti-MMP9 to evaluate the immune microenvironment. We performed multiplex immunohistochemical assay to detect the co-expression of MMP9 and CD68 on macrophage. We examined clinical outcomes and other clinicopathological factors to determine the significance of high-level MVD of CA-ADM on survival and liver metastasis. We performed tube formation assay to evaluate the effect of macrophage on angiogenic capacity in vitro.

RESULTS

Angiogenesis was significantly abundant in CA-ADM lesions compared with that in PDAC lesions in human and mouse tissues. High-level MVD in CA-ADM lesions was an independent predictor of poor prognosis (P = 0.0047) and the recurrence of liver metastasis (P = 0.0027). More CD68-positive and CD163-positive macrophages were detected in CA-ADM lesions than in PDAC. The percentage of CD68-positive macrophages was positively correlated with MVD in CA-ADM lesions. Multiplex-immunostaining revealed that MMP9 was expressed in CD68-positive macrophages of CA-ADM lesions. In CA-ADM lesions, the percentage of macrophages was positively correlated with MMP9 expression, which positively correlated with microvessel density.

CONCLUSION

CA-ADM related angiogenesis is a promising predictive marker for poor prognosis of PDAC and may provide an attractive therapeutic target for PDAC.

System Analysis Based on Pancreatic Cancer Progression Identifies BRINP2 as a Novel Prognostic Biomarker

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PAAD) is a malignant tumor of the digestive system, which develops rapidly and has no obvious early symptoms. This study aims to discover the biomarkers associated with PAAD development. We obtained RNA expression of PAAD patient samples and corresponding clinical data from The cancer genome atlas (TCGA), and screened out BMP/RA-inducible neural-specific protein 2 (BRINP2) gene which is highly associated with PAAD severity. Then, gene ontology (GO) enrichment, Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis and single-sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA) analysis were performed to explore the biological functions of BRINP2. Subsequently, long non-coding RNA (lncRNAs) associated with BRINP2 were screened out via correlation analysis, and Cox regression analysis and least absolute shrinkage selection operator (LASSO) regression analysis were used to construct the risk prediction model. We further validated the expression level of BRINP2 and its associated lncRNAs in BRINP2-associated lncRNAs prognostic model in vitro. We proposed that BRINP2 might be correlated to the tumor immune microenvironment and could also be used as a biomarker for PAAD progression. GO enrichment analysis and KEGG pathway analysis showed that the prognostic model was highly correlated to immune microenvironment-related pathways. Additionally, we established a BRINP2-associated lncRNAs prognostic model consisting of three lncRNAs. We validated the expression trends of BRINP2 and its associated lncRNAs in BRINP2-associated lncRNAs prognostic model in PAAD cells with various severity of metastatic potential using the quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). Meanwhile, pRRophetic R package was employed to predict potential therapeutic drugs for BRINP2-associated lncRNAs prognostic model of PAAD. The results suggest that BRINP2 can be used as a novel prognostic biomarker for PAAD.

Targeting Extracellular Signal-Regulated Protein Kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) in Cancer: An Update on Pharmacological Small-Molecule Inhibitors

Extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), the only known substrate of MEK1/2, is located downstream of the RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK (MAPK) pathway and is associated with the abnormal activation and poor prognosis of cancer. To date, several small-molecule inhibitors of RAS, RAF, and MEK have been reported to make rapid advances in cancer therapy; however, acquired resistance still occurs, thereby weakening the therapeutic efficacy of these inhibitors. Recently, selective inhibition of ERK1/2 has been regarded as a potential cancer therapeutic strategy that can not only effectively block the MAPK pathway but also overcome drug resistance caused by upstream mutations in RAS, RAF, and MEK. Herein, we summarize the oncogenic roles, key signaling network, and the single- and dual-target inhibitors of ERK1/2 in preclinical and clinical trials. Together, these inspiring findings shed new light on the discovery of more small-molecule inhibitors of ERK1/2 as candidate drugs to improve cancer therapeutics.

Siglec-15 Regulates the Inflammatory Response and Polarization of Tumor-Associated Macrophages in Pancreatic Cancer by Inhibiting the cGAS-STING Signaling Pathway

Tumor-associated macrophages especially M2 phenotype macrophages play an important role in tumor progression and the formation of immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Previous studies indicated that infiltration of a large number of M2-macrophages was positively associated with a low survival rate and poor prognosis of patients with pancreatic ductal cancer. However, the mechanisms responsible for M2-macrophage polarization remain unclear. Recently, Siglec-15 appears as an emerging target for the normalization of the tumor immune microenvironment. Hence, we detected the Sigelc-15 expression on macrophages by using qPCR and Western blot assay and found that the expression of Siglec-15 was upregulated on M2 macrophages induced by IL-4 and conditioned media from pancreatic ductal cancer. In addition, after knocking out Siglec-15, the expression of M2 phenotype macrophage biomarkers such as Arg1 and CD206 was significantly downregulated. Besides, in our study we also found that Siglec-15 could upregulate the glycolysis of macrophage possibly by interacting with Glut1 to regulate the M2-macrophage polarization. The regulation was also partly dependent on STING, and Glut1-related glycose metabolism was involved in regulating cGAS/STING signaling. When utilizing a subcutaneous transplantation mouse model, we observed that knocking out of Siglec-15 or co-injecting tumor cells with macrophage from Siglec-15 KO mice could significantly inhibit the growth of subcutaneous tumors in mice. Taken together, these findings suggest that Siglec-15 is essential for the M2-macrophage polarization to shape an immune suppressive tumor microenvironment in pancreatic cancer and makes it an attractive target for pancreatic cancer immunotherapy.

DNA Polymerase Theta Plays a Critical Role in Pancreatic Cancer Development and Metastasis

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), due to its genomic heterogeneity and lack of effective treatment, despite decades of intensive research, will become the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths by 2030. Step-wise acquisition of mutations, due to genomic instability, is considered to drive the development of PDAC; the KRAS mutation occurs in 95 to 100% of human PDAC, and is already detectable in early premalignant lesions designated as pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PanIN). This mutation is possibly the key event leading to genomic instability and PDAC development. Our study aimed to investigate the role of the error-prone DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) repair pathway, alt-EJ, in the presence of the KRAS G12D mutation in pancreatic cancer development. Our findings show that oncogenic KRAS contributes to increasing the expression of Polθ, Lig3, and Mre11, key components of alt-EJ in both mouse and human PDAC models. We further confirm increased catalytic activity of alt-EJ in a mouse and human model of PDAC bearing the KRAS G12D mutation. Subsequently, we focused on estimating the impact of alt-EJ inactivation by polymerase theta (Polθ) deletion on pancreatic cancer development, and survival in genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs) and cancer patients. Here, we show that even though Polθ deficiency does not fully prevent the development of pancreatic cancer, it significantly delays the onset of PanIN formation, prolongs the overall survival of experimental mice, and correlates with the overall survival of pancreatic cancer patients in the TCGA database. Our study clearly demonstrates the role of alt-EJ in the development of PDAC, and alt-EJ may be an attractive therapeutic target for pancreatic cancer patients.

Heterogeneity of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts and the Tumor Immune Microenvironment in Pancreatic Cancer

Simple Summary

Stroma-targeting therapy in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) has been extensively investigated, but no candidates have shown efficacy at the clinical trial stage. Studies of cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF) depletion in a mouse model suggested that CAFs have not only tumor-promoting function but also tumor-suppressive activity. Recently, single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) has revealed the complex tumor microenvironment within PDAC, and subpopulations of functionally distinct CAFs and their association with tumor immunity have been reported. However, the existence of tumor suppressive CAFs and CAFs involved in the maintenance of PDAC differentiation has also been reported. In the future, therapeutic strategies should be developed considering these CAF subpopulations, with the hope of improving the prognosis of PDAC.

Abstract

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is one of the most lethal cancers, with a 5-year survival rate of 9%. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) have historically been considered tumor-promoting. However, multiple studies reporting that suppression of CAFs in PDAC mouse models resulted in more aggressive tumors and worse prognosis have suggested the existence of a tumor-suppressive population within CAFs, leading to further research on heterogeneity within CAFs. In recent years, the benefits of cancer immunotherapy have been reported in various carcinomas. Unfortunately, the efficacy of immunotherapies in PDAC has been limited, and the CAF-driven cancer immunosuppressive microenvironment has been suggested as the cause. Thus, clarification of heterogeneity within the tumor microenvironment, including CAFs and tumor immunity, is urgently needed to establish effective therapeutic strategies for PDAC. In this review, we report the latest findings on the heterogeneity of CAFs and the functions of each major CAF subtype, which have been revealed by single-cell RNA sequencing in recent years. We also describe reports of tumor-suppressive CAF subtypes and the existence of CAFs that maintain a differentiated PDAC phenotype and review the potential for targeted therapy.

Corema album Leaves Mediate DNA Damage in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells

Corema (C.) album is a shrub endemic to the Atlantic coast and has been described as yielding beneficial effects for human health. Nevertheless, studies concerning the bioactivity of C. album leaves are scarce. This study aims at investigating the anticancer potential and mode of action, of an hydroethanolic extract of C. album leaves (ECAL) on triple-negative breast cancer. This is a poor survival breast cancer subtype, owing to its high risk of distant reappearance, metastasis rates and the probability of relapse. The ECAL ability to prevent tumor progression through (i) the inhibition of cell proliferation (cell viability); (ii) the induction of apoptosis (morphological changes, TUNEL assay, caspase-3 cleaved) and (iii) the induction of DNA damage (PARP1 and γH2AX) with (iv) the involvement of NF-κB and of ERK1/2 pathways (AlphaScreen assay) was evaluated. ECAL activated the apoptotic pathway (through caspase-3) along with the inhibition of ERK and NF-κB pathways causing DNA damage and cell death. The large polyphenolic content of ECAL was presumed to be accountable for these effects. The extract of C. album leaves can target multiple pathways and, thus, can block more than one possible means of disease progression, evidencing the anticancer therapeutic potential from a plant source.

Autophagy: A Key Player in Pancreatic Cancer Progression and a Potential Drug Target

Pancreatic cancer is known to have the lowest survival outcomes among all major cancers, and unfortunately, this has only been marginally improved over last four decades. The innate characteristics of pancreatic cancer include an aggressive and fast-growing nature from powerful driver mutations, a highly defensive tumor microenvironment and the upregulation of advantageous survival pathways such as autophagy. Autophagy involves targeted degradation of proteins and organelles to provide a secondary source of cellular supplies to maintain cell growth. Elevated autophagic activity in pancreatic cancer is recognized as a major survival pathway as it provides a plethora of support for tumors by supplying vital resources, maintaining tumour survival under the stressful microenvironment and promoting other pathways involved in tumour progression and metastasis. The combination of these features is unique to pancreatic cancer and present significant resistance to chemotherapeutic strategies, thus, indicating a need for further investigation into therapies targeting this crucial pathway. This review will outline the autophagy pathway and its regulation, in addition to the genetic landscape and tumor microenvironment that contribute to pancreatic cancer severity. Moreover, this review will also discuss the mechanisms of novel therapeutic strategies that inhibit autophagy and how they could be used to suppress tumor progression.

Suppression of AGTR1 Induces Cellular Senescence in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Through Inactivating ERK Signaling

Objective: Cellular senescence is an effective barrier against tumorigenesis. Hence, it is of significance to characterize key features of cellular senescence and the induction of senescence in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells via pharmacological interventions. Our study determined the biological roles as well as mechanisms of angiotensin II type I receptor (AGTR1) on cellular senescence in HCC.

Methods: Lentivirus vector-mediated overexpression or knockdown of AGTR1 was conducted in HCC cells, respectively. A volume of 8 μM sorafenib was used to induce cellular senescence, and ERK was activated by 30 ng/ml ERK agonist EGF. Proliferation was evaluated via clone formation assay. HCC cell senescence was examined by flow cytometry for cell cycle, senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal) staining, and senescence-associated heterochromatin foci (SAHF) analysis. AGTR1, p53, p21, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and p-ERK expression were assessed through Western blot or immunofluorescence.

Results: AGTR1-knockout HCC cells displayed the attenuated proliferative capacity, G2-M phase arrest, increased expression of p53 and p21, and elevated percentages of SA-β-gal- and SAHF-positive cells. In sorafenib-exposed HCC cells, overexpressed AGTR1 enhanced the proliferative capacity and alleviated G2-M phase arrest as well as decreased p53 and p21 expression and the proportions of SA-β-gal- and SAHF-positive cells. Moreover, AGTR1 knockdown attenuated the activity of p-ERK in HCC cells, and ERK agonist ameliorated AGTR1 knockdown-induced cellular senescence.

Conclusion: This study demonstrates that suppression of AGTR1 induces cellular senescence in HCC through inactivating ERK signaling. The significant synergistic effect of AGTR1 suppression and sorafenib might represent a potential combination therapy for HCC.

Management of Pancreatic Cancer and Its Microenvironment: Potential Impact of Nano-Targeting

Simple Summary

The poor prognosis and survival rates associated with pancreatic cancer show that there is a clear unmet need for better disease management. The heterogeneity of the tumor and its microenvironment, including stroma and fibrosis, creates a challenge for current therapy. The pathogenesis of pancreatic cancer is mediated by several factors, such as severed communication between pancreatic stellate cells and stroma and the consequences of hypoxia-inducible factors that aid in the survival of the pancreatic tumor. Given the multiple limitations of molecular targeting, multiple functional nano-targeting offers a breakthrough in pancreatic cancer treatment through its ability to overcome the physical challenges posed by the tumor microenvironment, amongst many others.

Abstract

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is rare and difficult to treat, making it a complicated diagnosis for every patient. These patients have a low survival rate along with a poor quality of life under current pancreatic cancer therapies that adversely affect healthy cells due to the lack of precise drug targeting. Additionally, chemoresistance and radioresistance are other key challenges in PDAC, which might be due in part to the lack of tumor-targeted delivery of sufficient levels of different chemotherapies because of their low therapeutic index. Thus, instead of leaving a trail of off-target damage when killing these cancer cells, it is best to find a way that targets them directly. More seriously, metastatic relapse often occurs after surgery, and therefore, achieving improved outcomes in the management of PDAC in the absence of strategies preventing metastasis is likely to be impossible. Nano-targeting of the tumor and its microenvironment has shown promise for treating various cancers, which might be a promising approach for PDAC. This review updates the advancements in treatment modalities for pancreatic cancer and highlights future directions that warrant further investigation to increase pancreatic patients’ overall survival.

Gene Differential Expression and Interaction Networks Illustrate the Biomarkers and Molecular Biological Mechanisms of Unsaponifiable Matter in Kanglaite Injection for Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma

Background

Kanglaite injection (KLTi) has shown good clinical efficacy in the treatment of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). While previous studies have demonstrated the antitumor effects of the oil compounds in KLTi, it is unclear whether the unsaponifiable matter (USM) also has antitumor effects. This study used network pharmacology, molecular docking, and database verification methods to investigate the molecular biological mechanisms of USM.

Methods

Compounds of USM were obtained from GC-MS, and targets from DrugBank. Next, the GEO database was searched for differentially expressed genes in cancerous tissues and healthy tissues of PDAC to identify targets. Subsequently, the protein-protein interaction of USM and PDAC targets was constructed by BisoGenet to extract candidate genes. The candidate genes were enriched using GO and KEGG by Metascape, and the gene-pathway network was constructed to screen the key genes. Molecular docking and molecular dynamic simulations of core compound targets were finally performed and to explore the diagnostic, survival, and prognosis value of targets.

Results

A total of 10 active compounds and 36 drug targets were screened for USM, 919 genes associated with PDAC, and 139 USM candidate genes against PDAC were excavated. The enrichment predicted USM by acting on RELA, NFKB1, IKBKG, JUN, MAPK1, TP53, and AKT1. Molecular docking and dynamic simulations confirmed the screened core targets had good affinity and stability with the corresponding compounds. In diagnostic ROC validation, the above targets have certain accuracy for diagnosing PDAC, and the combined diagnosis is more advantageous. As the most diagnostic value of RELA, it is equally significant in predicting disease-specific survival and progression-free interval.

Conclusions

USM in KLTi plays an anti-PDAC role by intervening in the cell cycle, inducing apoptosis, and downregulating the NF-κB, MAPK, and PI3K-Akt pathways. It might participate in the pancreatic cancer pathway, and core target groups have diagnostic, survival, and prognosis value biomarker significance.

Tumor organoids: applications in cancer modeling and potentials in precision medicine

Cancer is a top-ranked life-threatening disease with intratumor heterogeneity. Tumor heterogeneity is associated with metastasis, relapse, and therapy resistance. These factors contribute to treatment failure and an unfavorable prognosis. Personalized tumor models faithfully capturing the tumor heterogeneity of individual patients are urgently needed for precision medicine. Advances in stem cell culture have given rise to powerful organoid technology for the generation of in vitro three-dimensional tissues that have been shown to more accurately recapitulate the structures, specific functions, molecular characteristics, genomic alterations, expression profiles, and tumor microenvironment of primary tumors. Tumoroids in vitro serve as an important component of the pipeline for the discovery of potential therapeutic targets and the identification of novel compounds. In this review, we will summarize recent advances in tumoroid cultures as an excellent tool for accurate cancer modeling. Additionally, vascularization and immune microenvironment modeling based on organoid technology will also be described. Furthermore, we will summarize the great potential of tumor organoids in predicting the therapeutic response, investigating resistance-related mechanisms, optimizing treatment strategies, and exploring potential therapies. In addition, the bottlenecks and challenges of current tumoroids will also be discussed in this review.

Unraveling the Roles of Protein Kinases in Autophagy: An Update on Small-Molecule Compounds for Targeted Therapy

Protein kinases, which catalyze the phosphorylation of proteins, are involved in several important cellular processes, such as autophagy. Of note, autophagy, originally described as a mechanism for intracellular waste disposal and recovery, has been becoming a crucial biological process closely related to many types of human diseases. More recently, the roles of protein kinases in autophagy have been gradually elucidated, and the design of small-molecule compounds to modulate targets to positively or negatively interfere with the cytoprotective autophagy or autophagy-associated cell death may provide a new clue on the current targeted therapy. Thus, in this Perspective, we focus on summarizing the different roles of protein kinases, including positive, negative, and bidirectional regulations of autophagy. Moreover, we discuss several small-molecule compounds targeting these protein kinases in human diseases, highlighting their pivotal roles in autophagy for targeted therapeutic purposes.

Pancreatic stellate cells - rising stars in pancreatic pathologies

Pluripotent pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs) receive growing interest in past decades. Two types of PSCs are recognized –vitamin A accumulating quiescent PSCs and activated PSCs- the main producents of extracellular matrix in pancreatic tissue. PSCs plays important role in pathogenesis of pancreatic fibrosis in pancreatic cancer and chronic pancreatitis. PSCs are intensively studied as potential therapeutical target because of their important role in developing desmoplastic stroma in pancreatic cancer. There also exists evidence that PSC are involved in other pathologies like type-2 diabetes mellitus. This article brings brief characteristics of PSCs and recent advances in research of these cells.

CXCL12 in Pancreatic Cancer: Its Function and Potential as a Therapeutic Drug Target

Simple Summary

Pancreatic cancer is a challenging disease to treat effectively. Fibroblasts associated with pancreatic cancer contribute to disease progression by secreting factors that enhance tumor cell survival and help tumor cells avoid detection by the immune system. This overview focuses on a chemokine, CXCL12, produced by cancer-associated fibroblasts and how CXCL12 signaling enhances pancreatic cancer progression by contributing to various hallmarks of cancer including, but not limited to, tumor growth and evasion of immune response. These pro-oncogenic functions of CXCL12 make it an attractive target in pancreatic cancer. We discuss the different approaches in development to therapeutically target CXCL12 and finally propose a novel approach, the use of the farnesyl transferase inhibitor tipifarnib to inhibit CXCL12 expression in pancreatic fibroblasts.

Abstract

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a disease with limited therapeutic options and dismal long-term survival. The unique tumor environment of PDAC, consisting of desmoplastic stroma, immune suppressive cells, and activated fibroblasts, contributes to its resistance to therapy. Activated fibroblasts (cancer-associated fibroblasts and pancreatic stellate cells) secrete chemokines and growth factors that support PDAC growth, spread, chemoresistance, and immune evasion. In this review, we focus on one such chemokine, CXCL12, secreted by the cancer-associated fibroblasts and discuss its contribution to several of the classical hallmarks of PDAC and other tumors. We review the various therapeutic approaches in development to target CXCL12 signaling in PDAC. Finally, we propose an unconventional use of tipifarnib, a farnesyl transferase inhibitor, to inhibit CXCL12 production in PDAC.

Targeting ERK induced cell death and p53/ROS-dependent protective autophagy in colorectal cancer

In recent years, many studies have shown that autophagy plays a vital role in the resistance of tumor chemotherapy. However, the interaction between autophagy and cell death has not yet been clarified. In this study, a new specific ERK inhibitor CC90003 was found to suppress colorectal cancer growth by inducing cell death both in vitro and in vivo. Studies have confirmed that higher concentrations of ROS leads to autophagy or cell death. In this research, the role of CC90003-induced ROS was verified. But after inhibiting ROS by two kinds of ROS inhibitors NAC and SFN, the autophagy induced by CC90003 decreased, while cell death strengthened. In parallel, protective autophagy was also induced, while in a p53-dependent manner. After silencing p53 or using the p53 inhibitor PFTα, the autophagy induced by CC90003 was weakened and the rate of cell death increases. Therefore, we confirmed that CC90003 could induce autophagy by activating ROS/p53. Furthermore, in the xenograft mouse model, the effect was obtained remarkably in the combinational treatment group of CC90003 plus CQ, comparing with that of the single treatment groups. In a word, our results demonstrated that targeting ERK leads to cell death and p53/ROS-dependent protective autophagy simultaneously in colorectal cancer, which offers new potential targets for clinical therapy.

The Role and Mechanism of Autophagy in Pancreatic Cancer: An Update Review

Pancreatic cancer, with high morbidity and mortality rates, is one of the most malignant tumors worldwide. Despite extensive research, the prognosis remains poor. Autophagy, a lysosomal-mediated, highly conserved degradation process that removes abnormal proteins and damaged organelles from the body, is upregulated in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. Based on differences in the tumor microenvironment and tumor stage, the functions of autophagy in the pathophysiology and treatment of pancreatic cancer differ. In the initial phase, autophagy inhibits the transformation of precancerous lesions to cancer. However, in the progressive stage, autophagy promotes tumor growth. Autophagy is also one of the main mechanisms of drug resistance during treatment. Here, we describe the role of autophagy in pancreatic cancer progression and discuss relevant treatment strategies for this disease.

Regulation and function of autophagy in pancreatic cancer

Oncogenic KRAS mutation-driven pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma is currently the fourth-leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the United States. Macroautophagy (hereafter "autophagy") is one of the lysosome-dependent degradation systems that can remove abnormal proteins, damaged organelles, or invading pathogens by activating dynamic membrane structures (e.g., phagophores, autophagosomes, and autolysosomes). Impaired autophagy (including excessive activation and defects) is a pathological feature of human diseases, including pancreatic cancer. However, dysfunctional autophagy has many types and plays a complex role in pancreatic tumor biology, depending on various factors, such as tumor stage, microenvironment, immunometabolic state, and death signals. As a modulator connecting various cellular events, pharmacological targeting of nonselective autophagy may lead to both good and bad therapeutic effects. In contrast, targeting selective autophagy could reduce potential side effects of the drugs used. In this review, we describe the advances and challenges of autophagy in the development and therapy of pancreatic cancer.Abbreviations: AMPK: AMP-activated protein kinase; CQ: chloroquine; csc: cancer stem cells; DAMP: danger/damage-associated molecular pattern; EMT: epithelial-mesenchymal transition; lncRNA: long noncoding RNA; MIR: microRNA; PanIN: pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia; PDAC: pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma; PtdIns3K: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; SNARE: soluble NSF attachment protein receptor; UPS: ubiquitin-proteasome system.

Diabetes in Humans Activates Pancreatic Stellate Cells via RAGE in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs) mainly consist of cancer-associating fibroblasts in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). The receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) is implicated in the pathophysiology of diabetic complications. Here, we studied the implication of RAGE in PSC activation in PDAC. The activation of cultured mouse PSCs was evaluated by qPCR. The induction of epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) in PDAC cell lines was assessed under stimulation with culture supernatant from activated PSCs. A total of 155 surgically resected PDAC subjects (83 nondiabetic, 18 with ≦3-years and 54 with >3-years history of diabetes) were clinicopathologically evaluated. A high-fat diet increased the expression of activated markers in cultured PSCs, which was abrogated by RAGE deletion. Culture supernatant from activated PSCs facilitated EMT of PDAC cells with elevation of TGF-β and IL-6, but not from RAGE-deleted PSCs. Diabetic subjects complicated with metabolic syndrome, divided by cluster analysis, showed higher PSC activation and RAGE expression. In such groups, PDAC cells exhibited an EMT nature. The complication of metabolic syndrome with diabetes significantly worsened disease-free survival of PDAC subjects. Thus, RAGE in PSCs can be viewed as a new promoter and a future therapeutic target of PDAC in diabetic subjects with metabolic syndrome.

Lnc-PFAR facilitates autophagy and exacerbates pancreatic fibrosis by reducing pre-miR-141 maturation in chronic pancreatitis

Chronic pancreatitis (CP) is described as progressive inflammatory fibrosis of pancreas, accompanied with irreversible impaired endocrine and exocrine insufficiency. Pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs) are widely distributed in the stroma of the pancreas and PSCs activation has been shown as one of the leading causes for pancreatic fibrosis. Our previous study has revealed that autophagy is dramatically activated in CP tissues, which facilitates PSCs activation and pancreatic fibrosis. Long non-coding RNAs (LncRNAs) have been recognized as crucial regulators for fibrosis-related diseases. LncRNAs interact with RNA binding protein or construct competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) hypothesis which elicited the fibrotic processes. Until now, the effects of lncRNAs on PSCs activation and pancreatic fibrosis have not been clearly explored. In this study, a novel lncRNA named Lnc-PFAR was found highly expressed in mouse and human CP tissues. Our data revealed that Lnc-PFAR facilitates PSCs activation and pancreatic fibrosis via RB1CC1-induced autophagy. Lnc-PFAR reduces miR-141 expression by suppressing pre-miR-141 maturation, which eventually upregulates the RB1CC1 and fibrosis-related indicators expression. Meanwhile, Lnc-PFAR enhanced PSCs activation and pancreatic fibrosis through trigging autophagy. Our study interrogates a novel lncRNA-induced mechanism in promoting the development of pancreatic fibrosis, and Lnc-PFAR is suggested to be a prospective therapeutic target in clinical scenarios.

Progress on Ras/MAPK Signaling Research and Targeting in Blood and Solid Cancers

Simple Summary

The Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK signaling pathway is responsible for regulating cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival. Overexpression and overactivation of members within the signaling cascade have been observed in many solid and blood cancers. Research often focuses on targeting the pathway to disrupt cancer initiation and progression. We aimed to provide an overview of the pathway’s physiologic role and regulation, interactions with other pathways involved in cancer development, and mutations that lead to malignancy. Several blood and solid cancers are analyzed to illustrate the impact of the pathway’s dysregulation, stemming from mutation or viral induction. Finally, we summarized different approaches to targeting the pathway and the associated novel treatments being researched or having recently achieved approval.

Abstract

The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, consisting of the Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK signaling cascade, regulates genes that control cellular development, differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis. Within the cascade, multiple isoforms of Ras and Raf each display differences in functionality, efficiency, and, critically, oncogenic potential. According to the NCI, over 30% of all human cancers are driven by Ras genes. This dysfunctional signaling is implicated in a wide variety of leukemias and solid tumors, both with and without viral etiology. Due to the strong evidence of Ras-Raf involvement in tumorigenesis, many have attempted to target the cascade to treat these malignancies. Decades of unsuccessful experimentation had deemed Ras undruggable, but recently, the approval of Sotorasib as the first ever KRas inhibitor represents a monumental breakthrough. This advancement is not without novel challenges. As a G12C mutant-specific drug, it also represents the issue of drug target specificity within Ras pathway; not only do many drugs only affect single mutational profiles, with few pan-inhibitor exceptions, tumor genetic heterogeneity may give rise to drug-resistant profiles. Furthermore, significant challenges in targeting downstream Raf, especially the BRaf isoform, lie in the paradoxical activation of wild-type BRaf by BRaf mutant inhibitors. This literature review will delineate the mechanisms of Ras signaling in the MAPK pathway and its possible oncogenic mutations, illustrate how specific mutations affect the pathogenesis of specific cancers, and compare available and in-development treatments targeting the Ras pathway.

CD44 Promotes Lung Cancer Cell Metastasis through ERK-ZEB1 Signaling

Lung cancer is a malignancy with high mortality worldwide, and metastasis occurs at a high frequency even when cancer spread is not detectable at primary operation. Cancer stemness plays an important role in malignant cancer behavior, treatment resistance, and cancer metastasis. Therefore, understanding the molecular pathogenesis behind cancer-stemness-mediated metastasis and developing effective approaches to prevent metastasis are key issues for improving cancer treatment. In this study, we investigated the role of CD44 stemness marker in lung cancer using in vitro and clinical studies. Immunohistochemical staining of lung cancer tissue specimens revealed that primary tumors with higher CD44 expression showed increased metastasis to regional lymph nodes. Flow cytometry analysis suggested that CD44 positive cells were enriched in the metastatic lymph nodes compared to the primary tumors. CD44 overexpression significantly increased migration and invasion abilities of lung cancer cells through CD44-induced ERK phosphorylation, ZEB1 upregulation, and Claudin-1 downregulation. Furthermore, ERK inhibition suppressed the migration and invasion abilities of CD44-overexpressing lung cancer cells. In summary, our in vitro and clinical results indicate that CD44 may be a potential prognostic and therapeutic marker for lung cancer patients.

Stromal cells in the tumor microenvironment promote the progression of oral squamous cell carcinoma

The stromal cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) can influence the progression of multiple types of cancer; however, data on oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) are limited. In the present study, the effects of verrucous squamous cell carcinoma-associated stromal cells (VSCC-SCs), squamous cell carcinoma-associated stromal cells (SCC-SCs) and human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs) on the tumor nest formation, proliferation, invasion and migration of HSC-3 cells were examined in vitro using Giemsa staining, MTS, and Transwell (invasion and migration) assays, respectively. The results revealed that both the VSCC-SCs and SCC-SCs inhibited the tumor nest formation, and promoted the proliferation, invasion and migration of OSCC cells in vitro. Furthermore, the effects of VSCC-SCs, SCC-SCs and HDFs on the differentiation, proliferation, invasion and migration of OSCC cells in vivo were evaluated by hematoxylin and eosin staining, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase staining, immunohistochemistry and double-fluorescent immunohistochemical staining, respectively. The results demonstrated that the VSCC-SCs promoted the differentiation, proliferation, invasion and migration of OSCC cells, while the SCC-SCs inhibited the differentiation, and promoted the proliferation, invasion and migration of OSCC cells in vivo. Finally, microarray data were used to predict genes in VSCC-SCs and SCC-SCs that may influence the progression of OSCC, and those with potential to influence the differential effects of VSCC-SCs and SCC-SCs on the differentiation of OSCC. It was found that C-X-C motif chemokine ligand (CXCL)8, mitogen-activated protein kinase 3 (MAPK3), phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha (PIK3CA), C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 1 (CXCL1) and C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) may be involved in the crosstalk between VSCC-SCs, SCC-SCs and OSCC cells, which regulates the progression of OSCC. Intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM1), interleukin (IL)1B, Fos proto-oncogene, AP-1 transcription factor subunit (FOS), bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4), insulin (INS) and nerve growth factor (NGF) may be responsible for the differential effects of VSCC-SCs and SCC-SCs on the differentiation of OSCC. On the whole, the present study demonstrates that both VSCC-SCs and SCC-SCs may promote the progression of OSCC, and SCC-SCs were found to exert a more prominent promoting effect; this may represent a potential regulatory mechanism for the progression of OSCC.