Processing of ingredients and diets and effects on nutritional value for pigs

Impact of particle size of cereals and soyabean meal on the intestinal development of weanling pigs and growth performance after an enteric challenge with F4-positive enterotoxigenic E. coli

The objectives were to determine the interactive effect of particle size of soyabean meal (SBM) and whole wheat, barley and wheat bran (CER) on growth performance of weanling pigs after an enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli F4 challenge (Experiment 1) and on gastrointestinal (GIT) development immediately after weaning (Experiment 2). Experiment 1 consisted of 192 pigs (24 ± 3 days of age; 7.4 ± 1.1 kg weaning bodyweight [BW]) selected for Escherichia coli (E. coli) F4 susceptibility. Pigs were given an oral E. coli inoculum at postweaning day 7, to induce an enteric health challenge. Experiment 2 consisted of 40 pigs (24 ± 3 days of age; 7.2 ± 1.0 kg weaning BW) that were killed on postweaning day 8 or 9, to determine the effects of particle size on GIT development and functionality. Four experimental diets were used in a 2 × 2 factorial design: (1) coarse CER and coarse SBM, (2) coarse CER and fine SBM (CERcSBMf), (3) fine CER and coarse SBM, or (4) fine CER and fine SBM (CERfSBMf). Results showed no interaction between SBM and CER coarseness on growth performance, GIT development and functionality. Diarrhoea incidence was higher (p < 0.05) for CERfSBMf during the 2 weeks following the E. coli challenge compared to the other diets. Daily gain and feed intake during this period were higher (p < 0.05) for pigs fed CERc compared to CERf. Empty stomach weight tended to be greater by 8% (p = 0.09) for CERc compared to CERf. Gastric protein (p = 0.05) and starch (p = 0.04) disappearances were greater for SBMf compared to SBMc. Thus, CERcSBMf resulted in the best growth performance and lowest diarrhoea incidence during the 2 weeks following the E. coli challenge, which may be explained by changes in stomach functionality but not by changes in other parts of the GIT.

The impact of incorporating dried cafeteria leftover food on growing APRI rabbits productivity, profitability and meat quality

This study was conducted to investigate the effect of dried cafeteria leftover food (DCLF) incorporation in growing APRI rabbit diets on nutrient digestibility, live body weight, body weight gain, carcass traits, meat quality, blood parameters, and economic efficiency. Thirty-six APRI rabbits (6 weeks of age), after weaning, were randomly divided into three groups (12 rabbits/group, 613 ± 5 g). During the experiment, rabbits aged 6-14 weeks participated in the experiment. An approximate isocaloric and isonitrogenous composition was achieved in three pelleted experimental diets. For the rabbit groups D1 (as the control), D2, and D3, DCLF was added at doses of 0%, 17.5%, and 35%, respectively. Digestibility trails were carried out at the end of the feeding experiment to evaluate the nutritional and feeding values of the experimental diets. To examine the characteristics of the carcasses, the quality of the meat, the histopathological analysis, and the blood plasma parameters, three rabbits were slaughtered from each group. The results showed that the feeding values (TDN and DE), which had the greatest values, as well as the digesting coefficients for dry matter, organic matter, crude fiber, and ether extract between the D1 and D3 groups were significantly different (p < 0.05). On the contrary, the curde protein, nitrogen-free extract, and digestible crude protein of the examined diets showed no signifcant differences compared with the control diet. The level of DCLF incorporation in diets significantly (p < 0.05) increased the live body weight at 14 weeks; with D3 recording the highest values (2130.9 g) when compared to the D1 and D2 groups. A similar pattern was observed for both daily increase and total body gain (6-14 weeks). Feed conversion recorded insignificant differences among the experimental diets respecting the period 6-14 weeks of age. DCLF levels had a significant effect on dressing and giblet percentages. The chemical composition and color parameters of rabbit meat were similar (p > 0.05), except for fat%, which had the highest value in the D3 group (p < 0.05) compared to the D1 and D2 groups. Economic efficiency was improved by using DLCF up to 35% in terms of gross margin and feed cost/kg gain. In conclusion, using DCLF in the feeding system of rabbits could enhance productive performance, carcass traits, meat quality, and physiological function, as well as improve economic efficiency.

Broiler Age Differently Affects Apparent Metabolizable Energy and Net Energy of Expanded Soybean Meal

Accurately determining the energy values of ingredients is crucial for meeting energy requirements and achieving maximum production performance of animals. This study was conducted to measure the available energy values of three expanded soybean meals (ESBMs) for Arbor Acres male broilers from 14 to 16 day and 28 to 30 day using the difference method. A corn-soybean basal diet was formulated, and test diets were developed with 25% ESBMs as substitutes for energy-yielding ingredients. A completely randomized design was used for determining heat production and energy balance of broilers in 12 open-circuit respiration chambers, with six replicates per group. Prior to measurement, four (14 to 16 day) or two (28 to 30 day) birds per chamber were given a 4-day adaption to diets and chambers. The period lasted for 3 days to determine the apparent metabolizable energy (AME), nitrogen balance, gas exchanges, and heat production. Broilers fed test diets with 25% ESBM exhibited higher nitrogen intake (p < 0.05), nitrogen excreta (p < 0.05), and increased energy deposition as protein irrespective of age (p < 0.05). Furthermore, results showed that AME, nitrogen corrected AME (AMEn), and net energy (NE) values of 3 ESBMs averaged 10.48, 8.93, and 6.88 MJ/kg for broilers from 14 to 16 day, while averaged 11.91, 10.42, and 6.43 MJ/kg for broilers from 28 to 30 day. Broilers from 28 to 30 day showed significantly higher AMEn values but lower NE/AME values of ESBMs compared with those from 14 to 16 day (p < 0.05). Therefore, age-dependent energy values of a single ingredient should be considered in feed formulations to optimize economic returns.

Pelleting and particle size reduction of corn increase net energy and digestibility of fiber, protein, and fat in corn-soybean meal diets fed to group-housed pigs

BACKGROUND

Reduction of the particle size of corn increases energy digestibility and concentrations of digestible and metabolizable energy. Pelleting may also reduce particle size of grain, but it is not known if there are interactions between particle size reduction and pelleting. The objective of this experiment was to test the hypothesis that particle size reduction and pelleting, separately or in combination, increase N balance, apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of fiber and fat, and net energy (NE) in corn-soybean meal diets fed to group-housed pigs.

METHODS

Six corn-soybean meal-based diets were used in a 3 × 2 factorial design with 3 particle sizes of corn (i.e., 700, 500, or 300 μm) and 2 diet forms (i.e., meal or pelleted). Pigs were allowed ad libitum access to feed and water. Twenty-four castrated male pigs (initial weight: 29.52 kg; standard diviation: 1.40) were allotted to the 6 diets using a 6 × 6 Latin square design with 6 calorimeter chambers (i.e., 4 pigs/chamber) and 6 periods. Oxygen consumption and CO2 and CH4 productions were measured during fed and fasting states and fecal and urine samples were collected.

RESULTS

Regardless of particle size of corn, the ATTD of gross energy (GE), N, and acid-hydrolyzed ether extract (AEE), and the concentration of NE were greater (P < 0.05) in pelleted diets than in meal diets. Regardless of diet form, the ATTD of GE, N, and AEE, and the concentration of NE were increased (linear; P < 0.05) by reducing the particle size of corn, but the increase was greater in meal diets than in pelleted diets (interaction; P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Both pelleting and reduction of corn particle size increased nutrient digestibility and NE, but increases were greater in meal diets than in pelleted diets.

Effect of extrusion on energy and nutrient digestibility of lentil-based diets containing either supplemental plant or animal protein fed to growing pigs

Non-food grade and excess lentil grain production may be included in swine feeds to provide starch and protein and reduce feed cost. Extrusion processing may increase energy and nutrient digestibility of lentil-based diets containing either supplemental plant or animal protein sources. Therefore, the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of crude protein (CP) and amino acids (AA), apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of gross energy (GE), and digestible energy (DE) value of lentil-based diets were assessed in growing pigs. Two diets were formulated to provide 2.4 Mcal net energy (NE)/kg and 4.35 g standardized ileal digestible lysine/Mcal NE: (1) soybean meal (SBM) diet, containing 50% lentil, 31% wheat, and 12.8% SBM; and (2) fish meal (FM) diet, containing 40% lentil, 45% wheat, and 10% FM. Following mixing, each diet batch was divided into two parts: one part remained as mash, whereas the other part was extruded using a single-screw extruder (400 rpm, 250 kg/h). Eight ileal-cannulated barrows (32.3 ± 1.5 kg) were fed the four diets at 2.8 times maintenance DE requirement (110 kcal per kg of body weight0.75) for four 9-d periods in a double 4 × 4 Latin square to achieve 8 observations per diet. Data were analyzed as a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement including protein source, post-mixing processing, and their interaction as fixed effects. The lentil sample contained 32.3% starch, 24.4% CP, 9.3% total dietary fiber, and 1.7 mg/g of trypsin inhibitor activity on as is-basis. Interactions between dietary protein source and post-mixing processing were not observed. Feeding FM diets resulted in greater (P < 0.05) AID of dry matter (DM), GE, and most AA, and ATTD of CP, but lower apparent hindgut fermentation of DM and GE than SBM diets. Extrusion increased (P < 0.05) the ATTD of GE and DE value of diets. The AID of CP and AA was 3.2 and 4.7%-units greater (P < 0.05), respectively, for the extruded than mash diets. In conclusion, feeding FM diets resulted in greater ileal digestibility of DM, GE, and AA than SBM diets. Extrusion increased the AID of CP and most AA, and DE value of lentil-based diets containing either supplemental plant protein or animal-protein, indicating that extrusion can increase the energy and protein value of plant-based diets fed to pigs.

Effect of mixed meal replacement of soybean meal on growth performance, nutrient apparent digestibility, and gut microbiota of finishing pigs

Introduction

This study was carried out to investigate the effects of mixed meal (rapeseed meal, cotton meal, and sunflower meal) replacement soybean meal on growth performance, nutrient apparent digestibility, serum inflammatory factors and immunoglobulins, serum biochemical parameters, intestinal permeability, short-chain fatty acid content, and gut microbiota of finishing pigs.

Methods

A total of 54 pigs with an average initial weight of 97.60 ± 0.30 kg were selected and randomly divided into 3 groups according to their initial weight, with 6 replicates in each group and 3 pigs in each replicate. The trial period was 26 days. The groups were as follows: control group (CON), fed corn-soybean meal type basal diet; Corn-soybean-mixed meal group (CSM), fed corn-soybean meal-mixed meal diet with a ratio of rapeseed meal, cotton meal, and sunflower meal of 1:1:1 to replace 9.06% soybean meal in the basal diet; Corn-mixed meal group (CMM), fed a corn-mixed meal diet with a ratio of Rapeseed meal, Cotton meal and Sunflower meal of 1:1:1 to replace soybean meal in the basal diet completely. The crude protein level of the three diets was maintained at 12.5%.

Results

Our findings revealed no significant impact of replacing soybean meal with the mixed meal (rapeseed meal, cotton meal, and sunflower meal) on the ADG (Average daily gain), ADFI (Average daily feed intake), and F/G (Feed gain ratio) (P > 0.05), or crude protein, crude fat, and gross energy (P > 0.05) in the diet of finishing pigs. Compared with the CON group, the serum interleukin 6 (IL-6) and interleukin 10 (IL-10) concentrations were significantly decreased in the CMM group (P < 0.05). However, there is no significant effect of the mixed meal (rapeseed meal, cotton meal, and sunflower meal) replacing soybean meal in the diet on the serum interleukin 1β (IL-1β), interleukin 8 (IL-8), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), immunoglobulin A (IgA), immunoglobulin G (IgG), and immunoglobulin M (IgM) concentrations (P > 0.05). Concordantly, there is no significant effect of mixed meal (rapeseed meal, cotton meal, and sunflower meal) replacing soybean meal in the diet on the serum antioxidant capacity, such as total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), catalase (CAT), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels of finishing pigs. Moreover, compared with the CON group, serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL-C) levels were significantly lower in the CSM group (P < 0.05) and their total bilirubin (TBIL) levels were significantly lower in the CMM group (P < 0.05). There is not a significant effect on serum D-lactate and diamine oxidase (DAO) concentrations (P > 0.05). The next section of the survey showed that the replacement of soybean meal with a mixed meal (rapeseed meal, cotton meal, and sunflower meal) in the diet did not significantly influence the acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid, valeric acid, isobutyric acid, and isovaleric acid in the colon contents (P > 0.05). Furthermore, compared with the CON group, the CMM group diet significantly increased the abundance of Actinobacteria at the phylum level (P < 0.05), U_Actinobacteria at the class level (P < 0.05), and U_Bacteria at the class level (P < 0.05). The result also showed that the CMM group significantly reduced the abundance of Oscillospirales at the order level (P < 0.05) and Streptococcaceae at the family level (P < 0.05) compared with the CON group. The Spearman correlation analysis depicted a statistically significant positive correlation identified at the class level between the relative abundance of U_Bacteria and the serum T. BILI concentrations (P < 0.05). Moreover, a significant negative correlation was detected at the order level between the relative abundance of Oscillospirales and the levels of acetic and propionic acids in the colonic contents (P < 0.05). Additionally, there was a significant positive correlation between the serum concentrations of IL-6 and IL-10 and the relative abundance of the family Streptococcaceae (P < 0.05).

Discussion

This study demonstrated that the mixed meal (rapeseed meal, cotton meal, and sunflower meal) as a substitute for soybean meal in the diet had no significant negative effects on the growth performance, nutrient apparent digestibility, serum immunoglobulins, serum antioxidant capacity, intestinal permeability, short-chain fatty acid content, and diversity of gut microbiota of finishing pigs. These results can help develop further mixed meals (rapeseed meal, cotton meal, and sunflower meal) as a functional alternative feed ingredient for soybean meals in pig diets.

Effects of different processing techniques of broken rice on processing quality of pellet feed, nutrient digestibility, and gut microbiota of weaned piglets

The present study was conducted to assess the effect of different processing techniques of broken rice on processing quality of pellet feed, growth performance, nutrient digestibility, blood biochemical parameters, and fecal microbiota of weaned piglets. A total of 400 crossbred piglets (Duroc × Landrace × Yorkshire) with a mean initial body weight (BW) of 7.24 ± 0.52 kg were used in a 28-d experiment. Piglets were randomly distributed to one of 4 treatment and 10 replicate pens per treatment, with 10 piglets per pen. The dietary treatments were as follows: CON, corn as the main cereal type in the dietary; BR, 70% of the corn replaced by broken rice; ETBR, 70% of the corn replaced by extruded broken rice; EPBR, 70% of the corn replaced by expanded broken rice. Extruded broken rice and expanded broken rice supplementation significantly (P < 0.05) increased hardness, pellet durability index, crispness, and starch gelatinization degree. Extruded broken rice and expanded broken rice generated a higher (P < 0.05) average daily feed intake, increased (P < 0.05) average daily gain, decreased (P < 0.05) feed conversion ratio, and lowered (P < 0.05) the diarrhea rate. Piglets fed extruded broken rice displayed high apparent total tract digestibility levels of dry matter (P < 0.05), gross energy (P < 0.05), crude protein (P < 0.05), and organic matter (P < 0.05). In addition, extruded broken rice and expanded broken rice supplementation had increased Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium levels in gut, whereas a lower abundance of the potential pathogens Clostridium_sensu_strictio_1 and Streptococcus was observed. Dietary supplementation of extruded broken rice and expanded broken rice failed to show significant effects on blood biochemical parameters. Combined, 70% corn substituted with broken rice failed to show significant effects. Collectively, extruded broken rice and expanded broken rice supplementation had positively enhanced the pellet quality, growth performance, nutrient digestibility, and gut microbiota of weaned piglets.

Nutritional and Functional Roles of Phytase and Xylanase Enhancing the Intestinal Health and Growth of Nursery Pigs and Broiler Chickens

This review paper discussed the nutritional and functional roles of phytase and xylanase enhancing the intestinal and growth of nursery pigs and broiler chickens. There are different feed enzymes that are currently supplemented to feeds for nursery pigs and broiler chickens. Phytase and xylanase have been extensively studied showing consistent results especially related to enhancement of nutrient digestibility and growth performance of nursery pigs and broiler chickens. Findings from recent studies raise the hypothesis that phytase and xylanase could play functional roles beyond increasing nutrient digestibility, but also enhancing the intestinal health and positively modulating the intestinal microbiota of nursery pigs and broiler chickens. In conclusion, the supplementation of phytase and xylanase for nursery pigs and broiler chickens reaffirmed the benefits related to enhancement of nutrient digestibility and growth performance, whilst also playing functional roles benefiting the intestinal microbiota and reducing the intestinal oxidative damages. As a result, it could contribute to a reduction in the feed costs by allowing the use of a wider range of feedstuffs without compromising the optimal performance of the animals, as well as the environmental concerns associated with a poor hydrolysis of antinutritional factors present in the diets for swine and poultry.

A novel Bacillus sp. with rapid growth property and high enzyme activity that allows efficient fermentation of soybean meal for improving digestibility in growing pigs

AIMS

Soybean meal (SBM) contributes high-quality dietary protein for pigs. However, it also contains antinutritional factors such as allergenic high molecular weight proteins and non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) that limit its use. Therefore, the objective of this study was to screen and characterize a robust Bacillus sp. from camel dung for soybean meal fermentation to improve the digestibility in growing pigs.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Molecular characterization revealed that isolate 9 (hereinafter referred to as "CP-9") was a Bacillus subtilis strain. It secreted cellulase (0.07 U ml-1 ), xylanase (1.91 U ml-1 ), and amylase (2.66 U ml-1 ) into the culture supernatant. Isolate CP-9 showed rapid growth on LB agar plates and grew at a wide range of pH (3.0-9.0) and temperatures (23-50°C) in LB broth. Protein profiling of SBM using SDS-PAGE showed a significant reduction of large globular proteins to small peptides after 48 h of fermentation. On a dry matter basis, neutral detergent fibre (NDF) of the fermented SBM (F-SBM) was decreased by 34.25% (from 9.72 to 7.24%) with an increase in CP content by 16.54% (from 48.74 to 56.80%). Pigs fed with a semi-purified diet formulated with F-SBM as the sole source of crude protein had higher (p < 0.05) apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of DM (80.0 vs. 71.7%), ash (55.6 vs. 36.1%), CP (84.2 vs. 78.3%), NDF (70.9 vs. 66.0%), and ADF (62.4 vs. 53.3%) compared with pigs fed with unfermented soybean meal (UF-SBM).

CONCLUSIONS

A novel Bacillus subtilis strain CP-9 was isolated and characterized from camel dung for efficient fermentation of SBM. This bacterium ameliorates physico-chemical characteristics of F-SBM and improved nutrient digestibility in growing pigs.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Our data suggest that a low-cost solid-state SBM fermentation was developed using this newly isolated bacterium. The resultant F-SBM improved the nutrient digestibility in growing pigs.

Ideating A Sustainable Swine Feed Prototype: A Qualitative Approach in Farmers’ Pain Point Identification and Product Development

There is a growing interest and trend in new product development (NPD) from food waste. However, most qualitative approaches rarely use the lean entrepreneur concept in the context of new product development (NPD), which allows for understanding customer insight rather than the traditional qualitative approach. Therefore, this study aims to (1) explore the swine farmer behaviors, desired outcomes, and pain points in using swine feedstuffs, (2) select three representative segments and identify high-value customers of swine feeds, and (3) develop a sustainable swine feed prototype from the fermented fish industrial residues. The target users, 24 pig farmers from 11 provinces across the Northeastern Region of Thailand, were recruited to participate in this research. Qualitative in-depth semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis were conducted to analyze their behaviors, desired outcomes, and pain points towards pig feed usages. The framework was combined with in-depth qualitative interviews and the customer, problem, and solution zoom tools. The results revealed that household farmers were the target customer segment of swine feed made from fermented fish industrial wastes. In addition, the findings showed that the household farmers typically fed their pigs with instant feeds and alternative feeds. Moreover, their desired outcomes were the pellet feed with nutrients. Furthermore, the pain points of the household farmers were the expensive cost of feeds and mold in feeds. Therefore, this segment needs to minimize the cost of feeds by using other sustainable alternatives.

Different sieving methods for determining the physical characteristics in ground corn

We evaluated various sieving methods to estimate particle size (PS) and geometric standard deviation (GSD) of ground corn. The corn had been previously divided in six fractions and each one ground in a hammermill (1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 5- or 12-mm sieves). The stacked sieving method, with prior drying at 105ºC without agitators was the reference. We evaluated eight sieving methods, distributed in a factorial design (2 x 2 x 2 x 6), consisting of the following treatments: i) with and without agitators (two 25-mm rubber spheres), ii) with and without previous drying, iii) with a nest of test sieves set in a stacked or reverse, and iv) employing six ground corn degrees, totaling 48 treatments (four replicates). There was a linear increase in PS estimation for methods without drying and stacking and quadratic increases for the others. Reverse, drying, and agitator methodologies gave better sieving of corn, and consequently gave the lowest PS and highest GSD. The results were more pronounced for high-intensity grinding (hammermill sieve with small apertures) in which the differences between the reference method with the drying and reverse methods were up to 210 µm. Reverse sieving combined with agitators allowed the greatest passage of corn particles through the test sieves and promoted better characterization of ground corn.

Growth performance and carcass quality are not different between pigs fed diets containing cold-fermented low-oil DDGS and pigs fed conventional DDGS, but pelleting improves gain to feed ratio regardless of source of DDGS

The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that growth performance and carcass characteristics of pigs fed diets containing cold-fermented, low oil distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) is not different from that of pigs fed diets containing conventional DDGS regardless of the physical form of the diets. A total of 160 barrows and gilts were used. There were 4 diets, 10 pens per diet, and 4 pigs per pen. Pigs were weaned at 21 d of age and fed a common phase 1 diet that did not contain DDGS during the initial 7 d post-weaning. Pigs were then allotted to the four diets that were arranged in a 2 × 2 factorial design with two sources of DDGS (cold-fermented and conventional DDGS) and two diet forms (meal and pellets). Pigs were fed phase 2 diets from day 7 to 21 and phase 3 diets from day 21 to 43 post-weaning. All diets were based on corn and soybean meal, but phase 2 diets also contained 15% DDGS and phase 3 diets contained 30% DDGS. From day 43, pigs were fed grower diets for 38 d, early finisher diets for 38 d, and late finisher diets for 18 d and these diets also contained 30% DDGS. Feed was provided on an ad libitum basis and daily feed allotments were recorded. Pigs were weighed at the beginning of each phase and at the conclusion of the experiment. On the last day of the experiment, the pig in each pen with a body weight that was closest to the pen average was slaughtered and carcass measurements were determined. Combined results for the two nursery phases indicated that feeding meal diets instead of pelleted diets increased (P < 0.001) average daily feed intake and decreased (P < 0.05) gain to feed ratio (G:F). However, no differences between the two sources of DDGS were observed for the overall growth performance of weanling pigs. For the entire growing-finishing period, the source of DDGS did not affect growth performance, but pigs fed meal diets had reduced (P < 0.001) G:F compared with pigs fed the pelleted diets. There were no differences between the two sources of DDGS for carcass characteristics. Back fat was greater (P < 0.05) for pigs fed pelleted diets than for pigs fed meal diets. In conclusion, no differences in growth performance or carcass characteristics between pigs fed cold-fermented DDGS and pigs fed conventional DDGS were observed. However, pigs fed pelleted diets had greater G:F and greater back fat than pigs fed meal diets.

Nutrient digestibility of extruded canola meal in ileal-cannulated growing pigs and effects of its feeding on diet nutrient digestibility and growth performance in weaned pigs

Canola meal (CM) contains less crude protein (CP) and more fiber and anti-nutritional factors such as glucosinolates than soybean meal (SBM) and consequently has a lower nutrient digestibility. Therefore, processing strategies that may increase the feeding value of CM warrant study. In two experiments, the effects of extrusion of Brassica napus CM on apparent (AID) and standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA), apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of gross energy (GE) in growing pigs, and growth performance and diet digestibility in weaned pigs were assessed. Solvent-extracted CM was extruded using a single-screw extruder at three screw speeds: 250 (CM-250), 350 (CM-350), or 450 (CM-450) rpm. In exp. 1, in a double 4 × 4 Latin square, eight ileal-cannulated barrows (initial body weight [BW], 68.1 kg) were fed corn starch-based diets containing 50% CM or extruded CM. The CM sample contained 43.2% CP, 33.2% total dietary fiber (TDF), and 8.9 µmol of total glucosinolates/g on a dry matter (DM) basis. Extrusion increased (P < 0.05) the AID of CP, reduced (P < 0.05) apparent hindgut fermentation of CP, and decreased (P < 0.05) predicted net energy (NE) value of diets. Extrusion increased diet AID and CM SID of most indispensable AA by 3.1 to 5.3%-units. In exp. 2, 200 weaned pigs (initial BW, 8.3 kg) were fed diets containing 20% SBM, CM, or extruded CM starting 2 wk postweaning for 3 wk. The CM sample contained 42.7% CP, 28.3% TDF, and 5.3 µmol total glucosinolates/g DM. Wheat-based diets provided 2.3 Mcal NE/kg and 5.1 g SID Lys/Mcal NE. Dietary inclusion of extruded CM replacing SBM decreased (P < 0.05) diet ATTD of DM, GE and CP, and DE value. Average daily feed intake, average daily gain (ADG), and gain:feed (G:F) of pigs did not differ between extruded CM and SBM diets and were not affected by extrusion, but increasing extruder screw speed linearly increased (P < 0.05) ADG for day 1 to 7 and G:F for the entire trial. In conclusion, extrusion increased diet AID and CM SID of AA but not DE and predicted NE values of CM. However, increasing extruder speed did not further increase the SID of most of the AA of CM in growing pigs. Dietary inclusion of 20% CM or extruded CM did not affect the growth performance in weaned pigs.

Risk factors for gastric ulceration in nursery pigs

Pars oesophageal gastric ulceration is a prevalent condition in swine production and often observed in finisher pigs at slaughter, with reported prevalence ranging from 32 % to 65 %. Although feeding practices in nursery and finisher pigs are similar, little is known about the prevalence and risk factors associated with this condition in nursery pigs. This prospective cohort study aimed to identify risk factors for gastric ulceration in nursery pigs. The objectives were: (1) to estimate the association of inherent pig characteristics (birth weight, sex, parity of sow, litter size, and pen fouling behavior) and management characteristics (antibiotic treatment during suckling and post weaning, piglet rotation during lactation, weaning age and weight) with pars oesophageal lesions; (2) to assess differences in gastric dry matter content, pH, and percentage of solid particles in the sediment in relation to pars oesophageal lesions. A total of 58 piglets tracked from birth to 20 days of age and 210 nursery pigs from birth to 10 weeks of age were euthanized and assessed for pars oesophageal gastric lesions. All nursery pigs were fed finely ground pelleted feed ad libitum. Based on a macroscopic assessment, the pigs' stomachs were categorized as either LPO "lesions in the Pars oesophagea" or NLPO "no lesions in the Pars oesophagea". We observed an overall prevalence of 26.2 % (CI 95 % 0.67 - 0.79) for LPO in nursery pigs at 10 weeks of age, while no lesion were observed in piglets at 20 days of age. A mixed multivariable logistic regression model showed that piglets with a birthweight ≤ 1.11 kg had a 2.11 times higher odds of LPO (CI 95 % 1.02-4.37, p = 0.04) than their heavier counterparts. There was a weak association of LPO in nursery pigs from pens with pen fouling with a 2.14 times higher odds (CI 95 % 0.97-4.72 p = 0.05). Nursery pigs with LPO presented an increased gastric content fluidity with a reduced (p ≤ 0.01) gastric dry matter content (18.7 %), solid phase (74.7 %), and pH (3.22) compared to NLPO nursery pigs (20.5 %, 85.09 %, 3.56, respectively). We have demonstrated that LPO are present in nursery pigs as early as 10 weeks of age. We observed that low birth weight is associated with higher odds for LPO in nursery pigs. These observations might help explain differences between individual pigs in terms of LPO development when groups are exposed to similar environments, management, and feeding conditions.

Effects of feed form and particle size on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, carcass characteristics, and gastric health in growing-finishing pigs

Objective

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of feed processing and particle size on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, carcass characteristics, and gastric health in growing-finishing pigs.

Methods

A total of 360 growing pigs (22.64±0.014 kg initial body weight [BW]) were allocated to 1 of 6 treatments with 6 replicates by BW and sex, and 10 pigs were housed in one pen in a randomized complete block design. The BW and feed intake were recorded to calculate growth performance. For the digestibility trial, a total of 24 barrows with an initial BW of 33.65±0.372 kg were split into 6 treatments with a completely randomized design. Dietary treatments were designed by a 2×3 factorial arrangement of treatments based on two main factors, particle size (600, 750, 900 μm) and feed form (mash and pellet) of diet. Experimental diets were formulated to contain the requirements of the NRC (2012).

Results

The BW and average daily gain were not changed by dietary treatments, and the feed intake of finishing pigs (wks 6 to 12) was increased when the pigs were fed a mash diet (p<0.05). For the overall period, the feed efficiency of pigs was improved with the pellet diet (p<0.01) and reduced particle size (p<0.05). The pellet diet had effects on increasing crude fat digestibility (p<0.01) relative to a mash diet, but there was no considerable change in dry matter and crude protein digestibilities by dietary treatments. In the evaluation of gastric health, a trend for an increased incidence of keratinization in the esophageal region was observed as particle size decreased (p = 0.07).

Conclusion

Feed efficiency could be improved by pellet diet and reduced particle size. Nutrient digestibility, carcass characteristics, and gastric health were not affected by feed form, and particle size ranged from 600 to 900 μm.

Using Nutritional Strategies to Shape the Gastro-Intestinal Tracts of Suckling and Weaned Piglets

This is a comprehensive review on the use of nutritional strategies to shape the functioning of the gastro-intestinal tract in suckling and weaned piglets. The progressive development of a piglet's gut and the associated microbiota and immune system offers a unique window of opportunity for supporting gut health through dietary modulation. This is particularly relevant for large litters, for which sow colostrum and milk are insufficient. The authors have therefore proposed the use of supplemental milk and creep feed with a dual purpose. In addition to providing nutrients to piglets, supplemental milk can also serve as a gut modulator in early life by incorporating functional ingredients with potential long-term benefits. To prepare piglets for weaning, it is important to stimulate the intake of solid feed before weaning, in addition to stimulating the number of piglets eating. The use of functional ingredients in creep feed and a transition diet around the time of weaning helps to habituate piglets to solid feed in general, while also preparing the gut for the digestion and fermentation of specific ingredients. In the first days after weaning (i.e., the acute phase), it is important to maintain high levels of feed intake and focus on nutritional strategies that support good gastric (barrier) function and that avoid overloading the impaired digestion and fermentation capacity of the piglets. In the subsequent maturation phase, the ratio of lysine to energy can be increased gradually in order to stimulate piglet growth. This is because the digestive and fermentation capacity of the piglets is more mature at this stage, thus allowing the inclusion of more fermentable fibres. Taken together, the nutritional strategies addressed in this review provide a structured approach to preparing piglets for success during weaning and the period that follows. The implementation of this approach and the insights to be developed through future research can help to achieve some of the most important goals in pig production: reducing piglet mortality, morbidity and antimicrobial use.

Effect of Dietary Supplementation with Coarse or Extruded Oat Hulls on Growth Performance, Blood Biochemical Parameters, Ceca Microbiota and Short Chain Fatty Acids in Broiler Chickens

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of dietary supplementation with coarse or extruded oat hulls on growth performance, blood biochemistry, cecal microbiota, and short chain fatty acids (SCFA) in broiler chickens. Chickens were randomly allotted to four dietary treatments consisting of a corn-wheat-soybean meal-based diet (Basal), Basal + Bacitracin methylenedisalicylate (BMD), Basal +3% coarse OH (COH), and basal +3% extruded OH (EOH). Feed intake (FI), body weight gain (BWG), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were recorded weekly. On day 36, eight chickens/treatment were euthanized, blood samples were collected, and organ weights were determined. Cecal digesta samples were collected for the determination of SCFA concentration and microbial DNA sequence. Data were subjected to ANOVA using the mixed procedure of SAS. Alpha diversity was estimated with the Shannon index, and the significance of diversity differences was tested with ANOVA. Birds fed COH and EOH had reduced (p < 0.05) BWG, but there was no effect of treatment on FCR. There was a significant increase (p = 0.0050) in relative gizzard empty weight among birds that were fed COH, compared to the other treatments. Dietary treatments had no effect on blood biochemical parameters and SCFA concentration. Cecal microbial composition of chickens was mostly comprised of Firmicutes and Tenericutes. Seven OTUs that were differentially abundant among treatments were identified. In conclusion, supplementation of broiler chickens' diets with 3% COH or EOH did not affect the FCR, blood biochemical parameters and SCFA concentration, but modified few cecal microbiota at the species level. Dietary supplementation with COH but not EOH significantly increased the relative gizzard weight.

Bioactive Compounds in Food Waste: A Review on the Transformation of Food Waste to Animal Feed

Bioactive compounds are substances which are present in foods in small amounts and have the ability to provide health benefits. Bioactive compounds include but are not limited to long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, carotenoids, peptides, and polyphenols. The aim of the present study is to review literature for potential bioactive compounds present in food waste material and discuss the transformation of food waste to animal feed under the perspective that usage of food waste, rather than disposal, may tackle food insecurity and provide health benefits. Finally, applications in poultry and swine nutrition, with emphasis on the presence of fatty acids on food waste material, are discussed.

Energy utilization, nutrient digestibility and bone quality of broiler chickens fed Tanzania-type diets in different forms with enzymes

A study was conducted to determine the influence of feed form and microbial enzyme supplementation on energy utilization, bone quality, and amino acid and mineral digestibility of broiler chickens. Four hundred and eighty Ross 308, day-old broiler chickens were randomly assigned to eight diets formulated from commonly used ingredients in Tanzania. A 2 (pellet or mash) × 4 (control, Axtra XB, Quantum Blue (QB) and Axtra XB + QB enzyme) factorial array in a completely randomized design having six replicates per treatment (10 birds per replicate) was used. Birds were raised in climate-controlled rooms in a 3-phase; starter (0-10 days), grower (11-24 days) and finisher (25-35 days). Apparent metabolizable energy (AME), metabolizable energy intake, net energy of production, energy retained as protein (REp), and efficiency of metabolizable energy use for energy and protein retention were higher (p < 0.05) in birds fed pelleted diets. The AME and REp was higher (p < 0.05) with enzyme supplementation. Ash content, weight, length, width and breaking strength of tibia bones were highest (p < 0.05) in birds on pelleted diets. Tibia bone traits were improved (p < 0.05) when enzymes were included, particularly in a combination of QB and Axtra XB. However, potassium, magnesium, and zinc contents were highest (p < 0.05) when QB was supplemented. Digestibility of all amino acids was higher (p < 0.05) in birds supplied with pellets and with enzyme supplementation for most amino acids, except for serine. There was a positive interaction (p < 0.05) between feed form and enzymes on lysine and phenylalanine digestibility. Digestibility of Ca, P, K, S, Zn, and Fe was higher (p < 0.05) in birds fed pelleted diets, while those on mashed diets had higher (p < 0.05) digestibility of Cu and B. The digestibility of P, K, and Zn was highest (p < 0.001) when QB was added, while Ca, P, S, and B digestibility was highest when a combination of Axtra XB + QB was applied. Pelleted diets with or without enzymes improved energy utilization, digestibility of amino acids, and minerals, and increased bone strength in broiler chickens.

Meeting Global Feed Protein Demand: Challenge, Opportunity, and Strategy

Feed protein supplements are one of the most expensive and limiting feed ingredients. This review offers a comprehensive analysis of how the expected expansion of animal production, driven by the rising world population and living standards for more animal-sourced foods, is creating a global shortage of feed protein supply. Because ruminants, chickens, and pigs contribute to 96% of the global supply of animal protein and aquaculture is growing fast, means of meeting the feed protein requirements of these species are elaborated. Geographic variation and interdependence among China, Europe, and North America in the demand and supply of feed protein are compared. The potential and current state of exploration into alternative feed proteins, including microalgae, insects, single-cell proteins, and coproducts, are highlighted. Strategic innovations are proposed to upgrade feed protein processing and assessment, improve protein digestion by exogenous enzymes, and genetically select feed-efficient livestock breeds. An overall successful and sustainable solution in meeting global feed protein demands will lead to a substantial net gain of human-edible animal protein with a minimal environmental footprint.

Net energy content of rice bran, defatted rice bran, corn gluten feed, and corn germ meal fed to growing pigs using indirect calorimetry

The objective of this experiment was to determine the effects of increased fiber content in diets on heat production (HP) and NE:ME ratio and to determine the NE content and NE:ME ratio of full-fat rice bran (FFRB), defatted rice bran (DFRB), corn gluten feed (CGF), and corn germ meal (CGM) fed to growing barrows using indirect calorimetry (IC). Thirty growing barrows (28.5 ± 2.4 kg BW) were allotted in a completely randomized design to 5 dietary treatments that included a corn-soybean meal basal diet and 4 experimental diets with a constant ratio of corn and soybean meal (difference method) containing 30% FFRB, DFRB, CGF, and CGF. Pigs were housed in individual metabolism crates for 20 d including 14-d adaptation to the diet and 6 d to determine the HP and total collection of feces and urine in respiration chambers. Pigs were fed their respective diets at 550 kcal ME·kg BW0.60-1·d-1 on the basis of BW measured on days 0, 7, and 14. The apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of DM, GE, and OM were greater (P < 0.01) in pigs fed the basal diet. The ATTD of DM, GE, and OM in pigs fed the DFRB diet were lesser (P < 0.01) when compared with those fed the basal and FFRB diets. The ATTD of ether extract (EE) in pigs fed the FFRB diet was greater (P < 0.01) compared with those fed basal, DFRB, CGF, and CGM diets. The HP adjusted for the same ME intake was greater (P < 0.01) in pigs fed the DFRB, CGF, and CGM diets compared with those fed basal and FFRB diets. The NE:ME ratio in pigs fed the FFRB diet was greater (P < 0.01) when compared with those fed the DFRB, CGF, and CGM diets. The NE content of FFRB, DFRB, CGF, and CGM determined using the IC method were 2,952, 1,100, 1,747, and 2,079 kcal/kg DM, respectively. The NE content of FFRB, CGF, and CGM determined using the IC method were 3.5%, 3.8%, and 1.8% greater, respectively, than the predicted values, whereas NE content of DFRB determined using the IC method was 2.1% lower than the predicted values. In conclusion, pigs fed the fiber-rich ingredients had greater HP and lower nutrient digestibility. However, pigs fed FFRB diets containing greater fat content had a lower heat increment and, therefore, higher utilization efficiency. The NE:ME ratio ranged from 71.6% to 82.4%. The NE of FFRB, DFRB, CGF, and CGM determined using the IC method were 2,952, 1,100, 1,747, and 2,079 kcal/kg DM, respectively.