Transfer: A Review for Biology and the Life Sciences

It Takes Two: Online and In-person Discussions Offer Complementary Learning Opportunities for Students

Discussions play a significant role in facilitating student learning through engagement with course material and promotion of critical thinking. Discussions provide space for social learning where ideas are deliberated, internalized, and knowledge is cocreated through socioemotional interactions. With the increase of internet-based and hybrid courses, there is a need to evaluate the degree to which online discussion modalities facilitate quality discussions and enhance student achievement. We assessed the effectiveness of asynchronous online discussion boards and traditional face-to-face discussions via qualitative (thematic coding and discussion network analysis) and quantitative (Bloom's taxonomy) techniques and evaluated student perceptions via precourse and postcourse surveys. We found differential strengths of the two formats. Online discussions increased response complexity, while in-person discussions fostered improved connections with course material. Themes related to sharing of personal identity, humanity and verbal immediacy were more frequent throughout in-person discussions. Survey responses suggested that a sense of community was an external motivator for preference of in-person discussions, while anxiety was a factor influencing online discussion preference. Our findings suggest that online and in-person discussions are complementary, and work in tandem to facilitate complex student thinking through online environments and social learning within the classroom.

Students' perceptions of social issues in biology courses

Students' scientific literacy may be improved by the integration of social issues into biology courses, enabling them to make informed decisions on social issues in the context of their scientific knowledge. Additionally, this may allow students to recognize the connection between science and society. Although there are a number of benefits with having students learn about social issues in biology courses, most undergraduate courses may follow a traditional curriculum, which emphasizes the scientific content without framing it in a social context. Here, we investigated whether undergraduate students have been exposed to social issues in previous biology courses and examined how their perceptions changed before and after taking a biology course that incorporated social issues. In surveys, most students reported having no exposure to social issues in biology courses. Most students, especially females and persons excluded because of their ethnicity or race (PEERs), agreed with the integration of social issues in biology courses before taking the course. Students found reflection essays to be a useful tool in allowing them to think and share their thoughts on social issues as well as relate the course content to their personal lives. These results highlight students' interest in learning about social issues from a scientific perspective and how reflection essays may be used to practice applying their knowledge to real-world issues.

How word meaning structure relates to executive functioning and theory of mind in children with developmental language disorder: A multiple case study

Background and aims

Many children with developmental language disorder (DLD) have difficulties in executive functioning (EF) and theory of mind (ToM). These difficulties might be explained by the theory that children's conceptual understanding changes over five stages of word meaning structure, from concrete and context-dependent to abstract and precise. We present a multiple case study examining how word meaning structure relates to EF and ToM in children with DLD.

Methods

Participants were five children with DLD aged 9-12 and five typically developing children matched for age, gender, and nonverbal intelligence. Word meaning structure was assessed using new dynamic test. EF was assessed using the Zoo Map Task and Behavioral Rating Inventory for EF. ToM was assessed using the ToM test, Frith-Happé Animations, and Bermond-Vorst Alexithymia Questionnaire. Behavioral problems were measured using the Child Behavior Checklist. Anamnestic interviews with the parents were conducted to describe the case histories.

Results

For the children with DLD, lower scores in the word meaning structure task were observed compared to those observed for their matched peers, with no statistical test applied. Word meaning structure related positively to EF and ToM, but not to behavioral problems. Instances in which word meaning structure dissociates from EF and ToM are discussed in individual case descriptions.

Conclusions

By linking language to conceptual development, variations in word meaning structure may explain some EF and ToM difficulties in children with DLD.

Implications

The present study offers a basis for future research on the relationships among word meaning structure, EF, and ToM.

Chatbot responses suggest that hypothetical biology questions are harder than realistic ones

The biology education literature includes compelling assertions that unfamiliar problems are especially useful for revealing students' true understanding of biology. However, there is only limited evidence that such novel problems have different cognitive requirements than more familiar problems. Here, we sought additional evidence by using chatbots based on large language models as models of biology students. For human physiology and cell biology, we developed sets of realistic and hypothetical problems matched to the same lesson learning objectives (LLOs). Problems were considered hypothetical if (i) known biological entities (molecules and organs) were given atypical or counterfactual properties (redefinition) or (ii) fictitious biological entities were introduced (invention). Several chatbots scored significantly worse on hypothetical problems than on realistic problems, with scores declining by an average of 13%. Among hypothetical questions, redefinition questions appeared especially difficult, with many chatbots scoring as if guessing randomly. These results suggest that, for a given LLO, hypothetical problems may have different cognitive demands than realistic problems and may more accurately reveal students' ability to apply biology core concepts to diverse contexts. The Test Question Templates (TQT) framework, which explicitly connects LLOs with examples of assessment questions, can help educators generate problems that are challenging (due to their novelty), yet fair (due to their alignment with pre-specified LLOs). Finally, ChatGPT's rapid improvement toward expert-level answers suggests that future educators cannot reasonably expect to ignore or outwit chatbots but must do what we can to make assessments fair and equitable.

Students Need More than Content Knowledge To Counter Vaccine Hesitancy

To better prepare undergraduate students as informed citizens, they need skills to evaluate and interpret scientific data that are relevant to real world scenarios. Socioscientific issues are typically complicated or debatable issues that require individuals to evaluate their background knowledge and make decisions with respect to social and cultural contexts. Incorporation of socioscientific issues into a course allows students opportunities to demonstrate their argumentation skills. In this study, we investigated the relationship between students' biological content knowledge and their argumentation skills. We evaluated students' content knowledge of primary research articles on mRNA vaccine development and clinical trials. There was no correlation of content knowledge and students' argumentation skills to counter vaccine hesitancy. While most students demonstrated understanding of the primary research articles, almost half the students did not include specific biological knowledge in their arguments, indicating they had difficulty in applying their knowledge to the real world. These results suggest there is a need to provide students with additional opportunities to practice and develop their argumentation skills with respect to socioscientific issues.

Here Is the Biology, Now What is the Mechanism? Investigating Biology Undergraduates' Mechanistic Reasoning within the Context of Biofilm Development

Understanding molecular processes and coordinating the various activities across levels of organization in biological systems is a complicated task, yet many curricular guidelines indicate that undergraduate students should master it. Employing mechanistic reasoning can facilitate describing and investigating biological phenomena. Biofilms are an important system in microbiology and biology education. However, few empirical studies have been conducted on student learning of biofilms or how students utilize mechanistic reasoning related to systems thinking to explain biofilm formation. Using mechanistic reasoning and the theory of knowledge integration as conceptual and analytical frameworks, we examined the features of 9 undergraduate biology students' mechanistic models of a specific transition point in biofilm development. From these data, we constructed a model of knowledge integration in the context of biofilms, which categorizes students' knowledge based on features of their descriptions (e.g., entities, correct connections, and the nature of connections). We found that 4 of 9 students produced a fragmented model, 4 of 9 students produced a transitional model, and 1 student produced a connected model. Overall, students often did not discuss cell-cell communication mechanics in their mechanistic models and rarely included the role of gene regulation. Most connections were considered nonnormative and lacked important entities, leading to an abundance of unspecified causal connections. We recommend increasing instructional support of mechanistic reasoning within systems (e.g., identifying entities across levels of organization and their relevant activities) and creating opportunities for students to grapple with their understanding of various biological concepts and to explore how processes interact and connect in a complex system.

Oaks to arteries: the Physiology Core Concept of flow down gradients supports transfer of student reasoning

The Physiology Core Concept of flow down gradients is a major concept in physiology, as pressure gradients are the key driving force for the bulk flow of fluids in biology. However, students struggle to understand that this principle is foundational to the mechanisms governing bulk flow across diverse physiological systems (e.g., blood flow, phloem sap flow). Our objective was to investigate whether bulk flow items that differ in scenario context (i.e., taxa, amount of scientific terminology, living or nonliving system) or in which aspect of the pressure gradient is kept constant (i.e., starting pressure or pressure gradient) influence undergraduate students' reasoning. Item scenario context did not impact the type of reasoning students used. However, students were more likely to use the Physiology Core Concept of "flow down [pressure] gradients" when the pressure gradient was kept constant and less likely to use this concept when the starting pressure was kept constant. We also investigated whether item scenario context or which aspect of the pressure gradient is kept constant impacted how consistent students were in the type of reasoning they used across two bulk flow items on the same homework. Most students were consistent across item scenario contexts (76%) and aspects of the pressure gradient kept constant (70%). Students who reasoned using "flow down gradients" on the first item were the most consistent (86, 89%), whereas students using "pressures indicate (but don't cause) flow" were the least consistent (43, 34%). Students who are less consistent know that pressure is somehow involved or indicates fluid flow but do not have a firm grasp of the concept of a pressure gradient as the driving force for fluid flow. These findings are the first empirical evidence to support the claim that using Physiology Core Concept reasoning supports transfer of knowledge across different physiological systems.NEW & NOTEWORTHY These findings are the first empirical evidence to support the claim that using Physiology Core Concept reasoning supports transfer of knowledge across different physiological systems.

Student Perceptions of a Framework for Facilitating Transfer from Lessons to Exams, and the Relevance of This Framework to Published Lessons

A main goal of academic courses is to help students acquire knowledge and skills that they can transfer to multiple contexts. In this article, we (i) examine students' responses to test question templates (TQTs), a framework intended to facilitate transfer, and (ii) determine whether similar transfer-promoting strategies are commonly embedded in published biology lessons. In study 1, in surveys administered over several academic quarters, students consistently reported that TQTs helped them transfer course content to exams and the real world; that multiple (two to five) examples were generally needed to understand a given TQT, leading >40% students to create their own additional examples; and that TQTs would be helpful in other science courses. In study 2, among 100 peer-reviewed lessons published by CourseSource or the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS), less than 5% of lessons gave students advice about exams or helped students create additional practice problems. The latter finding is not meant as criticism of these excellent lessons, which are a boon to the biology education community. However, with TQT-like prescriptions generally absent from peer-reviewed lessons, biology instructors may wish to supplement the lessons with TQT-like strategies to explicitly connect the material to subsequent exams.

Constructing the Wiggers diagram using core concepts: a classroom activity

The Wiggers diagram showing simultaneous events of the cardiac cycle in composite graphs is one of the most intimidating figures students encounter in their study of physiology. This paper describes a discovery learning activity that walks students through the construction of the Wiggers diagram by focusing on the core concepts of blood flow down pressure gradients and the structure-function relationship of heart valves and one-way blood flow through the heart. Additional tasks require students to transfer their understanding to previously unstudied scenarios and figures, such as the left ventricular pressure-volume loop.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The Wiggers diagram is one of the most intimidating figures students encounter in their study of physiology. This paper describes a discovery learning activity that walks students through the construction of the Wiggers diagram by focusing on core concepts: blood flow down pressure gradients and the structure-function relationship of heart valves and blood flow.

Use of core concepts of physiology can facilitate student transfer of learning

Students often fail to utilize what they know about one topic (e.g., hemodynamics) when attempting to master another topic involving a similar phenomenon (e.g., airflow in airways). What accounts for this difficulty that students have? And how can students be assisted in doing a better job of applying what they already know to new topics? The phenomenon described above is an example of a failure of transfer of learning. However, much is known about the conditions that foster or promote transfer of learning. Applying this emerging knowledge and focusing on the core concepts of physiology can make learning physiology easier and provide students with tools to support lifelong learning.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Students often fail to utilize knowledge from prerequisite courses while learning physiology. They also fail to use what they know about one physiology topic when attempting to learn another topic. Much is known about the conditions that foster or promote transfer of learning. Applying this emerging knowledge and focusing on the core concepts of physiology can making learning physiology easier and provide students with tools to support lifelong learning.

A Team-Based Activity to Support Knowledge Transfer and Experimental Design Skills of Undergraduate Science Students

Experimental design may be considered an essential learning objective of undergraduate science education. This skill not only requires learners to be able to identify novel questions, generate hypotheses, create experimental models, and anticipate data outcomes but also demands that students are able to effectively transfer and apply knowledge from previous learning experiences to novel contexts. Here, I describe a team-based activity for upper-level undergraduate science courses that aims to strengthen students' skills in experimental design and transfer of knowledge. Instructional resources are provided to facilitate straightforward application in courses of diverse science disciplines and delivery modes.

Why science education is more important than most scientists think

The COVID-19 pandemic has revealed that a shockingly large fraction of the public is willing to ignore scientific judgements on issues such a vaccines and mask wearing. For far too many, scientific findings are viewed as what scientists believe, rather than as the product of an elaborate community process that produces reliable knowledge. This widespread misunderstanding should serve as a wake-up call for scientists, clearly demonstrating that the standard way that we teach science - as a large collection of "facts" that scientists have discovered about the world - needs major change. Three more ambitious and important goals for science education at all levels are outlined. In order of increasing difficulty, these are: (1) to provide all adults with an ability to investigate scientific problems as scientists do, using logic, experiment, and evidence; (2) to provide all adults with an understanding of how the scientific enterprise works - and why they should therefore trust the consensus judgements of science on issues like smoking, vaccination, and climate change; and (3) to provide all adults with the habit of solving their everyday problems as scientists do, using logic, experiment, and evidence. Although examples exist for attaining all of these goals, extensive education research will be needed to discover how best to teach the last two. I argue that such an effort is urgent, and that it can best begin by focusing on the introductory courses in biology and other science disciplines at the university level.