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Patrick MT, Li Q, Wasikowski R, Mehta N, Gudjonsson JE, Elder JT, Zhou X, Tsoi LC. Shared genetic risk factors and causal association between psoriasis and coronary artery disease. Nat Commun 2022; 13:6565. [PMID: 36323703 PMCID: PMC9630428 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-34323-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Psoriasis and coronary artery disease (CAD) are related comorbidities that are well established, but whether a genetic basis underlies this is not well studied. We apply trans-disease meta-analysis to 11,024 psoriasis and 60,801 CAD cases, along with their associated controls, identifying one opposing and three shared genetic loci, which are confirmed through colocalization analysis. Combining results from Bayesian credible interval analysis with independent information from genomic, epigenomic, and spatial chromatin organization, we prioritize genes (including IFIH1 and IL23A) that have implications for common molecular mechanisms involved in psoriasis and CAD inflammatory signaling. Chronic systemic inflammation has been associated with CAD and myocardial infarction, and Mendelian randomization analysis finds that CAD as an exposure can have a significant causal effect on psoriasis (OR = 1.11; p = 3×10-6) following adjustment for BMI and waist-hip ratio. Together, these findings suggest that systemic inflammation which causes CAD can increase the risk of psoriasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew T Patrick
- Department of Dermatology, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Michigan, MI, USA
| | - Qinmengge Li
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Michigan, MI, USA
| | - Rachael Wasikowski
- Department of Dermatology, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Michigan, MI, USA
| | - Nehal Mehta
- Section of Inflammation and Cardiometabolic Disease, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Michigan, MD, USA
| | - Johann E Gudjonsson
- Department of Dermatology, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Michigan, MI, USA
| | - James T Elder
- Department of Dermatology, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Michigan, MI, USA
| | - Xiang Zhou
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Michigan, MI, USA
| | - Lam C Tsoi
- Department of Dermatology, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Michigan, MI, USA.
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Michigan, MI, USA.
- Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Michigan, MI, USA.
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Gizinger OA. Use of recombinant interleukin-2 in traumatic disease in veterinary medicine. RUDN JOURNAL OF AGRONOMY AND ANIMAL INDUSTRIES 2022. [DOI: 10.22363/2312-797x-2022-17-2-210-220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Тhe article presents analysis of current information on the possibility of using recombinant interleukin-2 in traumatic disease in veterinary medicine. The analysis included publications from the following databases - P ubMed, MedLine, BIOSIS, ToxiNet, CANCERLIT, CINAHL, CISCOM, EMBASE, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts, and NAPRALERT, using 10 keywords and their combinations. It was shown that in trauma of any genesis, an immunodeficiency state occurs associated with an imbalance of Th1/Th2 cytokines. The use of recombinant interleukin-2 restores synthesis of endogenous interleukin-2, provides adequate targeted drug correction of immune dysfunctions, increasing the clinical and immunological effectiveness of therapeutic measures.
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IL-2 Modulates TAMs Derived Exosomal MiRNAs to Ameliorate Hepatocellular Carcinoma Development and Progression. JOURNAL OF ONCOLOGY 2022; 2022:3445350. [PMID: 36284632 PMCID: PMC9588329 DOI: 10.1155/2022/3445350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Background. Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is proved to play an irreplaceable role in antitumor regulation in numerous experimental and clinical trials. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are able to release exosomes to promote the development and progression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) as essential component of microenvironment. In this study, our intention is to explore the effects of the exosomes from TAMs with IL-2 treatment on HCC development. TAMs were collected and cultured from HCC tissues. The exosomes from the TAMs treated with IL-2 (ExoIL2-TAM) or not (ExoTAM) were identified and used to treat HCC cells in vivo and in vitro. The proliferation, apoptosis, and metastasis of HCC cells were measured. The changes of miRNAs in exosomes were explored to clarify the possible mechanisms. Both decrease of cell proliferation and metastasis and increase of apoptosis were observed with ExoIL2-TAM treatment compared with ExoTAMin vivo and in vitro. miR-375 was obviously augmented in ExoIL2-TAM and HCC cells treated with ExoIL2-TAM. Taken together, IL-2 may modulate exosomal miRNAs from TAMs to ameliorate hepatocellular carcinoma development. This study provides a new perspective to explain the mechanism by which IL-2 inhibits hepatocellular carcinoma and implies the potential clinical value of exosomal miRNAs released by TAMs.
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Ma L, Gonzalez-Junca A, Zheng Y, Ouyang H, Illa-Bochaca I, Horst KC, Krings G, Wang Y, Fernandez-Garcia I, Chou W, Barcellos-Hoff MH. Inflammation Mediates the Development of Aggressive Breast Cancer Following Radiotherapy. Clin Cancer Res 2021; 27:1778-1791. [PMID: 33402361 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-20-3215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Women treated with radiotherapy before 30 years of age have increased risk of developing breast cancer at an early age. Here, we sought to investigate mechanisms by which radiation promotes aggressive cancer. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN The tumor microenvironment (TME) of breast cancers arising in women treated with radiotherapy for Hodgkin lymphoma was compared with that of sporadic breast cancers. To investigate radiation effects on carcinogenesis, we analyzed tumors arising from Trp53-null mammary transplants after irradiation of the target epithelium or host using immunocompetent and incompetent mice, some of which were treated with aspirin. RESULTS Compared with age-matched specimens of sporadic breast cancer, radiation-preceded breast cancers (RP-BC) were characterized by TME rich in TGFβ, cyclooxygenase 2, and myeloid cells, indicative of greater immunosuppression, even when matched for triple-negative status. The mechanism by which radiation impacts TME construction was investigated in carcinomas arising in mice bearing Trp53-null mammary transplants. Immunosuppressive TMEs (iTME) were recapitulated in mice irradiated before transplantation, which implicated systemic immune effects. In nu/nu mice lacking adaptive immunity irradiated before Trp53-null mammary transplantation, cancers also established an iTME, which pointed to a critical role for myeloid cells. Consistent with this, irradiated mammary glands contained more macrophages and human cells cocultured with polarized macrophages underwent dysplastic morphogenesis mediated by IFNγ. Treating mice with low-dose aspirin for 6 months postirradiation prevented establishment of an iTME and resulted in less aggressive tumors. CONCLUSIONS These data show that radiation acts via nonmutational mechanisms to promote markedly immunosuppressive features of aggressive, RP-BCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Ma
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Alba Gonzalez-Junca
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Yufei Zheng
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Haoxu Ouyang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York
| | - Irineu Illa-Bochaca
- Department of Radiation Oncology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York
| | - Kathleen C Horst
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - Gregor Krings
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Yinghao Wang
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | | | - William Chou
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Mary Helen Barcellos-Hoff
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California.
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Yin C, Xu L, Li Y, Liu Z, Gu D, Li Q, Jiao X. Construction of pSPI12-cured Salmonella enterica serovar Pullorum and identification of IpaJ as an immune response modulator. Avian Pathol 2018; 47:410-417. [PMID: 29712441 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2018.1471195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
In Salmonella, plasmids participate in many pathways involved in virulence, metabolism, and antibiotic resistance. To investigate the function of the ipaJ gene in a multi-copy plasmid pSPI12 prevalent in Salmonella enterica serovar Pullorum (S. Pullorum), we established a method to eliminate the plasmid and constructed the plasmid-cured bacteria C79-13-ΔpSPI12 by using the suicide vector pDM4. Briefly, a 500 bp fragment ipaJU from pSPI12 was cloned into pDM4 and transformed into S. Pullorum C79-13 by conjugative transfer. After homologous recombination, the suicide vector was inserted into pSPI12 to produce pSPI12-pDM4-ipaJU. Induction of the expression of the sacB gene in the suicide vector killed the bacteria harbouring plasmid, while the progeny losing the plasmid survived in the plate with sucrose. The plasmid-cured strain showed extremely decreased ability to infect chicken macrophage HD11 cells and LMH hepatic epithelial cells compared to wild type strain and complementary strain carrying ipaJ. Additionally, IFN-γ mRNA levels were up-regulated in HD11 cells or chicken spleens infected by plasmid-cured strain, but no difference was detected in IL-4 among the three strains. Transforming ipaJ into S. Enteritidis also decreased expression of proinflammatory cytokines in infected macrophages or chicken spleens compared to wild type strain. These results suggest that the ipaJ gene in pSPI12 is involved in S. Pullorum infection and that IpaJ protein modulates immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Yin
- a Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , People's Republic of China.,b Jiangsu Key Lab of Zoonosis/Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , People's Republic of China
| | - Lijuan Xu
- a Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , People's Republic of China.,b Jiangsu Key Lab of Zoonosis/Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , People's Republic of China
| | - Yang Li
- a Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , People's Republic of China.,c Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , People's Republic of China
| | - Zijian Liu
- a Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , People's Republic of China.,c Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , People's Republic of China
| | - Dan Gu
- a Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , People's Republic of China.,c Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , People's Republic of China
| | - Qiuchun Li
- a Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , People's Republic of China.,b Jiangsu Key Lab of Zoonosis/Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , People's Republic of China
| | - Xinan Jiao
- a Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , People's Republic of China.,b Jiangsu Key Lab of Zoonosis/Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , People's Republic of China.,c Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , People's Republic of China
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Wallner FK, Hultqvist Hopkins M, Lindvall T, Olofsson P, Tilevik A. Cytokine correlation analysis based on drug perturbation. Cytokine 2017; 90:73-79. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2016.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Revised: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Jackaman C, Yeoh TL, Acuil ML, Gardner JK, Nelson DJ. Murine mesothelioma induces locally-proliferating IL-10(+)TNF-α(+)CD206(-)CX3CR1(+) M3 macrophages that can be selectively depleted by chemotherapy or immunotherapy. Oncoimmunology 2016; 5:e1173299. [PMID: 27471652 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2016.1173299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2016] [Revised: 03/24/2016] [Accepted: 03/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
We used a murine model to monitor changes to myeloid cell subsets, i.e., myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), M1 macrophages that secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines and express CD40 and CD80 and suppressive M2 macrophages that secrete anti-inflammatory cytokines and express CD206 and CX3CR1, during mesothelioma progression and during chemotherapy or immunotherapy-induced tumor regression. In vitro studies showed that mesothelioma-conditioned media generated CD206(-)CX3CR1(+)MCP-1(+)TGF-β(+) macrophages that induced T cell proliferation but prevented T cell IFNγ production. In vivo studies showed that co-inoculation of macrophages with mesothelioma cells led to faster tumor growth, and depleting macrophages using anti-F4/80 antibody induced tumor regression. Flow cytometry revealed increasing levels of different suppressive myeloid cells in lymphoid organs: MDSCs dominated bone marrow (BM) and spleens, M2 macrophages dominated tumor-draining lymph nodes (DLN) and a mixed IL-10(+)TNF-α(+)CD206(-)CX3CR1(+) M1/M2 (M3) macrophage subset dominated the mesothelioma microenvironment. Ki67 staining and cell cycle analysis showed that tumor-associated M1 and M3, but not M2, macrophages were proliferating in situ, with M1 cells arrested in the G1 phase while M3 cells progressed to mitosis. Immunohistochemistry showed that M1 and M3 cells were co-located supporting the hypothesis that M1 cells transition to M3 cells during proliferation. Gemcitabine reduced tumor-associated M3 and MDSCs, but not M2 macrophages, the latter likely contributing to the tumor outgrowth seen following treatment cessation. In contrast, IL-2/agonist anti-CD40 antibody therapy reduced M3 cells and polarized macrophages into M1 cells coinciding with tumor regression. These data show that myeloid cells, particularly M3 cells, represent a therapeutic target for the generation of antitumor immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connie Jackaman
- Immunology and Cancer Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, WA, Australia; Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Teong L Yeoh
- Immunology and Cancer Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, WA, Australia; Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Manyual L Acuil
- Immunology and Cancer Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, WA, Australia; Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Joanne K Gardner
- Immunology and Cancer Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, WA, Australia; Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Delia J Nelson
- Immunology and Cancer Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, WA, Australia; Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
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Susta L, Diel DG, Courtney S, Cardenas-Garcia S, Sundick RS, Miller PJ, Brown CC, Afonso CL. Expression of chicken interleukin-2 by a highly virulent strain of Newcastle disease virus leads to decreased systemic viral load but does not significantly affect mortality in chickens. Virol J 2015; 12:122. [PMID: 26253150 PMCID: PMC4528788 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-015-0353-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2015] [Accepted: 07/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In mammals, interleukin 2 (IL-2) has been shown to decrease replication or attenuate pathogenicity of numerous viral pathogens (herpes simplex virus, vaccinia virus, human respiratory syncytial virus, human immunodeficiency virus) by activating natural killer cells (NK), cytotoxic T lymphocytes and expanding subsets of memory cells. In chickens, IL-2 has been shown to activate T cells, and as such it might have the potential to affect replication and pathogenesis of Newcastle disease virus (NDV). METHODS To assess the effect of IL-2 during NDV infection in chickens, we produced a recombinant virulent NDV strain expressing chicken IL-2 (rZJ1-IL2). The effects of IL-2 expression were investigated in vivo using the intracerebral pathogenicity index (ICPI) in day-old chicks and pathogenesis experiments in 4-week-old chickens. In these studies, rZJ1-IL2 was compared to a control virus expressing the green fluorescent protein (rZJ1-GFP). Assessed parameters included survival curves, detailed histological and immunohistochemical grading of lesions in multiple organs, and virus isolation in blood, spleen and mucosal secretions of infected birds. RESULTS At the site of infection (eyelid), expression of IL-2 was demonstrated in areas of rZJ-IL2 replication, confirming IL-2 production in vivo. Compared to rZJ1-GFP strain, rZJ1-IL2 caused milder lesions and displayed decreased viral load in blood, spleen and mucosal secretions of infected birds. In the rZJ1-IL2-infected group, virus level in the blood peaked at day 4 post-infection (pi) (10(3.46) EID50 /0.1 ml) and drastically decreased at day 5 pi (10(0.9) EID50/0.1 ml), while in the rZJ1-GFP-infected group virus levels in the blood reached 10(5.35) EID50/0.1 ml at day 5. However, rZJ1-IL2-infected groups presented survival curves similar to control birds infected with rZJ1-GFP, with comparable clinical signs and 100 % mortality. Further, expression of IL-2 did not significantly affect the ICPI scores, compared to rZJ1-GFP strain. CONCLUSIONS Increased expression of chicken IL-2 during virulent NDV replication in naïve chickens decreased viral titers in blood, spleens, oral and cloacal secretions on day 4-5 post infection. This is consistent with the previously described role of IL-2 in enhancing the clearance of viruses in mammals, such as human respiratory syncytial virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Susta
- USDA ARS, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA, 30605, USA. .,Present address: Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Diego G Diel
- USDA ARS, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA, 30605, USA. .,Present address: Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, College of Agriculture and Biological Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA.
| | - Sean Courtney
- USDA ARS, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA, 30605, USA.
| | - Stivalis Cardenas-Garcia
- USDA ARS, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA, 30605, USA.
| | - Roy S Sundick
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA.
| | - Patti J Miller
- USDA ARS, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA, 30605, USA.
| | - Corrie C Brown
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30605, USA.
| | - Claudio L Afonso
- USDA ARS, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA, 30605, USA.
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de Aquino MTP, Malhotra A, Mishra MK, Shanker A. Challenges and future perspectives of T cell immunotherapy in cancer. Immunol Lett 2015; 166:117-33. [PMID: 26096822 PMCID: PMC4499494 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2015.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2015] [Revised: 05/10/2015] [Accepted: 05/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Since the formulation of the tumour immunosurveillance theory, considerable focus has been on enhancing the effectiveness of host antitumour immunity, particularly with respect to T cells. A cancer evades or alters the host immune response by various ways to ensure its development and survival. These include modifications of the immune cell metabolism and T cell signalling. An inhibitory cytokine milieu in the tumour microenvironment also leads to immune suppression and tumour progression within a host. This review traces the development in the field and attempts to summarize the hurdles that the approach of adoptive T cell immunotherapy against cancer faces, and discusses the conditions that must be improved to allow effective eradication of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Teresa P de Aquino
- Department of Biochemistry and Cancer Biology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN 37208, USA
| | - Anshu Malhotra
- Department of Biochemistry and Cancer Biology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN 37208, USA
| | - Manoj K Mishra
- Department of Biological Sciences, Alabama State University, Montgomery, AL 36101, USA
| | - Anil Shanker
- Department of Biochemistry and Cancer Biology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN 37208, USA; Tumor-Host Interactions Research Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.
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Abstract
LXR (liver X receptor) is a ligand-activated transcription factor and plays an important role in regulation of lipid homoeostasis and inflammation. Several studies indicate that LXR inhibits IFN-γ (interferon γ)-induced biological responses; however, the influence of LXR on IFN-γ expression has not been fully elucidated. In the present study, we investigated the effects of LXR activation on IFN-γ expression at different levels. At the molecular level, we surprisingly observed that LXR ligand (T0901317) induced macrophage and T-cell IFN-γ protein expression which was associated with increased mRNA and secreted protein levels in culture medium. In contrast, selective inhibition of LXRα and/or LXRβ expression by siRNA reduced IFN-γ expression. Promoter analysis defined the multiple LXREs (LXR-responsive elements) in the proximal region of the IFN-γ promoter. EMSAs and ChIP indicated that LXR activation enhanced the binding of LXR protein to these LXREs. In vivo, T0901317 increased wild-type mouse serum IFN-γ levels and IFN-γ expression in the lung and lymph nodes. Functionally, we observed that administration of T0901317 to wild-type mice increased rates of survival and being tumour-free, and inhibited tumour growth when the animals were inoculated with LLC1 carcinoma. In contrast, these protective effects were substantially attenuated in IFN-γ-knockout (IFN-γ-/-) mice, suggesting that the induction of IFN-γ production plays a critical role in T0901317-inhibited tumour growth. Taken together, the results of the present study show that IFN-γ is another molecular target of LXR activation, and it suggests a new mechanism by which LXR inhibits tumour growth.
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Onoprienko LV, Mikhaleva II, Voĭtenkov BO, Ivanov VT. [IL-2-receptor associated action of the modified peptide fragments of human IL-2 on macrophages]. RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF BIOORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2012. [PMID: 23189555 DOI: 10.1134/s1068162012040115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic peptides corresponding to the 59-72 (I), 60-72 (II) and 61-72 (III) sequences of human interleukin 2 with their N(alpha) acetylated and C(alpha) methylated termini were shown to exhibit pronounced hepatoprotective properties. These peptides neutralized hepatotoxic effects of such agents as tetrachloromethane and galactosamine in experiments in vivo. The peptide action revealed as normalization of duration of the thiopental narcosis of experimental animals and the level of hepatospecific enzymes in their blood. The effects of peptides (I)-(III) proved to be similar to that of prednisolone (the well-known anti-inflammatory agent), whereas the bestatine cytotoxic dipeptide had no hepatoprotecting effect. The target of the hepatoprotective activity of the peptides was shown to be the preliminary activated macrophages. We proposed that this activity of the peptides was associated with their interaction with the a-subunit of the interleukin 2 receptor (IL-2Ralpha), because the X-Ray analysis pointed to this region as one of binding sites of IL-2 with IL-2Ralpha. Experiments on the influence of the most active (59-72)-peptide on growth of the IL-2 dependent cell line (CTLL) confirmed this proposal. The 3H-labeled peptide corresponding to the 59-72 sequence ofthe human IL-2 was shown to bind to the CTLL cels. We assumed that the binding of this peptide was specific and occurred precisely with IL-2Ra and virtually determined the binding constant. Its value (1.41 x 10(-6) M) was comparable with that of the interaction of IL-2 with IL-2Ralpha (approximately 10(-7) M).
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β-Glucan from Saccharomyces cerevisiae reduces lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory responses in RAW264.7 macrophages. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2012; 1820:1656-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2012.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2011] [Revised: 05/31/2012] [Accepted: 06/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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13
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Reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide in cutaneous leishmaniasis. J Parasitol Res 2012; 2012:203818. [PMID: 22570765 PMCID: PMC3337613 DOI: 10.1155/2012/203818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2011] [Revised: 11/18/2011] [Accepted: 11/22/2011] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Cutaneous leishmaniasis affects millions of people around the world. Several species of Leishmania infect mouse strains, and murine models closely reproduce the cutaneous lesions caused by the parasite in humans. Mouse models have enabled studies on the pathogenesis and effector mechanisms of host resistance to infection. Here, we review the role of nitric oxide (NO), reactive oxygen species (ROS), and peroxynitrite (ONOO−) in the control of parasites by macrophages, which are both the host cells and the effector cells. We also discuss the role of neutrophil-derived oxygen and nitrogen reactive species during infection with Leishmania. We emphasize the role of these cells in the outcome of leishmaniasis early after infection, before the adaptive Th-cell immune response.
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Wang F, Li C, Liu W, Jin Y. Effect of exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) on airway inflammatory response in mice. J Toxicol Sci 2012; 37:739-48. [DOI: 10.2131/jts.37.739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fan Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering, China
- Department of Biological Science, Luoyang Normal University, China
| | - Chonglei Li
- School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering, China
| | - Wei Liu
- School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering, China
| | - Yihe Jin
- School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering, China
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Onoprienko LV. [Molecular mechanisms regulating the activity of macrophages]. RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF BIOORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2011; 37:437-51. [PMID: 22096986 DOI: 10.1134/s1068162011040091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
This article reviews modern concepts of the most common types of macrophage activation: classical, alternative, and type II. Molecular mechanisms of induction and regulation of these three types of activation are discussed. Any population of macrophages was shown to change its properties depending on its microenvironment and concrete biological situation (the "functional plasticity of macrophages"). Many intermediate states of macrophages were described along with the most pronounced and well-known activation types (classical activation, alternative activation, and type II activation). These intermediate states are characterized by a variety of combinations of their biological properties, including elements of the three afore mentioned types of activation. Macrophage activity is regulated by a complex network of interrelated cascade mechanisms.
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de Carvalho EG, Böttger E, Hoang VT, Kremsner PG, Kun JFJ. Limited response of NK92 cells to Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes. Malar J 2011; 10:311. [PMID: 22018162 PMCID: PMC3213193 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-10-311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2011] [Accepted: 10/21/2011] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mechanisms by which anti-malarial immune responses occur are still not fully clear. Natural killer (NK) cells are thought to play a pivotal role in innate responses against Plasmodium falciparum. In this study, the suitability of NK92 cells as models for the NK mechanisms involved in the immune response against malaria was investigated. Methods NK92 cells were assessed for several signs of activation and cytotoxicity due to contact to parasites and were as well examined by oligonucleotide microarrays for an insight on the impact P. falciparum-infected erythrocytes have on their transcriptome. To address the parasite side of such interaction, growth inhibition assays were performed including non-NK cells as controls. Results By performing microarrays with NK92 cells, the impact of parasites on a transcriptional level was observed. The findings show that, although not evidently activated by iRBCs, NK92 cells show transcriptional signs of priming and proliferation. In addition, decreased parasitaemia was observed due to co-incubation with NK92 cells. However, such effect might not be NK-specific since irrelevant cells also affected parasite growth in vitro. Conclusions Although NK92 cells are here shown to behave as poor models for the NK immune response against parasites, the results obtained in this study may be of use for future investigations regarding host-parasites interactions in malaria.
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Cardamonin suppresses nitric oxide production via blocking the IFN-γ/STAT pathway in endotoxin-challenged peritoneal macrophages of ICR mice. Life Sci 2011; 89:337-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2011.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2011] [Revised: 05/30/2011] [Accepted: 06/23/2011] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Fernandez-Cabezudo MJ, Mechkarska M, Azimullah S, al-Ramadi BK. Modulation of macrophage proinflammatory functions by cytokine-expressing Salmonella vectors. Clin Immunol 2008; 130:51-60. [PMID: 18835224 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2008.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2008] [Accepted: 08/08/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We previously reported that the intraperitoneal administration of recombinant strains of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, engineered to express murine IL-2 (designated GIDIL2) or IFN-gamma (GIDIFNgamma), induced a cytokine-specific modulation of the host innate immune response. Interestingly, the bacteria-expressed cytokines were not secreted, but instead were associated with the bacterial cytosol. To understand the mechanism by which these two transfectants influence immune cells, we investigated their effect on two macrophage populations, J774A.1 cell line and ex vivo isolated peritoneal macrophages (PM). The parental, cytokine-negative, Salmonella strain (designated BRD509E), was used as a control. The capacity of the bacterial strains to activate macrophages was assessed by modulation of surface expression of costimulatory molecules CD40, CD80 (B7-1) and CD86 (B7-2) and activation marker Ly-6A/E, and by induction of cytokine production. Our data revealed that GIDIFNgamma was the only strain capable of upregulating the expression of cell-surface markers. Moreover, infection of macrophages with GIDIFNgamma induced a stronger cytokine response in comparison with BRD509E or GIDIL2 strain, as demonstrated by the production of TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-12/IL23p40 and NO. The ability of GIDIL2 and GIDIFNgamma strains to activate macrophages was not due to enhanced invasiveness, as their cellular invasion rates were 2-fold lower than the parental strain. Further investigation of cytokine expression by GIDIL2 and GIDIFNgamma strains showed that while the cytokines were not secreted, they were expressed on the bacterial surface suggesting that their effect on macrophages could be through a direct interaction with their receptors on target cells. This was confirmed by showing that cytochalasin D-treated macrophages, a treatment which effectively inhibited bacterial invasion, could be induced to secrete high levels of cytokines by GIDIFNgamma organisms. Our data demonstrate that cytokine-expressing bacteria modulate macrophage activation independently of their entry into cells and may explain the rapid action of these bacterial strains when injected systemically into susceptible mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria J Fernandez-Cabezudo
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, UAE University, PO Box 17666, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates.
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19
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Wyckoff JH, Potts RD. Killing of Brucella antigen-sensitized macrophages by T lymphocytes in bovine brucellosis. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2007; 120:148-59. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2007.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2007] [Revised: 08/07/2007] [Accepted: 08/07/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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20
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Li Z, Pradera F, Kammertoens T, Li B, Liu S, Qin Z. Cross-Talk between T Cells and Innate Immune Cells Is Crucial for IFN-γ-Dependent Tumor Rejection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 179:1568-76. [PMID: 17641023 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.3.1568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Though the importance of IFN-gamma in tumor immunity has been well-demonstrated, little is known about its source and how it is induced. By using various bone marrow chimeric mice, we show here that IFN-gamma essential for tumor immunity is solely produced by hemopoietic cells. Surprisingly, IFN-gamma derived from T cells was not necessary for tumor immunity in this model. In the immunized mice, in which only innate immune cells have the IFN-gamma-producing potential, tumors were efficiently rejected. The innate immune cells, such as NK1.1(+) cells and CD11b(+) cells, can provide sufficient amounts of IFN-gamma which requires, however, the help of T cells. The close cooperation between T cells and innate immune cells during tumor regression is likely mediated by IL-2. Together, our results clearly illustrate how T cells cooperate with innate immune cells for IFN-gamma-mediated tumor rejection and this may have important indications for clinical trials of tumor immunotherapy.
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MESH Headings
- Adoptive Transfer
- Animals
- Antigens, Ly
- Antigens, Surface/biosynthesis
- B-Lymphocytes/cytology
- B-Lymphocytes/immunology
- B-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Bone Marrow Cells/cytology
- Bone Marrow Cells/immunology
- Bone Marrow Cells/metabolism
- CD11b Antigen/biosynthesis
- Cell Communication/genetics
- Cell Communication/immunology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Graft Rejection/genetics
- Graft Rejection/immunology
- Graft Rejection/pathology
- Immunity, Innate/genetics
- Interferon-gamma/deficiency
- Interferon-gamma/genetics
- Interferon-gamma/metabolism
- Interferon-gamma/physiology
- Interleukin-2/physiology
- Killer Cells, Natural/cytology
- Killer Cells, Natural/immunology
- Killer Cells, Natural/metabolism
- Lectins, C-Type/biosynthesis
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Transgenic
- NK Cell Lectin-Like Receptor Subfamily B
- Neoplasms, Experimental/genetics
- Neoplasms, Experimental/immunology
- Neoplasms, Experimental/prevention & control
- Radiation Chimera
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes/transplantation
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiguang Li
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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21
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Bastos KRB, Barboza R, Sardinha L, Russo M, Alvarez JM, Lima MRD. Role of endogenous IFN-gamma in macrophage programming induced by IL-12 and IL-18. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2007; 27:399-410. [PMID: 17523872 PMCID: PMC2956645 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2007.0128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Besides the established role of interleukin-12 (IL-12) and IL-18 on interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) production by natural killer (NK), T, and B cells, the effects of these cytokines on macrophages are largely unknown. Here, we investigated the role of IL-12/IL-18 on nitric oxide (NO) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) production by CD11b(+) adherent peritoneal cells, focusing on the involvement of endogenously produced IFN-gamma. C57BL/6 cells released substantial amounts of NO when stimulated with IFN-gamma or lipopolysaccharide (LPS), but failed to respond to IL-12 or IL-18 or both. However, IL-12/IL-18 pretreatment was able to program these cells to release 6-8-fold more NO and TNF-alpha in response to LPS or Trypanosoma cruzi stimulation, with NO levels directly correlating with macrophage resistance to intracellular parasite growth. Analysis of IL-12/IL-18-primed cells from mice deficient in IFN-gamma, IFNGR, and IFN regulatory factor-1 (IRF-1) revealed that these molecules were essential for LPS-induced NO release, but TNF-alpha production was IFN-gamma independent. Conversely, the myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88)-dependent pathway was indispensable for IL-12/IL-18-programmed LPS-induced TNF-alpha production, but not for NO release. Contaminant T and NK cells largely modulated the IL-12/IL-18 programming of LPS-induced NO response through IFN-gamma secretion. Nevertheless, a small population of IFN-gamma(+) cells with a macrophage phenotype was also identified, particularly in the peritoneum of chronically T. cruzi-infected mice, reinforcing the notion that macrophages can be an alternative source of IFN-gamma. Taken together, our data contribute to elucidate the molecular basis of the IL-12/IL-18 autocrine pathway of macrophage activation, showing that endogenous IFN-gamma plays an important role in programming the NO response, whereas the TNF-alpha response occurs through an IFN-gamma-independent pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina R B Bastos
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 1730, São Paulo, SP, Brazil, CEP 05508-000.
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Li L, Huang L, Sung SSJ, Lobo PI, Brown MG, Gregg RK, Engelhard VH, Okusa MD. NKT Cell Activation Mediates Neutrophil IFN-γ Production and Renal Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 178:5899-911. [PMID: 17442974 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.9.5899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 251] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Previous work has shown that ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury (IRI) is dependent on CD4(+) T cells from naive mice acting within 24 h. We hypothesize that NKT cells are key participants in the early innate response in IRI. Kidneys from C57BL/6 mice were subjected to IRI (0.5, 1, 3, and 24 h of reperfusion). After 30 min of reperfusion, we observed a significant increase in CD4(+) cells (145% of control) from single-cell kidney suspensions as measured by flow cytometry. A significant fraction of CD4(+) T cells expressed the activation marker, CD69(+), and adhesion molecule, LFA-1(high). Three hours after reperfusion, kidney IFN-gamma-producing cells were comprised largely of GR-1(+)CD11b(+) neutrophils, but also contained CD1d-restricted NKT cells. Kidney IRI in mice administered Abs to block CD1d, or deplete NKT cells or in mice deficient of NKT cells (Jalpha18(-/-)), was markedly attenuated. These effects were associated with a significant decrease in renal infiltration and, in activation of NKT cells, and a decrease in IFN-gamma-producing neutrophils. The results support the essential role of NKT cells and neutrophils in the innate immune response of renal IRI by mediating neutrophil infiltration and production of IFN-gamma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Li
- Department of Medicine, Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
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Murphy JT, Sommer S, Kabara EA, Verman N, Kuelbs MA, Saama P, Halgren R, Coussens PM. Gene expression profiling of monocyte-derived macrophages following infection with Mycobacterium avium subspecies avium and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. Physiol Genomics 2006; 28:67-75. [PMID: 17062651 DOI: 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00098.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) and Mycobacterium avium subspecies avium (MAA) represent two closely related intracellular bacteria with vastly different associated pathologies. MAA can cause severe respiratory infections in immune compromised humans but is nonpathogenic in ruminants and is more readily controlled by the bovine immune system than MAP. MAP causes a fatal wasting syndrome in ruminants, typified by granulomatous enteritis localized in the small intestine. MAP has also been cited as a potential cause of human Crohn's disease. We used a bovine immune-specific microarray (BOTL-5) to compare the response of mature bovine monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM cells) to MAP and MAA. Statistical analysis of microarray data revealed 21 genes not appreciably expressed in resting MDM cells that were activated following infection with either MAA or MAP. Further analysis revealed 144 genes differentially expressed in MDM cells following infection with MAA and 99 genes differentially expressed following infection with MAP. Of these genes, 37 were affected by both types of mycobacteria, with three being affected in opposite directions. Over 41% of the differentially expressed genes in MAA and MAP infected MDM cells were members of, regulated by, or regulators of the MAPK pathways. Expression of selected genes was validated by quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase PCR and in several key genes (i.e., IL-2 receptor, tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases-1, and Fas-ligand) MAA was found to be a stronger activating factor than MAP. These gene expression patterns were correlated with prolonged activation of p38 MAPK and ERK1/2 by MAA, relative to MAP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith T Murphy
- Center for Animal Functional Genomics and Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
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Bogdan C, Schleicher U. Production of interferon-gamma by myeloid cells--fact or fancy? Trends Immunol 2006; 27:282-90. [PMID: 16698319 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2006.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2006] [Revised: 03/17/2006] [Accepted: 04/20/2006] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Myeloid cells are usually viewed as targets rather than producers of interferon (IFN)-gamma. However, since 1993 several studies have suggested that macrophages and dendritic cells can also secrete IFN-gamma in response to various stimuli, which led to the idea of autocrine myeloid-cell activation in innate immunity. Here, we review this concept in the light of recent findings that illustrate the necessity of specific cell markers, cell purity, sensitive single-cell cytokine detection methods, and of further insights into the developmental origin of myeloid and lymphoid cell lineages. We also discuss the possible function of intracellular IFN-gamma in macrophages and the evidence for a protective role of myeloid IFN-gamma in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Bogdan
- Department of Microbiology and Hygiene, Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Freiburg, Hermann-Herder-Strasse 11, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany.
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