The Use of Isoflurane and Adjunctive Magnesium Chloride Provides Fast, Effective Anaesthetization of Octopus vulgaris

A wide variety of substances have been used to anaesthetise invertebrates, but many are not anaesthetics and merely incapacitate animals rather than preventing pain. In essence, the role of an ideal general anaesthetic is to act as a muscle relaxant, an analgesic, an anaesthetic, and an amnesic. To achieve all these properties with a single substance is difficult, and various adjuvants usually need to be administered, resulting in a cocktail of drugs. In a clinical setting, the vast majority of patients are unaware of surgery being carried out and have no memory of it, so they can claim to have felt no pain, but this is much more difficult to demonstrate in invertebrates. Here, we show that 1% MgCl2, a muscle relaxant, is a useful adjuvant for the clinical anaesthetic isoflurane on Octopus vulgaris when applied alone in seawater for 10 min before the clinical anaesthetic. After this, full anaesthesia can be achieved in 5 min using 1% isoflurane insufflated into the saline still containing MgCl2. Full recovery takes place rapidly in about 10 to 15 min. The depth of anaesthesia was monitored using changes in respiratory rate, chromatophore pattern, and withdrawal movements of the arms and siphon. This methodology reduces stress on the animal and minimises the quantity of anaesthetic used.

Low dose γ-radiation induced effects on wax moth (Galleria mellonella) larvae

Larvae of the greater wax moth Galleria mellonella are common pests of beehives and commercial apiaries, and in more applied settings, these insects act as alternative in vivo bioassays to rodents for studying microbial virulence, antibiotic development, and toxicology. In the current study, our aim was to assess the putative adverse effects of background gamma radiation levels on G. mellonella. To achieve this, we exposed larvae to low (0.014 mGy/h), medium (0.056 mGy/h), and high (1.33 mGy/h) doses of caesium-137 and measured larval pupation events, weight, faecal discharge, susceptibility to bacterial and fungal challenges, immune cell counts, activity, and viability (i.e., haemocyte encapsulation) and melanisation levels. The effects of low and medium levels of radiation were distinguishable from the highest dose rates used - the latter insects weighed the least and pupated earlier. In general, radiation exposure modulated cellular and humoral immunity over time, with larvae showing heightened encapsulation/melanisation levels at the higher dose rates but were more susceptible to bacterial (Photorhabdus luminescens) infection. There were few signs of radiation impacts after 7 days exposure, whereas marked changes were recorded between 14 and 28 days. Our data suggest that G. mellonella demonstrates plasticity at the whole organism and cellular levels when irradiated and offers insight into how such animals may cope in radiologically contaminated environments (e.g. Chornobyl Exclusion Zone).

Effect of acute ultraviolet radiation on Galleria mellonella health and immunity

For humans, acute and chronic overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation can cause tissue damage in the form of sunburn and promote cancer(s). The immune-modulating properties of UV radiation and health-related consequences are not well known. Herein, we used the larvae of the wax moth Galleria mellonella, to determine UV-driven changes in cellular components of innate immunity. From immune cell (haemocyte) reactivity and the production of antimicrobial factors, these insects share many functional similarities with mammalian cellular innate immunity. After exposing insects to UVA or UVB for up to two hours, we monitored larval viability, susceptibility to infection, haemolymph (blood) physiology and faecal discharge. Prolonged exposure of larvae to UVB coincided with decreased survival, enhanced susceptibility to bacterial challenge, melanin synthesis in the haemolymph, compromised haemocyte functionality and changes in faecal (bacterial) content. We contend G. mellonella is a reliable in vivo model for assessing the impact of UV exposure at the whole organism and cellular levels.

Why Protect Decapod Crustaceans Used as Models in Biomedical Research and in Ecotoxicology? Ethical and Legislative Considerations

Simple Summary

Current European legislation that protects animals used for scientific purposes excludes decapod crustaceans (for example, lobster, crab and crayfish) on the grounds that they are non-sentient and, therefore, incapable of suffering. However, recent work suggests that this view requires substantial revision. Our current understanding of the nervous systems and behavior of decapods suggests an urgent need to amend and update all relevant legislation. This paper examines recent experiments that suggest sentience and how that work has changed current opinion. It reflects on the use of decapods as models in biomedical research and in ecotoxicology, and it recommends that these animals should be included in the European protection legislation.

Abstract

Decapod crustaceans are widely used as experimental models, due to their biology, their sensitivity to pollutants and/or their convenience of collection and use. Decapods have been viewed as being non-sentient, and are not covered by current legislation from the European Parliament. However, recent studies suggest it is likely that they experience pain and may have the capacity to suffer. Accordingly, there is ethical concern regarding their continued use in research in the absence of protective measures. We argue that their welfare should be taken into account and included in ethical review processes that include the assessment of welfare and the minimization or alleviation of potential pain. We review the current use of these animals in research and the recent experiments that suggest sentience in this group. We also review recent changes in the views of scientists, veterinary scientists and animal charity groups, and their conclusion that these animals are likely to be sentient, and that changes in legislation are needed to protect them. A precautionary approach should be adopted to safeguard these animals from possible pain and suffering. Finally, we recommend that decapods be included in the European legislation concerning the welfare of animals used in experimentation.

Why Are Octopuses Going to Be the 'Poster Child' for Invertebrate Welfare?

Animal welfare consideration and actions are generally addressed to animals similar to us, predominantly large mammals. Invertebrates are neglected partly because they are unknown, though new exploration of the oceans has helped with this. Also, we know little about their ecology and welfare. This is gradually changing, and the octopuses are likely to be the first beneficiaries. Scientists are finding that cephalopods are far more intelligent than we thought, with the Cambridge Declaration of Consciousness suggesting they might possess this quality of mind. Partly as a result, the European Union has described and demanded good care for cephalopods such as the octopus in captivity. Public opinion has been swayed to approval by anecdotes of octopuses doing unusual actions, and by several recent books pointing out interesting and intelligent behavior of cephalopods. Aquariums have begun to feature octopuses for them. With this progress, welfare of invertebrate animals has begun to matter. While the octopuses will be the first animal group to benefit, they may pave the way for us to see that different does not mean unworthy of regard and welfare consideration.

Geriatric Invertebrates

Invertebrates are becoming more popular and, as collections age, clients may seek veterinary intervention where the welfare of the animal must be considered. This article covers aging in many invertebrate species but with a focus on species likely to be seen in general practice. Supportive care may be an option to prolong life, but euthanasia must be considered for invertebrates with age-related unmanageable conditions.

Exoskeleton Repair in Invertebrates

This article focuses on exoskeleton repair in invertebrates presented due to physical trauma with impairment of the integument and often with hemolymph loss. Invertebrates, especially the larger-bodied arthropods, can severely damage their exoskeleton if dropped or if they are handled during ecdysis. Clinicians are encouraged to familiarize themselves with the basic first-aid techniques for invertebrate exoskeleton repair. With simple techniques and using items found in most homes, clients can be guided through basic first-aid procedures to prevent fatalities from hemolymph loss until the animal can be properly attended by a clinician.

Feeding live invertebrate prey in zoos and aquaria: Are there welfare concerns?

Invertebrates constitute more than 90% of all species on earth, however, as a rule, humans do not regard invertebrates as creatures that can suffer and they are generally seen as creatures that should be eliminated. As a result, the importance of their welfare may be grossly unappreciated. For instance, the feeding of live food is often viewed as a good method of enrichment and invertebrates are commonly used as live prey in many zoological facilities. As a result, zoos may send mixed messages to their patrons in that welfare is considered only for the invertebrates that are part of their zoological collection and not necessarily for the invertebrates used as feed. Research indicates that many invertebrates possess nociceptors, opioid receptors, and demonstrate behavioral responses indicative of pain sensation. In addition, in some taxa, there may be evidence of higher cognitive functions such as emotions and learning, although studies in this area of research are preliminary and sparse. Therefore, the possibility for suffering exists in many invertebrate species and as such, zoological facilities have an ethical responsibility to take their welfare into consideration. This paper discusses the current research regarding invertebrates' capacity for suffering and discusses methods facilities can use to improve the welfare of their invertebrate live prey.

What We Know about the Public's Level of Concern for Farm Animal Welfare in Food Production in Developed Countries

Population growth and rising consumption of meat, dairy, eggs and fish are forcing the world to face the intersecting challenges of how to sustainably feed a population expected to exceed 9 billion by 2050, while also controlling the impact of food production on the planet, on people and on animals. This review acknowledges the absence of a globally accepted definition of animal welfare and then explores the literature regarding different levels of concern for animal welfare in food production by such stakeholders as veterinarians, farmers, and the general public. It focuses on the evidence that the general public's level of concern for animal welfare is linked to various demographic and personal characteristics, such as age, gender, religion, location, meat eating, and knowledge of animal welfare. Certain animals have characteristics that influence concern for their welfare, with those species that are considered more intelligent being afforded more concern. There is compelling evidence that the general public's understanding of animal welfare in food production is poor. Acknowledging that public concern can be a driving force to change current production methods, the authors suggest widespread consciousness raising to redefine socially acceptable methods of food production from animals and to ensure that it remains in step with societal concerns.

Animal Sentience: Where Are We and Where Are We Heading?

Simple Summary

Animal sentience refers to the ability of animals to experience pleasurable states such as joy, and aversive states such as pain and fear (Broom, D.M. Dis. Aquat. Org. 2007, 75, 99–108). The science of animal sentience underpins the entire animal welfare movement. Demonstrating objectively what animals are capable of is key to achieving a positive change in attitudes and actions towards animals, and a real, sustainable difference for animal welfare. This paper briefly summarises understanding of animal sentience through the ages. There follows a review of the current state of animal sentience, and concluding thoughts on its future in regards to animal welfare.

Abstract

The science of animal sentience underpins the entire animal welfare movement. Demonstrating objectively what animals are capable of is key to achieving a positive change in attitudes and actions towards animals, and a real, sustainable difference for animal welfare. This paper briefly summarises understanding and acceptance of animal sentience through the ages. Although not an exhaustive history, it highlights some of the leading figures whose opinions and work have most affected perspectives of animal sentience. There follows a review of the current state of animal sentience, what is known, and what the main limitations have been for the development of the study of sentience. The paper concludes with some thoughts for the future of the science, and where it should be going in order to most benefit animal welfare.

Cephalopod consciousness: Behavioural evidence

Behavioural evidence suggests that cephalopod molluscs may have a form of primary consciousness. First, the linkage of brain to behaviour seen in lateralization, sleep and through a developmental context is similar to that of mammals and birds. Second, cephalopods, especially octopuses, are heavily dependent on learning in response to both visual and tactile cues, and may have domain generality and form simple concepts. Third, these animals are aware of their position, both within themselves and in larger space, including having a working memory of foraging areas in the recent past. Thus if using a 'global workspace' which evaluates memory input and focuses attention is the criterion, cephalopods appear to have primary consciousness.

Animal experimentation

Millions of animals are used every year in often times extremely painful and distressing scientific procedures. Legislation of animal experimentation in modern societies is based on the supposition that this is ethically acceptable when certain more or less defined formal (e.g. logistical, technical) demands and ethical principles are met. The main parameters in this context correspond to the "3Rs" concept as defined by Russel and Burch in 1959, i.e. that all efforts to replace, reduce and refine experiments must be undertaken. The licensing of animal experiments normally requires an ethical evaluation process, often times undertaken by ethics committees. The serious problems in putting this idea into practice include inter alia unclear conditions and standards for ethical decisions, insufficient management of experiments undertaken for specific (e.g. regulatory) purposes, and conflicts of interest of ethics committees' members. There is an ongoing societal debate about ethical issues of animal use in science. Existing EU legislation on animal experimentation for cosmetics testing is an example of both the public will for setting clear limits to animal experiments and the need to further critically examine other fields and aspects of animal experimentation.