Psychometric properties of the Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale

Sociability across Eastern-Western cultures: Is it the same underlying construct?

In this study, we examined cross-cultural differences in sociability, a core personality facet of the higher order extraversion trait, which has been reported at lower levels in Eastern versus Western cultures several decades ago. Up until now, however, East-West cultural comparisons on the Western-defined construct of sociability have been limited, despite the extensive research published on extraversion indicating that this personality dimension is globally relevant across cultures. Following current practices, we first assessed for measurement invariance (MI) on the Cheek and Buss sociability scale between Chinese (n = 816, 47.2% male, M = 18.51 years, SD = 1.26 years) and Canadian (n = 995, 30.8% male, M = 19.62 years, SD = 1.25 years) young adult samples to ensure any comparisons would be valid and meaningful. Results from a multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (exact invariance) showed that there was measurement non-invariance at the scalar level in the sociability construct across country and country by sex, and the newer alignment method (approximate invariance) confirmed these results, suggesting that mean level comparisons of sociability were biased and noninformative. Our findings indicated that although a few of the higher-level personality dimensions such as extraversion are considered universal, the facets underlying their meaning, like sociability, are not as clearly delineated between cultures. Alongside the present-day pursuit of understanding personality across cultures through an indigenous measurement lens in tandem with the notion of universality, researchers should also consider narrowing their focus onto lower-level facets, each of which is likely to be uniquely embedded into a cultural context.

Associations between ADHD traits and self-reported strengths in the general population

BACKGROUND

ADHD research has had a clear focus on symptoms, their negative consequences and the treatment of ADHD. However, previous qualitative research found that people with a diagnosis of ADHD also self-report to experience strengths related to their ADHD. This is one of the first quantitative studies to investigate multiple self-reported strengths in relation to ADHD traits in a general population sample. Therefore, our aim was to investigate the relationship between multiple self-reported strengths with ADHD traits in the general population using quantitative measures.

METHODS

Our sample consisted of individuals from the general population in the UK, aged 18-60, n = 694. Next to assessing ADHD traits, we collected data on ten instruments investigating strengths that in qualitative research were reported to be related to ADHD. Correlation analysis (primary) was supplemented by factor and network analyses (exploratory).

RESULTS

We found positive correlations between ADHD traits and hyperfocus, sensory processing sensitivity, and cognitive flexibility.

CONCLUSIONS

People with more ADHD traits score higher on several strengths, for other strengths we were not able to show a positive correlation in this population-bases sample. Information on strengths may aid people with elevated ADHD traits cope with their condition, and has potential to provide new angles for treatment.

Reliability and validity evaluation of the stigma of loneliness scale in Chinese college students

BACKGROUND

The stigma of loneliness exacerbates the negative effect of loneliness, reduces the willingness to seek help, damages interpersonal relationships, and threatens health status. However, there is currently no valid scale for measuring the stigma of loneliness in China. The study aims to translate the Stigma of Loneliness Scale (SLS) and evaluate the reliability and validity of the Chinese version.

METHODS

The investigation was conducted in two phases. In the first phase, the SLS was used to conduct a questionnaire survey on 657 college students aged 17 to 24; in the second phase, the SLS, the UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS-8), the Distress Disclosure Index (DDI), the Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale (RCBS), the Self-Concealment Scale (SCS), the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS), the Social Phobia Scale (SPS), the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10), and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) were used to conduct the questionnaire survey on 801 college and graduates students aged 18 to 39.

RESULTS

Two dimensions of Self-stigma of Loneliness and Public Stigma of Loneliness were extracted with a cumulative factor interpretation rate of 74.60% when conducting exploratory factor analysis on the first-stage data. The factor loading of each item ranged from 0.585 to 0.890, and the commonality ranged from 0.609 to 0.735. The confirmatory factor analysis and reliability and validity test were carried out on the data gathered in the second phase, indicating that the two-factor model fits well. In addition, the scores of SLS and all dimensions were significantly positively correlated with the total scores of ULS-8, RCBS, SCS, SIAS, SPS, and K10, and negatively correlated with those of DDI and RSES. The Cronbach's alpha coefficients for SLS and SSL and PSL dimensions were 0.957, 0.941, and 0.955. The cross-group invariance test found that the SLS was equivalent for males and females. Meanwhile, males scored significantly higher than females on both the total scores of SLS score and each dimension.

CONCLUSIONS

The Chinese version of SLS displayed satisfactory psychometric properties and can be a valid tool to assess the stigma of loneliness among Chinese young people.

Reliability and Validity of Self-Concealment Scale in Chinese Older Adults

Background

Individuals who initiate the concealment of their adverse or distressing thoughts from others can trigger off negative psychological experiences and social isolation, and lead to poorer health. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the psychometric properties of the Self-Concealment Scale (SCS) in Chinese older adults.

Methods

A questionnaire was administered to 1085 elderly people using convenience sampling and snowball sampling. Scales used included the SCS, Distress Disclosure Index (DDI), Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale (RCBS), Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS), Social Phobia Scale (SPS), UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS-8), and Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10).

Results

The SCS consisted of 10 items with a one-dimensional structure, explaining 55.66% of the variance. The factor loading values for each item ranged from 0.68 to 0.75, and the covariance ranged from 0.46 to 0.57. Confirmatory factor analysis showed good model fit (χ2/df=2.829, RMSEA=0.057, CFI=0.981, IFI=0.981, TLI=0.974, PNFI=0.712, PGFI=0.719). The criterion-related validity test found that the SCS was significantly and positively correlated with the RCBS, SIAS, SPS, ULS-8, K10, depression, and anxiety; and the SCS was significantly and negatively correlated with the DDI. The Cronbach's α coefficient value for the scale was 0.923; the split-half reliability coefficient value was 0.923. In addition, the SCS had cross-gender consistency.

Conclusion

The SCS has good reliability and validity in older adults and can be used as a valid tool to assess self-concealment among older people.

Perfectionistic Children and Their Parents: Is There Room for an Intergenerational Transmission? A Study of a Clinical Sample of Italian Children and Their Parents

Introduction: The relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and Internalizing (ID) and Externalizing Disorders (ED) in children needs to be better understood, along with the intergenerational transmission of these traits from parents to children. The present work aimed to share light on both these issues. Method: 39 children with ID, 19 with ED, and their parents were recruited*. The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Big Five Inventory, the Child and Adolescent Perfectionism Scale, and the Hierarchical Personality Inventory for Children were used. The association between parent personality and perfectionism traits and children’s perfectionism dimensions was evaluated through hierarchical regression analysis. Results: ID and ED groups did not differ significantly concerning perfectionism. Fathers presented higher scores than mothers in Self-Oriented Perfectionism, Other-Oriented Perfectionism, and Socially-Prescribed Perfectionism. Parents of children with ID report higher levels of Obedience in their children, while parents of children with ED reported higher levels of Creativity and Perseverance. Significant associations were found between perfectionism in parents and their children, as well as between perfectionism and the personality of children. Conclusion: Results suggest a transdiagnostic nature of Perfectionism and support the transgenerational transmission of the personality traits investigated.

Relationship between personality traits and facebook addiction: A meta-analysis

Personality traits are important factors in determining online behaviors. Especially personality traits are linked with users’ behavior on Facebook. Despite the substantial quantity of studies conducted on the relationship between personality factors and Facebook addiction, researchers have yet to reach an agreement. This study sought to examine the relationship between personality traits and Facebook addiction. In this meta-analysis study, agreeableness, openness to experience and conscientiousness were negatively related to Facebook addiction. Loneliness, narcissism, impulsivity and shyness were significantly correlated with Facebook addiction. Meta analysis also found that geographical location, personality scales, Facebook addiction scales, publication status moderated the link between personality variables and Facebook addiction. The limitations and future directions are discussed.

Is There a Link Between Green Human Resource Management and Consumer Buying Behavior? The Moderating Role of Employee Diffidence

Green Human Resource Management (HRM) supports promoting and incorporating sustainable development with regard to their resources. Managers and customers actively utilize the limited resources efficiently and effectively to accomplish environment-friendly goals and objectives. The study focuses on investigating the moderating role of diffidence between Green HRM, among eco-friendly behavior and Employee Performance of frontline employees of the hospitality sector. Two hundred ten individuals particapted in the research from hospitality sector with regard to examine green HRM policies of employees along with their influence on consumer buying behvaiour. Frontline employees incorporated the data on HRM performance, eco-friendly behavior, and diffidence. Besides, consumers gave their opinion on consumer buying behavior. The study’s findings revealed that Green HRM, aka Green HRM, directly impacts consumer behavior. In addition to this diffidence moderates the relationship between Green HRM and employee performance and employee eco-friendly behavior. Besides, future studies can explore the clothing and banking sector as the current study was conducted in fast food sector.

Pathways from maternal shyness to adolescent social anxiety

BACKGROUND

Social anxiety is amongst the most prevalent adolescent mental health problems; however, it is often unrecognized due to its comorbidity with other anxiety problems such as generalized anxiety. Thus, understanding the unique developmental pathways to social anxiety is critical for improving its prevention. We examined the pathway from maternal shyness, when children were 4 years old, to adolescents' social anxiety at age 15 through social wariness at age 7. We hypothesized that childhood social wariness would mediate the association between maternal shyness and social anxiety in adolescence.

METHODS

Participants (N = 291; 54% female) were followed from early childhood to adolescence. Mothers reported on their own shyness when children were 4 years old. Social wariness toward unfamiliar peers was observed in the laboratory at ages 4 and 7. Adolescent social anxiety and generalized anxiety were assessed via self-report, parent-report, and clinical diagnoses at age 15.

RESULTS

Maternal shyness was positively associated with adolescent social anxiety but not generalized anxiety at age 15. Higher levels of maternal shyness at age 4 predicted greater social wariness at age 7, which in turn predicted greater social anxiety but not generalized anxiety at age 15. Social wariness at age 7 partially mediated the association between maternal shyness and adolescent social anxiety.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identifies a unique developmental pathway from maternal shyness to adolescent social anxiety. Findings suggest that childhood social wariness connects maternal shyness to adolescent social anxiety.

Fear of being near: Fear supersedes sociability when interacting amid a pandemic

In the COVID-19 era, physical interactions ubiquitously pose a disease threat. Using a novel online paradigm, this study tested whether under such unique circumstances, the fundamental motivation to avoid disease-related threats interacts with individual differences in sociability, such that: (i) responses to others are slowed down, particularly among sociable individuals, reflecting motivational tension; (ii) the role of sociability in predicting interaction likelihood is diminished. Participants (Israeli young adults, N = 207) listened to auditory descriptions of everyday social situations, taking place in either the physical or virtual space, and decided quickly whether to interact. Participants also completed the Sociability Scale (Cheek & Buss, 1981). Responses were slower in the physical compared to virtual space, regardless of sociability. The association between interaction likelihood and sociability was stronger in the virtual space, with sociability mirrored by self-reported fear of COVID-19 in predicting interaction likelihood. We propose that when physical contact with others poses a threat to safety, fear supersedes sociability in guiding behavior in physical interactions.

Impact of Shyness on Self-Esteem: The Mediating Effect of Self-Presentation

BACKGROUND

Although the relationship between shyness and self-esteem is well described in the psychological literature, far less is known about the potential mechanisms that underlie this association. The main goal of the current work is to verify whether self-presentation acts as a mediating variable between both constructs.

METHODS

The study was carried out among 198 adults. The Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Self-Presentation Style Questionnaire were applied.

RESULTS

A large and positive correlation coefficient was observed between the following variables: (1) self-esteem/self-promotion; (2) shyness/self-deprecation. All other variables correlated negatively: (1) shyness/self-esteem; (2) shyness/self-promotion; (3) self-esteem/self-deprecation; (4) self-promotion/self-deprecation. Moreover, both self-promotion and self-deprecation acted as mediators between life satisfaction and self-esteem.

CONCLUSION

The outcomes of the present study show a new mediating aspect for the direct relationship between shyness and self-esteem in the form of two styles of self-presentation. The results indicate that the tendency of shy people to avoid others can have a lower effect on their overall sense of self-esteem when they try to present themselves in a clearly favorable light. By contrast, shyness may have a stronger impact on their sense of self-worth when they present themselves as helpless, unsure, and incompetent.

Ok Google: Using virtual assistants for data collection in psychological and behavioral research

Because of the increasing popularity of voice-controlled virtual assistants, such as Amazon’s Alexa and Google Assistant, they should be considered a new medium for psychological and behavioral research. We developed Survey Mate, an extension of Google Assistant, and conducted two studies to analyze the reliability and validity of data collected through this medium. In the first study, we assessed validated procrastination and shyness scales as well as social desirability indicators for both the virtual assistant and an online questionnaire. The results revealed comparable internal consistency and construct and criterion validity. In the second study, five social psychological experiments, which have been successfully replicated by the Many Labs projects, were successfully reproduced using a virtual assistant for data collection. Comparable effects were observed for users of both smartphones and smart speakers. Our findings point to the applicability of virtual assistants in data collection independent of the device used. While we identify some limitations, including data privacy concerns and a tendency toward more socially desirable responses, we found that virtual assistants could allow the recruitment of participants who are hard to reach with established data collection techniques, such as people with visual impairment, dyslexia, or lower education. This new medium could also be suitable for recruiting samples from non-Western countries because of its wide availability and easily adaptable language settings. It could also support an increase in the generalizability of theories in the future.

Revisiting Shyness and Sociability in Schizophrenia: A Psychometric Examination of Measurement Invariance and Mean Level Differences

Although there is a long and rich empirical history of demonstrating differences on psychological self-report measures between people with schizophrenia and healthy controls, the question of whether both groups respond to psychological measures in the same way has gone largely unexplored. That is, is there measurement equivalence, or invariance, across the samples? To our knowledge, there have been no published studies on measurement equivalency in personality measures across groups diagnosed with and without schizophrenia. Here we examined the question of measurement invariance on two widely used questionnaires assessing temperament, the Cheek and Buss Shyness and Sociability Scales (CBSHY and CBSOC, respectively) between 147 stable adult outpatients with schizophrenia and 147 healthy age- and sex-matched controls. Results supported measurement invariance of the CBSHY and CBSOC across our clinical and non-clinical groups. These findings suggested that stable adult outpatients with schizophrenia and age- and sex-matched controls respond to the shyness and sociability items in the same way. We found that adults with schizophrenia reported higher levels of shyness and lower levels of sociability than healthy controls, consistent with prior studies. Findings are discussed concerning their relevance more broadly to self-report assessments of personality and psychological traits in clinical populations.

Psychosocial Barriers and Enablers for Prostate Cancer Patients in Starting a Relationship

Single prostate cancer (PCa) patients may face difficulties in starting a new relationship for various reasons. Here, we studied barriers and enablers to starting a relationship for PCa patients and characteristics of patients who were and were not in a relationship. PCa organizations distributed for us a 20-minute online survey, consisting of validated questionnaires (on treatment side effects, loneliness, social provision, and shyness) and questions on factors identified by patients as barriers and enablers to forming a new relationship. Participants were either single [n = 20] or had started a new relationship post-diagnosis [non-single, n = 15]. Three factors-confidence, sexual function, finding the right person-were perceived of as factors that can affect starting a relationship. Fourteen of twenty single patients were confident that they could find a partner and sixteen were comfortable in disclosing their cancer diagnosis to a potential partner. Non-single patients met their partners through various ways, including online dating and social events. They all revealed their cancer status prior to starting the relationship, and most partners reacted well to this disclosure. Single patients were lacking emotional support, more shy, and lonelier than non-single patients. Clinicians need to consider biopsychosocial factors when advising single patients who wish to start a new relationship.

To Express or to End? Personality Traits Are Associated With the Reasons and Patterns for Using Emojis and Stickers

Emojis and stickers are becoming increasingly popular in computer-mediated communications. The present study examined the associations between personality traits and people’s reasons and patterns for using both emojis and stickers. Participants (n = 312) completed three online questionnaires assessing shyness, the Big Five personality traits, and why and how they used emojis and stickers. Results revealed that shyness, neuroticism, extraversion, and agreeableness were correlated with different reasons of usage. Moreover, some participants exhibited a tendency to adjust frequency of usage depending on who the target person was and whether they were in a private or group chat. People who showed such tendencies were found to differ in personality with those who did not. Some differences in usage patterns were also observed between emojis and stickers. Together, the present study has produced more insight into how emojis and stickers can help people with different personality traits to achieve different purposes in their daily communication.

Executive Functions and Social Cognition in Juveniles Who Have Sexually Offended

Although neuropsychological assessments provide valuable information for those working in forensic mental health, few neuropsychological studies concern persons who sexually offend, particularly juveniles who have sexually offended (JSO). It has been suggested that, contrary to current theories, executive function in JSO, as a group, is no more impaired than it is in juvenile delinquents in general. However, JSO with child victims seem to be more impulsive than JSO whose victims are peers or adults. To verify this potentially important (and unexpected) finding, a sample of adolescent males (N = 134; 15.6 ± 1.5 years old) that included JSO, general delinquents, and underprivileged nondelinquents was assessed using a battery of behavioral and psychological tests that focus on impulsivity. No difference was found between groups regarding higher order executive functions as measured with the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task but JSO with child victims were found to be the most impulsive subgroup as evidenced with the Iowa Gambling Task, the Stop-Signal Reaction Task, and the Impulsive scale of the Social Problem Solving Inventory. They also had the highest number of prescriptions for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) medication. These results, which contradict hypotheses derived from assessment of adult sex offenders, illustrate an important difference between the cognitive profiles of adult and juvenile males who sexually offended. They also confirm that JSO whose victims are children appear to be more impulsive.

Beliefs about finding a compatible partner in three settings

Single adults often exert considerable energy searching for a compatible partner. Until recently, people met partners primarily through everyday activities (work, school) and through friends. These ways of meeting partners are still common, although Internet dating sites have also become a main way for couples to meet. The current study was conducted to examine people’s attitudes about finding a compatible partner in three different settings: online dating, the social network (e.g., friends of friends), and everyday activities. A sample of 702 single (unpartnered) adults (ages 18 to 40) completed a survey that included items that measured their attitudes about finding a compatible partner in the three different ways. Participants believed they would be less likely to find a compatible partner through online dating than either through friends or in everyday activities. Age and shyness were negatively associated with optimism of finding a partner, particularly in the traditional settings of everyday activities and through one’s social network.

Beliefs about finding a compatible partner in three settings

Single adults often exert considerable energy searching for a compatible partner. Until recently, people met partners primarily through everyday activities (work, school) and through friends. These ways of meeting partners are still common, although Internet dating sites have also become a main way for couples to meet. The current study was conducted to examine people’s attitudes about finding a compatible partner in three different settings: online dating, the social network (e.g., friends of friends), and everyday activities. A sample of 702 single (unpartnered) adults (ages 18 to 40) completed a survey that included items that measured their attitudes about finding a compatible partner in the three different ways. Participants believed they would be less likely to find a compatible partner through online dating than either through friends or in everyday activities. Age and shyness were negatively associated with optimism of finding a partner, particularly in the traditional settings of everyday activities and through one’s social network.

Otakuism and the Appeal of Sex Robots

Social robots are becoming increasingly prevalent in everyday life and sex robots are a sub-category of especially high public interest and controversy. Starting from the concept of the otaku, a term from Japanese youth culture that describes secluded persons with a high affinity for fictional manga characters, we examine individual differences behind sex robot appeal (anime and manga fandom, interest in Japanese culture, preference for indoor activities, shyness). In an online-experiment, 261 participants read one out of three randomly assigned descriptions of future technologies (sex robot, nursing robot, genetically modified organism) and reported on their overall evaluation, eeriness, and contact/purchase intentions. Higher anime and manga fandom was associated with higher appeal for all three future technologies. For our male subsample, sex robots and GMOs stood out as shyness yielded a particularly strong relationship to contact/purchase intentions for these new technologies.

Shyness Trajectories across the First Four Decades Predict Mental Health Outcomes

Although childhood shyness is presumed to predict mental health problems in adulthood, no prospective studies have examined these outcomes beyond emerging adulthood. As well, existing studies have been limited by retrospective and cross-sectional designs and/or have examined shyness as a dichotomous construct. The present prospective longitudinal study (N = 160; 55 males, 105 females) examined shyness trajectories from childhood to the fourth decade of life and mental health outcomes. Shyness was assessed using parent- and self-rated measures from childhood to adulthood, once every decade at ages 8, 12-16, 22-26, and 30-35. At age 30-35, participants completed a structured psychiatric interview and an experimental task examining attentional biases to facial emotions. We found 3 trajectories of shyness, including a low-stable trajectory (59.4%), an increasing shy trajectory from adolescence to adulthood (23.1%), and a decreasing shy trajectory from childhood to adulthood (17.5%). Relative to the low-stable trajectory, the increasing, but not the decreasing, trajectory was at higher risk for clinical social anxiety, mood, and substance-use disorders and was hypervigilant to angry faces. We found that the development of emotional problems in adulthood among the increasing shy trajectory might be explained in part by adverse peer and social influences during adolescence. Our findings suggest different pathways for early and later developing shyness and that not all shy children grow up to have psychiatric and emotional problems, nor do they all continue to be shy.

Shyness and Social Anxiety Assessed Through Self-Report: What Are We Measuring?

The distinction between shyness and social anxiety remains unclear in the literature. In an attempt to shed further light on this issue, our research evaluated whether shyness and social anxiety were the same construct underlying various measurement scales. Participants (N = 801, M_age = 36.21, range = 18-74, female = 53.10%) responded to 10 questionnaires assessing either shyness or social anxiety. Evidence indicated that the scales were highly correlated and loaded onto 1 factor. Confirmatory factor analysis corroborated this finding. A second exploratory factor analysis revealed that all the shyness and social anxiety items best loaded together onto 3 factors: one corresponding to fear of negative evaluation, embarrassment, self-consciousness, scrutiny, authority, interaction anxiety, and shyness (71.0%); a second comprised of primarily interaction anxiety and shyness (17.7%); and a third associated with performance anxiety (7.5%). All scales were similarly discriminated from sociability. Overall, the constructs of shyness and social anxiety were not differentiated from each other. Researchers should carefully consider what items are included in shyness and social anxiety scales if these constructs are to be distinguished from one another.

Social Confidence in Early Adulthood Among Young People With and Without a History of Language Impairment

Purpose

The purposes of this study were to test the predictions that lower self-esteem and higher shyness in individuals with a history of language impairment (LI) would continue from adolescence into early adulthood and that those with LI would have lower social self-efficacy in early adulthood.

Method

Participants were young people with a history of LI and a comparison group of age-matched peers. Both groups were tested at ages 17 and 24 years. Participants completed measures of language ability, nonverbal IQ, shyness, global self-esteem, and (at age 24 years only) social self-efficacy.

Results

Young adults with LI scored lower than age-matched peers on self-esteem, higher on shyness, and lower on social self-efficacy (medium to large effect sizes). In line with expectations, in the group with LI, language ability in adolescence predicted shyness in young adulthood, which, in turn, was negatively associated with self-esteem. There was also a direct association between language ability in adolescence and self-esteem in young adulthood.

Conclusions

Young people with a history of LI are likely to be entering adulthood less socially confident than their peers. Interventions may be desirable for young adults with LI, and the present findings indicate social self-efficacy as a key area of social confidence that calls for practitioners' attention.

Personality predictors of anger. The role of FFM traits, shyness, and self-esteem

The present study was designed to verify hypothesized predictor effects for five anger-related variables, i.e. trait anger, anger expression-out, anger expression-in, anger control-out, and anger-control-in. A sample of 138 students completed measures for FFM personality traits (NEO-FFI), self-esteem (SES), shyness (RCBS), and anger (STAXI-2). The study confirmed the effects of neuroticism and agreeableness as being the chief personality predictors of anger; however, for the domain of anger expression-in, an unexpected role of extraversion was revealed. Furthermore, introducing self-esteem and shyness changed some effects of FFM traits. Entering self-esteem as an additional predictor improved the predictability of anger control-in. Additionally, a mediation effect of shyness was revealed for the relation between extraversion and anger expression-in.

Slow to warm up: the role of habituation in social fear

Neural habituation allows familiar information to be ignored in favor of salient or novel stimuli. In contrast, failure to rapidly habituate likely reflects deficits in the ability to learn that an environment is predictable, familiar and safe. Differences in habituation rate may underlie individual differences in the tendency to approach or avoid novelty; however, many questions remain unanswered. Given the importance of adaptive social functioning, here we tested whether habituation differences to social stimuli are associated with differences in social fearfulness, a trait that ranges from low social fear-the adaptive tendency to approach novel social stimuli-to high social fear-the maladaptive tendency to avoid novel social stimuli. Higher social fearfulness was associated with slower habituation across regions of the social brain, including the hippocampus, amygdala, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, medial orbitofrontal cortex, fusiform face area, primary visual cortex, and extrastriate visual cortex. Interestingly, habituation differences were driven by sustained amygdala-visual cortex interactions, but not deficient amygdala-prefrontal cortex interactions. Together, these findings provide evidence that a failure to filter social stimuli is associated with a key social trait. In light of the link between social fear and dysfunction, individual differences in habituation may provide an important neurobiological marker for risk for psychiatric illness, such as social anxiety disorder.

Social surrogacy and adjustment: exploring the correlates of having a "social helper" for shy and non-shy young adolescents

A social surrogate is an individual who offers help and comfort in social situations or makes social events more exciting. In this study of 157 young adolescents (55% female; Mage = 13.84 years, SD = 0.75 years), the authors examined whether the linear and curvilinear associations between self-reported social surrogate use and adjustment outcomes (social problems, loneliness, anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms) varied as a function of shyness and gender, after accounting for the effects of positive friendship quality. Regression analyses revealed that low and high levels of social surrogate use were related to greater social problems for all adolescents. In addition, shyness emerged as a moderator for several curvilinear effects. Specifically, results indicated that (a) high levels of social surrogate use were associated with greater anxiety for adolescents high in shyness; and (b) low levels of social surrogate use were associated with greater depressive symptoms for adolescents low in shyness. Findings highlight the developmental importance of specific types of relationship experiences during early adolescence and point to different implications of social surrogate use for shy and non-shy young adolescents.

Differentiating social phobia from shyness

To clarify the relationship between social phobia and shyness, this study examined the characteristics of highly shy persons with social phobia, highly shy persons without social phobia, and non-shy persons. Those with social phobia reported more symptomatology, more functional impairment, and a lower quality of life than those without social phobia. About one-third of the highly shy without social phobia reported no social fears, highlighting heterogeneity of the shy. The social phobia group reported similar levels of anxiety as the shy without social phobia during analogue conversation tasks, but they reported more anxiety during a speech task. The social phobia group performed less effectively across tasks than those without social phobia. All groups' perceptions of anxiety and effectiveness during behavioral tasks were consistent with ratings of independent observers. None of the groups differed on psychophysiological measures. Results are discussed in the context of theoretical models of social phobia.

Self-esteem, shyness, and sociability in adolescents with specific language impairment (SLI)

PURPOSE

To determine if lower global self-esteem, shyness, and low sociability are outcomes associated with SLI in adolescence. Possible concurrent predictive relationships and gender differences were also examined.

METHOD

Fifty-four adolescents with SLI, aged between 16 and 17 years, were compared with a group of 54 adolescents with typical language abilities on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale (Rosenberg, 1965) and the Cheek and Buss Shyness and Sociability scales (Cheek & Buss, 1981).

RESULTS

The SLI group had significantly lower global self-esteem scores than the group with typical language abilities. The adolescents with SLI were more shy than their peers, but the groups did not differ in their sociability ratings. Regression analysis found that language ability was not concurrently predictive of self-esteem but shyness was. Mediation analysis suggested that shyness could be a partial but significant mediator in the relationship between language ability and global self-esteem.

CONCLUSIONS

Older adolescents with SLI are at risk of lower global self-esteem and experience shyness, although they want to interact socially. The relationship between language ability and self-esteem at this point in adolescence is complex, with shyness potentially playing an important mediating role.