The Grossarth‐Maticek and Eysenck Personality Types, Health‐related behaviour, and indicators of transitory ill‐health

The aim of this study was to scrutinize the relationship between personality type as described by Grossarth‐Maticek and Eysenck, health‐related behaviours, and indicators of transitory ill health in a community sample. The sample consisted of all per sons aged 40 years (45 men and 35 women) in a Swedish municipality who agreed to take part in a health examination at the primary health care centre of the municipality. The Short Interpersonal Reactions Inventory (Grossarth‐Maticek and Eysenck, 1990) was used to measure personality type. Self‐report data were obtained regarding seven health‐related behaviours. Health was assessed in three ways; self‐report (paper and pencil), self‐report (interview response to physician), and measures of 36 biological variables including immune system indicators. The allocation of persons to the different personality types proved problematic using the established methods. By combining the types, according to Eysenck's personality model, and performing a cluster analysis on this combination, a ‘healthy’ and a ‘stressed’ profile were identified within both the male and the female group of subjects. Persons in the healthy personality cluster showed more favourable scores on the health‐related behaviour indices and on the self‐report health scales than the persons in the stressed cluster. They also tended to score lower than those in the stressed cluster on most of the biological markers known to increase during acute stress. The possibility that this implies a higher level of strain for the persons in the stressed cluster on various bodily systems is discussed.

The Distressed personality type: replicability and general health associations

The Distressed personality type, identified in a cardiac population, confers risk for worse cardiac outcomes. Whether such a class of persons is identifiable in general patient populations, as well as its health correlates, remains unknown. We investigated these questions in a sample of 482 older primary care patients. Mixture structural equation modelling revealed that a Distressed Type was identifiable in Five Factor Model (FFM) personality data and associated with higher levels of medically documented multimorbidity, and worse subjective health ratings, physician assessed physical functioning and interviewer rated psychosocial functioning. In models including paths from outcomes to both traits and types, traits and types were independently associated with health outcomes, pointing towards the value of considering both approaches in epidemiologic personology research. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Personality and fatal diseases: Revisiting a scientific scandal

During the 1980s and 1990s, Hans J Eysenck conducted a programme of research into the causes, prevention and treatment of fatal diseases in collaboration with one of his protégés, Ronald Grossarth-Maticek. This led to what must be the most astonishing series of findings ever published in the peer-reviewed scientific literature with effect sizes that have never otherwise been encounterered in biomedical research. This article outlines just some of these reported findings and signposts readers to extremely serious scientific and ethical criticisms that were published almost three decades ago. Confidential internal documents that have become available as a result of litigation against tobacco companies provide additional insights into this work. It is suggested that this research programme has led to one of the worst scientific scandals of all time. A call is made for a long overdue formal inquiry.

Personality, environmental stressors, and diarrhea in Rhesus macaques: An interactionist perspective

Previous research has repeatedly shown both personality and psychological stress to predict gastrointestinal disorders and chronic diarrhea in humans. The goal of the present research was to evaluate the role of personality, as well as psychological stressors (i.e., housing relocations and rearing environment), in predicting chronic diarrhea in captive Rhesus macaques, with particular attention to how personality regulated the impact of such stressors. Subjects were 1,930 R. macaques at the California National Primate Research Center reared in a variety of environments. All subjects took part in an extensive personality evaluation at approximately 90-120 days of age. Data were analyzed using generalized linear models to determine how personality, rearing condition, housing relocations, and personality by environment interactions, predicted both diarrhea risk (an animal's risk for having diarrhea at least once) and chronic diarrhea (how many repeated bouts of diarrhea an animal had after their initial bout). Much like the human literature, we found that certain personality types (i.e., nervous, gentle, vigilant, and not confident) were more likely to have chronic diarrhea, and that certain stressful environments (i.e., repeated housing relocations) increased diarrhea risk. We further found multiple interactions between personality and environment, supporting the "interactionist" perspective on personality and health. We conclude that while certain stressful environments increase risk for chronic diarrhea, the relative impact of these stressors is highly dependent on an animal's personality.

Personality Typology in Patients with Traumatic Limb Fractures

The notion that personality impacts health is not new. According to Grossarth-Maticek and Eysenck’s theoretical approach, the main factor for health is the ability for self-regulation, which seems to moderate the effects of some physical risk factors.

The aim of this study was to evaluate personality characteristics of patients hospitalized for traumatic limb’s fractures which have been operatively treated. To our knowledge, it is the first study of this type in the region.

The evaluated sample comprises two groups of examinees: patients hospitalized at the Traumatology Clinic for surgery after fractured limbs (N=30) and healthy people (N=120) as control, previously examined. Two psychometric tests were used: Grossarth-Maticek questionnaire and Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ).

Obtained results showed that the personality characteristics of patients with traumatic limb fractures belong generally to the “healthy type 4” of Grossarth-Maticek typology, similarly as the control. It correlates to the low N (neuroticism) and moderate E (extraversion) scales in the Eysenck typology.

We showed that gender and age highly influence the scores obtained from the questionnaire.

The type of personality could influence reactions in life situations, coping with stress and consequently to be a trigger for any disorder, even traumatic fractures

Psychometric Properties of Modified Grossarth-Maticek and Eysenck Inventories

A sample of 204 subjects of both genders aged 17 to 72 years (one-third students, two-thirds in various occupations) were presented a pool of 291 items. Among these items, those 277 published by Eysenck and Grossarth-Maticek (1990) were of central interest. The scales, produced from the items to measure 6 different constructs, were internally highly consistent and differentiated among groups of various ages and by gender. Two scales are of particular significance, one because the construct underlying the scale is intended to show a disposition for cancer, the other one a disposition for coronary heart disease. Together the scales constitute the one pole of a single bipolar dimension, the other pole of which was defined by a scale measuring health and autonomy. Moreover, groups of persons suffering from either disease differed in their mean scores from those of healthy persons but could not be discriminated from one another by their scores on the scales. The implications of these results for the prediction of either of the two diseases are discussed.

The Precocity-Longevity Hypothesis: Earlier Peaks in Career Achievement Predict Shorter Lives

A new precocity-longevity hypothesis that those who reach career peaks earlier tend to have shorter lives was tested with 23 samples of eminent persons (N = 1,026), including U.S. presidents, French presidents, Canadian prime ministers, British prime ministers, New Zealand prime ministers, Australian prime ministers, male British monarchs, popes, U.S. Supreme Court justices, U.S. vice presidents, Nova Scotia premiers, Nobel prize winners, Oscar winners for acting, signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence, and distinguished American psychologists. Support was found in 22 samples. Supplementary analyses showed that the association between precocity and life span is robust and apparently does not result wholly from the artifact of persons with younger sample recruitment ages having shorter life expectancies or from a sample selection artifact described by D. K. Simonton. Explanatory dynamics based on stress and Type A personality are suggested.

Personality and Disease: Correlations of Multiple Trait Scores with Various Illnesses

Correlations between personality measures and self-reported data on health status were examined in a sample of 5133 men and women, aged between 40 and 65. A wider range of diseases was studied than is typical. Small but theoretically meaningful correlations with personality were found for some diseases. Personality syndromes of Emotional Lability, Type A Behaviour, Behavioural Control, Locus of Control over Diseases and Psychoticism were distinguished factorially. Emotional Lability appeared to be the most robust predictor of general disease vulnerability. Some small but significant associations between specific illnesses and Type A and Behavioural Control were also found.

What Leads to Wellness?

An expanding literature reveals that personality traits and psychological resources (PRs) are important in human well-being. In this article, the author reviews the literature regarding four PRs (positive thoughts, hardiness, generalized self-efficacy, and optimism), discusses the relationships among PRs and between PRs and personality characteristics, and proposes a theory that helps to account for current findings. Specific hypotheses are proposed, and implications for the practice of counseling psychology are discussed.

Personality and gene expression: Do individual differences exist in the leukocyte transcriptome?

BACKGROUND

The temporal and situational stability of personality has led generations of researchers to hypothesize that personality may have enduring effects on health, but the biological mechanisms of such relationships remain poorly understood. In the present study, we utilized a functional genomics approach to examine the relationship between the 5 major dimensions of personality and patterns of gene expression as predicted by 'behavioural immune response' theory. We specifically focussed on two sets of genes previously linked to stress, threat, and adverse socio-environmental conditions: pro-inflammatory genes and genes involved in Type I interferon and antibody responses.

METHODS

An opportunity sample of 121 healthy individuals was recruited (86 females; mean age 24 years). Individuals completed a validated measure of personality; questions relating to current health behaviours; and provided a 5ml sample of peripheral blood for gene expression analysis.

RESULTS

Extraversion was associated with increased expression of pro-inflammatory genes and Conscientiousness was associated with reduced expression of pro-inflammatory genes. Both associations were independent of health behaviours, negative affect, and leukocyte subset distributions. Antiviral and antibody-related gene expression was not associated with any personality dimension.

CONCLUSIONS

The present data shed new light on the long-observed epidemiological associations between personality, physical health, and human longevity. Further research is required to elucidate the biological mechanisms underlying these associations.

Personality and serotonin transporter genotype interact with social context to affect immunity and viral set-point in simian immunodeficiency virus disease

From the beginning of the AIDS epidemic, stress has been a suspected contributor to the wide variation seen in disease progression, and some evidence supports this idea. Not all individuals respond to a stressor in the same way, however, and little is known about the biological mechanisms by which variations in individuals' responses to their environment affect disease-relevant immunologic processes. Using the simian immunodeficiency virus/rhesus macaque model of AIDS, we explored how personality (Sociability) and genotype (serotonin transporter promoter) independently interact with social context (Stable or Unstable social conditions) to influence behavioral expression, plasma cortisol concentrations, SIV-specific IgG, and expression of genes associated with Type I interferon early in infection. SIV viral RNA set-point was strongly and negatively correlated with survival as expected. Set-point was also associated with expression of interferon-stimulated genes, with CXCR3 expression, and with SIV-specific IgG titers. Poorer immune responses, in turn, were associated with display of sustained aggression and submission. Personality and genotype acted independently as well as in interaction with social condition to affect behavioral responses. Together, the data support an "interactionist" perspective [Eysenck, H.J., 1991. Personality, stress and disease: an interactionist perspective. Psychol. Inquiry 2, 221-232] on disease. Given that an important goal of HIV treatment is to maintain viral set-point as low as possible, our data suggest that supplementing anti-retroviral therapy with behavioral or pharmacologic modulation of other aspects of an organism's functioning might prolong survival, particularly among individuals living under conditions of threat or uncertainty.

Personality characteristics of asthma patients

INTRODUCTION

Asthma, similarly to other chronic conditions, is strongly influenced by psychological factors. Previous studies have not established the personality characteristics of adult asthma patients as compared to non-patients.

OBJECTIVES

To study the psychological characteristics of adult asthma patients in comparison to a pattern drawn up for the Portuguese population. To study the relationships between the personality and the severity and duration of the disease.

METHODS

Outpatients of the Immunallergology and Pulmonology units of the São João Hospital suffering from asthma responded to the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R). Patients with co-morbidity factors were not excluded. The doctor who attended them classified the severity of the asthma according to the Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Relationships between the personality and the severity/duration of the disease were analysed using the ANOVA models.

RESULTS

300 asthma patients aged between 17 and 79 were studied. Of these, 75% were female; the great majority had intermittent/light persistent asthma (71%); 17% had moderate persistent asthma and 12% had severe persistent asthma. The duration of the disease was less than 10 years in 34% and over 23 years in 35%. The asthma patients had higher Neuroticism scores (p < 0.001), with the other facets (except impulsiveness) equally high. All the remaining domains--Extroversion, Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness and Agreeableness--had lower scores than the control group (p < 0.001). Both Extroversion and Openness to Experience decrease with growth in the severity (p = 0.003; p = 0.009) and the duration of the disease (p = 0.006; p = 0.013). Neuroticism increases in tandem with the severity of the disease.

CONCLUSION

This study shows the predominance of Neurotic characteristics and lowered Extroversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness characteristics in asthmatics as compared to the general Portuguese population. Decreased Extroversion and Openness to Experience are observed as the severity and duration of the disease increase. Further studies are necessary to clarify the relationships between personality and the severity and duration of the disease.

Personality, Cardiovascular Disease, and Cancer:

Abstract. Ten years ago a sample of N = 5.133 male and female subjects (age 28-74) responded to questionnaires including scales for personality, life style, work stress as well as questions on prevalent disease. We now report on the follow-up regarding self-reported incidence of cardiovascular disease and cancer. During a mean follow-up of 10 years, 257 participants had died. Of those alive, N = 4.010 (82%) participated in the follow-up. Of these, 120 and 180 persons reported incident cardiovascular disease and cancer, respectively. The incidence of cardiovascular disease could be significantly predicted by the personality factors “Emotional Lability”, “Behavioral Control” and “Type-A-Behavior” as well as by the “Rationality/Antemotionality”-scale according to Grossarth-Maticek. After controlling for age, gender and smoking behavior only the significant effect of “Emotional Lability” remained and the predictors according to Grossarth-Maticek had no incremental validity. Cancer could not be predicted by any personality factors.

How the mind hurts and heals the body

The author reviews some of the social and behavioral factors acting on the brain that influence health, illness, and death. Supported with data from several areas of research, his proposal for understanding health and illness provides both the concepts and the mechanisms for studying and explaining mind-body relationships. The brain is the body's first line of defense against illness, and the mind is the emergent functioning of the brain. This mind-body approach incorporates ideas, belief systems, and hopes as well as biochemistry, physiology, and anatomy. Changing thoughts imply a changing brain and thus a changing biology and body. Belief systems provide a baseline for the functioning brain upon which other variables act and have their effects.

Development of a questionnaire for quantitative assessment in the field of health and human rights

We hypothesize that a human rights framework would be able to analyse central health-related societal issues within important settings like the work place, the family or the health care system. Our study goal was the development and population-based evaluation of a questionnaire for assessment of the perceived human rights status. A questionnaire (HR-14) was developed from the guiding principles of international human rights legislation. For its psychometric evaluation, computer-assisted telephone interviews were conducted in four cities in Europe (Munich, Dresden, Vienna and Bern). Cronbach's alpha for internal consistency was 0.76. Factor analysis supported the concept of human rights as indivisible and interdependent. Extracted factors were consistent with the preliminary settings of family and friends, health care system and community at large, and a supplementary setting workplace. Perceived human rights status was associated with physical function, mental/emotional health, age, study region, general health and employment status. We conclude that it is possible to develop a human rights questionnaire with good psychometric properties. Measurement of the perceived human rights status of populations and population groups may contribute to health policies sensitive to human rights.

How and When Does Emotional Expression Help?

The paradox of distress expression is that expression of negative feelings is both a sign of distress and a possible means of coping with that distress. This article describes research illustrating the paradox of distress expression. It reviews evidence concerning 3 possible mechanisms by which expression might alleviate distress, focusing on the role of expression in (a) reducing distress about distress, (b) facilitating insight, and (c) affecting interpersonal relationships in a desired way. The authors conclude by highlighting the circumstances under which expression is most likely to be adaptive. Overall, the authors argue that expression of negative feelings is adaptive to the extent that it leads to some kind of resolution involving the source or significance of distress.

Interaction of psychosocial and physical risk factors in the causation of mammary cancer, and its prevention through psychological methods of treatment

Some 8059 healthy women (mean age 58 years) were studied in 1973 with the aim of establishing the presence or absence of a variety of physical and psychological risk factors for mammary cancer. Mortality was established in 1988. factor predictors were highly significant. Physical risk factors were more predictive than psychological ones, but both interacted synergistically to predict mortality. Alone, psychological (stress) factors had little effect, while-physical factors did. However, psychological factors seemed to potentiate the effect of physical factors, particularly in the middle range. The causal relevance of psychological factors was established in a special intervention study using autonomy training as a method of prophylactic therapy and comparing outcome with the effects of no therapy (control).

Breast cancer, personality and the feminine role

This article argues that it may be illuminating to look at breast cancer also from a cultural point of view. It is built around a hypothesis which proposes that, on a certain level, breast cancer can be seen as an attempt by women to rid themselves of the breast as a symbol of some of the essential aspects of their femininity, as feminine qualities are seen as of little import in today's industrialized Western world. The argumentation begins by showing that there is a certain type of personality which is prone to cancer: One of the main characteristics of this personality is either the repression or the inability to express or feel anger. Furthermore, studies on sex-roles and defence mechanisms have shown that persons with feminine sex-role orientations use more repressive, self-blaming defence mechanisms. The author finally goes on to discuss the psychic mechanisms thought to lie behind somatization and cancer as a psychosomatic disease.

Alternative therapies and control for health in cancer and AIDS

People who are coping with AIDS and many forms of cancer have a sense of being out of control in dealing with their diseases. This stems, to a great degree, from the uncertainty that they feel relative to the accepted medical treatment for their disease. Informants in this naturalistic research study were adamant in their belief that alternative therapies helped them to regain a sense of control over their care and, thus, enhanced their health. It is important that clinical nurse specialists, who often serve as consultants to other nurses, understand and support their patients' choices of therapy. In addition, with evidence to support the benefit of stress reduction on length of survival, advanced practice nurses can play a key role in helping patients reduce stress and, hopefully, effect longevity and quality of life.

Some problems and some solutions in research on psychotherapeutic intervention in cancer

Several requirements of psychotherapeutic intervention (PI) research are presented. Some major problems are discussed. First, confidence in experimental results may be diminished by interference of possible confounders. A large number of these exist, both physical, perhaps more easily measurable, and psychological or psychosocial. Second, the value and limitations of randomization are presented, with special reference to small N. Validity and reliability are addressed, with emphasis on things that may dilute the strength of both of these measures. Natural remedies are proposed. Internal consistency and reliability are compared and cautions are given regarding their use and possible invalid substitution of consistency for reliability. Comparison of different PIs is commented on, with some relevant examples. Finally, a matter of special interest is discussed: the inconsistency between Spiegel's control survival curve and that produced from local population normative data.

Prediction of cancer and coronary heart disease mortality by means of a personality inventory: results of a 15-year follow-up study

This paper reports on the 1982-1986 follow-up of two samples of healthy persons first studied in 1972 and followed up in 1982 when mortality and cause of death were established (N = 2,146). Both were related to stress and personality type according to clearly elaborated theories, and results were very much in accordance with theory. The second follow-up was instigated to answer criticisms of the first study and to test whether results would still support the theories involved. The data support the previous results strongly and show that psychosocial data can predict with considerable accuracy mortality and cause of death over 14 years ahead.