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Erickson JR, Walker SE, Arenas Gomez CM, Echeverri K. Sall4 regulates downstream patterning genes during limb regeneration. Dev Biol 2024; 515:151-159. [PMID: 39067503 PMCID: PMC11325254 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2024.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Revised: 07/19/2024] [Accepted: 07/23/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
Many salamanders can completely regenerate a fully functional limb. Limb regeneration is a carefully coordinated process involving several defined stages. One key event during the regeneration process is the patterning of the blastema to inform cells of what they must differentiate into. Although it is known that many genes involved in the initial development of the limb are re-used during regeneration, the exact molecular circuitry involved in this process is not fully understood. Several large-scale transcriptional profiling studies of axolotl limb regeneration have identified many transcription factors that are up-regulated after limb amputation. Sall4 is a transcription factor that has been identified to play essential roles in maintaining cells in an undifferentiated state during development and also plays a unique role in limb development. Inactivation of Sall4 during limb bud development results in defects in anterior-posterior patterning of the limb. Sall4 has been found to be up-regulated during limb regeneration in both Xenopus and salamanders, but to date it function has been untested. We confirmed that Sall4 is up-regulated during limb regeneration in the axolotl using qRT-PCR and identified that it is present in the skin cells and also in cells within the blastema. Using CRISPR technology we microinjected gRNAs specific for Sall4 complexed with cas9 protein into the blastema to specifically knockout Sall4 in blastema cells only. This resulted in limb regenerate defects, including missing digits, fusion of digit elements, and defects in the radius and ulna. This suggests that during regeneration Sall4 may play a similar role in regulating the specification of anterior-proximal skeletal elements.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Erickson
- Department of Genetics, Dell Biology and Development, Stell Cell Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - S E Walker
- Marine Biological Laboratory, University of Chicago, Eugene Bell Center for Regeneration Biology and Tissue Engineering, Woods Hole, MA, USA
| | - C M Arenas Gomez
- Marine Biological Laboratory, University of Chicago, Eugene Bell Center for Regeneration Biology and Tissue Engineering, Woods Hole, MA, USA
| | - K Echeverri
- Department of Genetics, Dell Biology and Development, Stell Cell Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA; Marine Biological Laboratory, University of Chicago, Eugene Bell Center for Regeneration Biology and Tissue Engineering, Woods Hole, MA, USA.
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2
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Autumn M, Hu Y, Zeng J, McMenamin SK. Growth patterns of caudal fin rays are informed by both external signals from the regenerating organ and remembered identity autonomous to the local tissue. Dev Biol 2024; 515:121-128. [PMID: 39029570 PMCID: PMC11361315 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2024.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2024] [Revised: 07/10/2024] [Accepted: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/21/2024]
Abstract
Regenerating tissues must remember or interpret their spatial position, using this information to restore original size and patterning. The external skeleton of the zebrafish caudal fin is composed of 18 rays; after any portion of the fin is amputated, position-dependent regenerative growth restores each ray to its original length. We tested for transcriptional differences during regeneration of proximal versus distal tissues and identified 489 genes that differed in proximodistal expression. Thyroid hormone directs multiple aspects of ray patterning along the proximodistal axis, and we identified 364 transcripts showing a proximodistal expression pattern that was dependent on thyroid hormone context. To test what aspects of ray positional identity are directed by extrinsic environental cues versus remembered identity autonomous to the tissue, we transplanted distal portions of rays to proximal environments and evaluated regeneration within the new location. Native regenerating proximal tissue showed robust expression of scpp7, a transcript with thyroid-regulated proximal enrichment; in contrast, regenerating rays originating from transplanted distal tissue showed reduced (distal-like) expression during outgrowth. These distal-to-proximal transplants regenerated far beyond the length of the graft itself, indicating that cues from the proximal environment promoted additional growth. Nonetheless, these transplants initiated regeneration at a much slower rate compared to controls, suggesting memory of distal identity was retained by the transplanted tissue. This early growth retardation caused rays that originated from transplants to grow noticeably shorter than neighboring native rays. While several aspects of fin ray morphology (bifurcation, segment length) were found to be determined by the environment, we found that both regeneration speed and ray length are remembered autonomously by tissues, and that persist through multiple rounds of amputation and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melody Autumn
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, 02467, USA
| | - Yinan Hu
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, 02467, USA
| | - Jenny Zeng
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, 02467, USA
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3
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Huang L, Ho C, Ye X, Gao Y, Guo W, Chen J, Sun J, Wen D, Liu Y, Liu Y, Zhang Y, Li Q. Mechanisms and translational applications of regeneration in limbs: From renewable animals to humans. Ann Anat 2024; 255:152288. [PMID: 38823491 DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2024.152288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The regenerative capacity of organisms declines throughout evolution, and mammals lack the ability to regenerate limbs after injury. Past approaches to achieving successful restoration through pharmacological intervention, tissue engineering, and cell therapies have faced significant challenges. OBJECTIVES This review aims to provide an overview of the current understanding of the mechanisms behind animal limb regeneration and the successful translation of these mechanisms for human tissue regeneration. RESULTS Particular attention was paid to the Mexican axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum), the only adult tetrapod capable of limb regeneration. We will explore fundamental questions surrounding limb regeneration, such as how amputation initiates regeneration, how the limb knows when to stop and which parts to regenerate, and how these findings can apply to mammalian systems. CONCLUSIONS Given the urgent need for regenerative therapies to treat conditions like diabetic foot ulcers and trauma survivors, this review provides valuable insights and ideas for researchers, clinicians, and biomedical engineers seeking to facilitate the regeneration process or elicit full regeneration from partial regeneration events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Huang
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 639 Zhizaoju Road, Shanghai 200011, China; Department of Ophthalmology, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Chiakang Ho
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 639 Zhizaoju Road, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Xinran Ye
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 639 Zhizaoju Road, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Ya Gao
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 639 Zhizaoju Road, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Weiming Guo
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Stomatology, 639 Zhizaoju Road, Shanghai 200011, China; National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Shanghai 200011, China; National Center for Stomatology, Shanghai 200011, China; College of Stomatology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200011, China; Department of Orthodontics, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 639 Zhizaoju Road, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Julie Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jiaming Sun
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 639 Zhizaoju Road, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Dongsheng Wen
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 639 Zhizaoju Road, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Yangdan Liu
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 639 Zhizaoju Road, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Yuxin Liu
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 639 Zhizaoju Road, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Yifan Zhang
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 639 Zhizaoju Road, Shanghai 200011, China.
| | - Qingfeng Li
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 639 Zhizaoju Road, Shanghai 200011, China.
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4
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Autumn M, Hu Y, Zeng J, McMenamin SK. Growth patterns of caudal fin rays are informed by both external signals from the regenerating organ and remembered identity autonomous to the local tissue. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.03.29.586899. [PMID: 38585773 PMCID: PMC10996721 DOI: 10.1101/2024.03.29.586899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
Regenerating tissues must remember or interpret their spatial position, using this information to restore original size and patterning. The external skeleton of the zebrafish caudal fin is composed of 18 rays; after any portion of the fin is amputated, position-dependent regenerative growth restores each ray to its original length. We tested for transcriptional differences during regeneration of proximal versus distal tissues and identified 489 genes that differed in proximodistal expression. Thyroid hormone directs multiple aspects of ray patterning along the proximodistal axis, and we identified 364 transcripts showing a proximodistal expression pattern that was dependent on thyroid hormone context. To test what aspects of ray positional identity are directed by extrinsic cues versus remembered identity autonomous to the tissue itself, we transplanted distal portions of rays to proximal environments and evaluated regeneration within the new location. While neighboring proximal tissue showed robust expression of scpp7, a transcript with thyroid-regulated proximal enrichment, regenerating rays originating from transplanted distal tissue showed reduced (distal-like) expression during outgrowth. These distal-to-proximal transplants regenerated far beyond the length of the graft itself, indicating that cues from the proximal environment promoted additional growth. Nonetheless, these transplants initially regenerated at a much slower rate compared to controls, suggesting memory of distal identity was retained by the transplanted tissue. This early growth retardation caused rays that originated from transplants to become noticeably shorter than their native neighboring rays. While several aspects of fin ray morphology (bifurcation, segment length) were found to be determined by the environment, regeneration speed and ray length are remembered autonomously by tissues, persisting across multiple rounds of amputation and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melody Autumn
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467
| | - Yinan Hu
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467
| | - Jenny Zeng
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467
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5
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Crawford K, Del Rio-Tsonis K, Cameron JA, Tanaka E. David L. Stocum (1939-2023). Development 2023; 150:dev202172. [PMID: 37485541 DOI: 10.1242/dev.202172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
David L. Stocum, a scientist whose contributions to and impact on the field of regeneration and developmental biology are legendary, and likely more pervasive than many know, passed away on 21 April 2023. His illustrious career, exploring and characterizing the fundamentals of limb regeneration in salamanders, spanned nearly 60 years. Much of his work dissecting the tissue-level logic of regeneration established the framework for the molecular investigation of regeneration taking place today. His generous spirit as mentor and colleague, encyclopedic understanding of the literature, and enthusiasm for each new discovery and its place within the larger picture of scientific understanding distinguishes him as a giant in the history of regenerative biology. David's career path, the transformative role his teachers and mentors played along the way, and his own role in inspiring the next generation of researchers speaks strongly to the importance and power of basic education to society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Crawford
- Department of Biology, St. Mary's College of Maryland, St. Mary's City, MD 20686, USA
| | - Katia Del Rio-Tsonis
- Department of Biology and Center for Visual Sciences, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA
| | - Jo Ann Cameron
- School of Molecular & Cellular Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Elly Tanaka
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology, Vienna Biocenter, 1030 Vienna, Austria
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6
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Vieira WA, Raymond M, Kelley K, Cherubino MA, Sahin H, McCusker CD. Integration failure of regenerated limb tissue is associated with incongruencies in positional information in the Mexican axolotl. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1152510. [PMID: 37333984 PMCID: PMC10272535 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1152510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Little is known about how the newly regenerated limb tissues in the Mexican axolotl seamlessly integrate with the remaining stump tissues to form a functional structure, and why this doesn't occur in some regenerative scenarios. In this study, we evaluate the phenomenological and transcriptional characteristics associated with integration failure in ectopic limb structures generated by treating anterior-located ectopic blastemas with Retinoic Acid (RA) and focusing on the "bulbus mass" tissue that forms between the ectopic limb and the host site. We additionally test the hypothesis that the posterior portion of the limb base contains anterior positional identities. Methods: The positional identity of the bulbus mass was evaluated by assaying regenerative competency, the ability to induce new pattern in the Accessory Limb Model (ALM) assay, and by using qRTPCR to quantify the relative expression of patterning genes as the bulbus mass deintegrates from the host site. We additionally use the ALM and qRTPCR to analyze the distribution of anterior and posterior positional identities along the proximal/distal limb axis of uninjured and regenerating limbs. Results: The bulbus mass regenerates limb structures with decreased complexity when amputated and is able to induce complex ectopic limb structure only when grafted into posterior-located ALMs. Expressional analysis shows significant differences in FGF8, BMP2, TBX5, Chrdl1, HoxA9, and HoxA11 expression between the bulbus mass and the host site when deintegration is occuring. Grafts of posterior skin from the distal limb regions into posterior ALMs at the base of the limb induce ectopic limb structures. Proximally-located blastemas express significantly less HoxA13 and Ptch1, and significantly more Alx4 and Grem1 than distally located blastemas. Discussion: These findings show that the bulbus mass has an anterior-limb identity and that the expression of limb patterning genes is mismatched between the bulbus mass and the host limb. Our findings additionally show that anterior positional information is more abundant at the limb base, and that anterior patterning genes are more abundantly expressed in proximally located blastemas compared to blastemas in the more distal regions of the limb. These experiments provide valuable insight into the underlying causes of integration failure and further map the distribution of positional identities in the mature limb.
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7
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Oliveira CR, Knapp D, Elewa A, Gerber T, Gonzalez Malagon SG, Gates PB, Walters HE, Petzold A, Arce H, Cordoba RC, Subramanian E, Chara O, Tanaka EM, Simon A, Yun MH. Tig1 regulates proximo-distal identity during salamander limb regeneration. Nat Commun 2022; 13:1141. [PMID: 35241664 PMCID: PMC8894484 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-28755-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Salamander limb regeneration is an accurate process which gives rise exclusively to the missing structures, irrespective of the amputation level. This suggests that cells in the stump have an awareness of their spatial location, a property termed positional identity. Little is known about how positional identity is encoded, in salamanders or other biological systems. Through single-cell RNAseq analysis, we identified Tig1/Rarres1 as a potential determinant of proximal identity. Tig1 encodes a conserved cell surface molecule, is regulated by retinoic acid and exhibits a graded expression along the proximo-distal axis of the limb. Its overexpression leads to regeneration defects in the distal elements and elicits proximal displacement of blastema cells, while its neutralisation blocks proximo-distal cell surface interactions. Critically, Tig1 reprogrammes distal cells to a proximal identity, upregulating Prod1 and inhibiting Hoxa13 and distal transcriptional networks. Thus, Tig1 is a central cell surface determinant of proximal identity in the salamander limb. The mechanisms by which cells determine their position within the 3D space are poorly understood. Research in salamanders offers fresh insights into this question, uncovering Tig1 as a central determinant of proximo-distal identity in regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina R Oliveira
- Technische Universität Dresden, CRTD/Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Dunja Knapp
- Technische Universität Dresden, CRTD/Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Ahmed Elewa
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Tobias Gerber
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sandra G Gonzalez Malagon
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, London, UK.,Biomedical Research Institute, Foundation for Research and Technology, University of Ioannina Campus, 45115, Ioannina, Greece
| | - Phillip B Gates
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Hannah E Walters
- Technische Universität Dresden, CRTD/Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Andreas Petzold
- Technische Universität Dresden, CRTD/Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Hernan Arce
- Systems Biology Group, Institute of Physics of Liquids and Biological Systems, National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET) and University of La Plata, La Plata, Argentina.,Instituto de Tecnología, Universidad Argentina de la Empresa (UADE), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Rodrigo C Cordoba
- Systems Biology Group, Institute of Physics of Liquids and Biological Systems, National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET) and University of La Plata, La Plata, Argentina
| | | | - Osvaldo Chara
- Systems Biology Group, Institute of Physics of Liquids and Biological Systems, National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET) and University of La Plata, La Plata, Argentina.,Instituto de Tecnología, Universidad Argentina de la Empresa (UADE), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Technische Universität Dresden, Center for Information Services and High Performance Computing ZIH, Dresden, Germany
| | - Elly M Tanaka
- Institute of Molecular Pathology, Vienna Biocenter, Vienna, Austria
| | - András Simon
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Maximina H Yun
- Technische Universität Dresden, CRTD/Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany. .,Max Planck Institute for Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany.
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8
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Miller BM, Johnson K, Whited JL. Common themes in tetrapod appendage regeneration: a cellular perspective. EvoDevo 2019; 10:11. [PMID: 31236203 PMCID: PMC6572735 DOI: 10.1186/s13227-019-0124-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Complete and perfect regeneration of appendages is a process that has fascinated and perplexed biologists for centuries. Some tetrapods possess amazing regenerative abilities, but the regenerative abilities of others are exceedingly limited. The reasons underlying these differences have largely remained mysterious. A great deal has been learned about the morphological events that accompany successful appendage regeneration, and a handful of experimental manipulations can be reliably applied to block the process. However, only in the last decade has the goal of attaining a thorough molecular and cellular biological understanding of appendage regeneration in tetrapods become within reach. Advances in molecular and genetic tools for interrogating these remarkable events are now allowing for unprecedented access to the fundamental biology at work in appendage regeneration in a variety of species. This information will be critical for integrating the large body of detailed observations from previous centuries with a modern understanding of how cells sense and respond to severe injury and loss of body parts. Understanding commonalities between regenerative modes across diverse species is likely to illuminate the most important aspects of complex tissue regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bess M. Miller
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, 7 Divinity Ave, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA
| | - Kimberly Johnson
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, 7 Divinity Ave, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA
| | - Jessica L. Whited
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, 7 Divinity Ave, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA
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9
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Shibata E, Liu Z, Kawasaki T, Sakai N, Kawakami A. Robust and local positional information within a fin ray directs fin length during zebrafish regeneration. Dev Growth Differ 2018; 60:354-364. [PMID: 29992536 DOI: 10.1111/dgd.12558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
It has been proposed that cells are regulated to form specific morphologies and sizes according to positional information. However, the entity and nature of positional information have not been fully understood yet. The zebrafish caudal fin has a characteristic V-shape; dorsal and ventral fin rays are longer than the central ones. This fin shape regenerates irrespective of the sites or shape of fin amputation. It is thought that reformation of tissue occurs according to positional information. In this study, we developed a novel transplantation procedure for grafting a whole fin ray to an ectopic position and examined whether the information that specifies fin length exists within each fin ray. Intriguingly, when long and short fin rays were swapped, they regenerated to form longer or shorter fin rays than the adjacent host fin rays, respectively. Further, the abnormal fin ray lengths were maintained for a long time, more than 5 months, and after further re-amputation. In contrast to intra-fin grafting, when fin ray grafting was performed between fish, cells in the grafts disappeared due to immune rejection, and the grafted fin rays adapted to the host position to form a normal fin. Together, our data suggest that the information that directs fin length does exist in cells within a single fin ray and that it has a robust property-it is stable for a long time and is hard to rewrite. Our study highlighted a novel positional information mechanism for directing regenerating fin length.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eri Shibata
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Zhengcheng Liu
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Toshihiro Kawasaki
- Genetic Strains Research Center, National Institute of Genetics, and Department of Genetics, School of Life Science, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Mishima, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Sakai
- Genetic Strains Research Center, National Institute of Genetics, and Department of Genetics, School of Life Science, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Mishima, Japan
| | - Atsushi Kawakami
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan
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10
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Tao J, Rong W, Diao X, Zhou H. Toxic responses of Sox2 gene in the regeneration of the earthworm Eisenia foetida exposed to Retnoic acid. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2018; 204:106-112. [PMID: 29229524 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2017.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2017] [Revised: 11/25/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Exogenous retinoic acid delays and disturbs the regeneration of Eisenia foetida. The stem cell pluripotency factor, Sox2, can play a crucial role in cell reprogramming and dedifferentiation. In this study, we compared the regeneration of Eisenia foetida in different segments after amputation and the effects of retinoic acid on the regeneration of different segments. The results showed that the regeneration speed of the head and tail was slightly faster than the middle part, and retinoic acid disrupted and delayed the regeneration of the earthworm. The qRT-PCR and Western blot analysis showed that the expression of the Sox2 gene and Sox2 protein was highest on the seventh day in different segments (p<0.05). After treatment with retinoic acid, the expression level of the Sox2 gene and Sox2 protein was significantly reduced (p<0.05). The results indicated that the regeneration of earthworms and the formation of blastema are related to the expression of the Sox2 gene and protein. Retinoic acid delays and interferes with the regeneration of the earthworm by affecting the expression levels of the Sox2 gene and protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Tao
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China; Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Forestry, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China
| | - Wei Rong
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China; Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Forestry, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China
| | - Xiaoping Diao
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China; Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Forestry, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China; College of Life Science, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China.
| | - Hailong Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China; Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Forestry, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China.
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11
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Bryant DM, Johnson K, DiTommaso T, Tickle T, Couger MB, Payzin-Dogru D, Lee TJ, Leigh ND, Kuo TH, Davis FG, Bateman J, Bryant S, Guzikowski AR, Tsai SL, Coyne S, Ye WW, Freeman RM, Peshkin L, Tabin CJ, Regev A, Haas BJ, Whited JL. A Tissue-Mapped Axolotl De Novo Transcriptome Enables Identification of Limb Regeneration Factors. Cell Rep 2017; 18:762-776. [PMID: 28099853 PMCID: PMC5419050 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2016.12.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 530] [Impact Index Per Article: 75.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Revised: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammals have extremely limited regenerative capabilities; however, axolotls are profoundly regenerative and can replace entire limbs. The mechanisms underlying limb regeneration remain poorly understood, partly because the enormous and incompletely sequenced genomes of axolotls have hindered the study of genes facilitating regeneration. We assembled and annotated a de novo transcriptome using RNA-sequencing profiles for a broad spectrum of tissues that is estimated to have near-complete sequence information for 88% of axolotl genes. We devised expression analyses that identified the axolotl orthologs of cirbp and kazald1 as highly expressed and enriched in blastemas. Using morpholino anti-sense oligonucleotides, we find evidence that cirbp plays a cytoprotective role during limb regeneration whereas manipulation of kazald1 expression disrupts regeneration. Our transcriptome and annotation resources greatly complement previous transcriptomic studies and will be a valuable resource for future research in regenerative biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald M Bryant
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, and Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Brigham & Women's Hospital, 65 Landsdowne St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Kimberly Johnson
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, and Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Brigham & Women's Hospital, 65 Landsdowne St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Tia DiTommaso
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, and Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Brigham & Women's Hospital, 65 Landsdowne St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Timothy Tickle
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard and Klarman Cell Observatory, 7 Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Matthew Brian Couger
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, 307 Life Sciences East, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Duygu Payzin-Dogru
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, and Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Brigham & Women's Hospital, 65 Landsdowne St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Tae J Lee
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, and Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Brigham & Women's Hospital, 65 Landsdowne St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Nicholas D Leigh
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, and Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Brigham & Women's Hospital, 65 Landsdowne St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Tzu-Hsing Kuo
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, and Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Brigham & Women's Hospital, 65 Landsdowne St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Francis G Davis
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, and Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Brigham & Women's Hospital, 65 Landsdowne St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Joel Bateman
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, and Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Brigham & Women's Hospital, 65 Landsdowne St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Sevara Bryant
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, and Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Brigham & Women's Hospital, 65 Landsdowne St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Anna R Guzikowski
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, and Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Brigham & Women's Hospital, 65 Landsdowne St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Stephanie L Tsai
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Steven Coyne
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, and Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Brigham & Women's Hospital, 65 Landsdowne St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - William W Ye
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, and Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Brigham & Women's Hospital, 65 Landsdowne St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Robert M Freeman
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, 200 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Leonid Peshkin
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, 200 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Clifford J Tabin
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Aviv Regev
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard and Klarman Cell Observatory, 7 Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Brian J Haas
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard and Klarman Cell Observatory, 7 Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA.
| | - Jessica L Whited
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, and Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Brigham & Women's Hospital, 65 Landsdowne St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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12
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Stocum DL. Mechanisms of urodele limb regeneration. REGENERATION (OXFORD, ENGLAND) 2017; 4:159-200. [PMID: 29299322 PMCID: PMC5743758 DOI: 10.1002/reg2.92] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
This review explores the historical and current state of our knowledge about urodele limb regeneration. Topics discussed are (1) blastema formation by the proteolytic histolysis of limb tissues to release resident stem cells and mononucleate cells that undergo dedifferentiation, cell cycle entry and accumulation under the apical epidermal cap. (2) The origin, phenotypic memory, and positional memory of blastema cells. (3) The role played by macrophages in the early events of regeneration. (4) The role of neural and AEC factors and interaction between blastema cells in mitosis and distalization. (5) Models of pattern formation based on the results of axial reversal experiments, experiments on the regeneration of half and double half limbs, and experiments using retinoic acid to alter positional identity of blastema cells. (6) Possible mechanisms of distalization during normal and intercalary regeneration. (7) Is pattern formation is a self-organizing property of the blastema or dictated by chemical signals from adjacent tissues? (8) What is the future for regenerating a human limb?
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Affiliation(s)
- David L. Stocum
- Department of BiologyIndiana University−Purdue University Indianapolis723 W. Michigan StIndianapolisIN 46202USA
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13
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Abstract
Humans and other mammals are limited in their natural abilities to regenerate lost body parts. By contrast, many salamanders are highly regenerative and can spontaneously replace lost limbs even as adults. Because salamander limbs are anatomically similar to human limbs, knowing how they regenerate should provide important clues for regenerative medicine. Although interest in understanding the mechanics of this process has never wavered, until recently researchers have been vexed by seemingly impenetrable logistics of working with these creatures at a molecular level. Chief among the problems has been the very large size of salamander genomes, and not a single salamander genome has been fully sequenced to date. Recently the enormous gap in sequence information has been bridged by approaches that leverage mRNA as the starting point. Together with functional experimentation, these data are rapidly enabling researchers to finally uncover the molecular mechanisms underpinning the astonishing biological process of limb regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian J Haas
- Broad Institute of Massachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT) and Harvard, Klarman Cell Observatory, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA.
| | - Jessica L Whited
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, and Brigham and Women's Hospital Department of Orthopedic Surgery, 60 Fenwood Road, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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14
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Cook AB, Seifert AW. Beryllium nitrate inhibits fibroblast migration to disrupt epimorphic regeneration. Development 2016; 143:3491-3505. [PMID: 27578793 DOI: 10.1242/dev.134882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2016] [Accepted: 08/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Epimorphic regeneration proceeds with or without formation of a blastema, as observed for the limb and skin, respectively. Inhibition of epimorphic regeneration provides a means to interrogate the cellular and molecular mechanisms that regulate it. In this study, we show that exposing amputated limbs to beryllium nitrate disrupts blastema formation and causes severe patterning defects in limb regeneration. In contrast, exposing full-thickness skin wounds to beryllium only causes a delay in skin regeneration. By transplanting full-thickness skin from ubiquitous GFP-expressing axolotls to wild-type hosts, we demonstrate that beryllium inhibits fibroblast migration during limb and skin regeneration in vivo Moreover, we show that beryllium also inhibits cell migration in vitro using axolotl and human fibroblasts. Interestingly, beryllium did not act as an immunostimulatory agent as it does in Anurans and mammals, nor did it affect keratinocyte migration, proliferation or re-epithelialization, suggesting that the effect of beryllium is cell type-specific. While we did not detect an increase in cell death during regeneration in response to beryllium, it did disrupt cell proliferation in mesenchymal cells. Taken together, our data show that normal blastema organogenesis cannot occur without timely infiltration of local fibroblasts and highlights the importance of positional information to instruct pattern formation during regeneration. In contrast, non-blastemal-based skin regeneration can occur despite early inhibition of fibroblast migration and cell proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam B Cook
- Department of Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
| | - Ashley W Seifert
- Department of Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
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15
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Lobo D, Feldman EB, Shah M, Malone TJ, Levin M. A bioinformatics expert system linking functional data to anatomical outcomes in limb regeneration. REGENERATION (OXFORD, ENGLAND) 2014; 1:37-56. [PMID: 25729585 PMCID: PMC4339036 DOI: 10.1002/reg2.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2014] [Revised: 05/12/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Amphibians and molting arthropods have the remarkable capacity to regenerate amputated limbs, as described by an extensive literature of experimental cuts, amputations, grafts, and molecular techniques. Despite a rich history of experimental efforts, no comprehensive mechanistic model exists that can account for the pattern regulation observed in these experiments. While bioinformatics algorithms have revolutionized the study of signaling pathways, no such tools have heretofore been available to assist scientists in formulating testable models of large-scale morphogenesis that match published data in the limb regeneration field. Major barriers preventing an algorithmic approach are the lack of formal descriptions for experimental regenerative information and a repository to centralize storage and mining of functional data on limb regeneration. Establishing a new bioinformatics of shape would significantly accelerate the discovery of key insights into the mechanisms that implement complex regeneration. Here, we describe a novel mathematical ontology for limb regeneration to unambiguously encode phenotype, manipulation, and experiment data. Based on this formalism, we present the first centralized formal database of published limb regeneration experiments together with a user-friendly expert system tool to facilitate its access and mining. These resources are freely available for the community and will assist both human biologists and artificial intelligence systems to discover testable, mechanistic models of limb regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Lobo
- Center for Regenerative and Developmental Biology and Department of BiologyTufts University200 Boston Avenue, Suite 4600MedfordMA02155U.S.A.
| | - Erica B. Feldman
- Center for Regenerative and Developmental Biology and Department of BiologyTufts University200 Boston Avenue, Suite 4600MedfordMA02155U.S.A.
| | - Michelle Shah
- Center for Regenerative and Developmental Biology and Department of BiologyTufts University200 Boston Avenue, Suite 4600MedfordMA02155U.S.A.
| | - Taylor J. Malone
- Center for Regenerative and Developmental Biology and Department of BiologyTufts University200 Boston Avenue, Suite 4600MedfordMA02155U.S.A.
| | - Michael Levin
- Center for Regenerative and Developmental Biology and Department of BiologyTufts University200 Boston Avenue, Suite 4600MedfordMA02155U.S.A.
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16
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Roensch K, Tazaki A, Chara O, Tanaka EM. Progressive specification rather than intercalation of segments during limb regeneration. Science 2013; 342:1375-9. [PMID: 24337297 DOI: 10.1126/science.1241796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
An amputated salamander limb regenerates the correct number of segments. Models explaining limb regeneration were largely distinct from those for limb development, despite the presence of common patterning molecules. Intercalation has been an important concept to explain salamander limb regeneration, but clear evidence supporting or refuting this model was lacking. In the intercalation model, the first blastema cells acquire fingertip identity, creating a gap in positional identity that triggers regeneration of the intervening region from the stump. We used HOXA protein analysis and transplantation assays to show that axolotl limb blastema cells acquire positional identity in a proximal-to-distal sequence. Therefore, intercalation is not the primary mechanism for segment formation during limb regeneration in this animal. Patterning in development and regeneration uses similar mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen Roensch
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG)-Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany
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17
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Visualization of retinoic acid signaling in transgenic axolotls during limb development and regeneration. Dev Biol 2012; 368:63-75. [PMID: 22627291 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2012.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2011] [Revised: 04/26/2012] [Accepted: 05/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Retinoic acid (RA) plays a necessary role in limb development and regeneration, but the precise mechanism by which it acts during these processes is unclear. The role of RA in limb regeneration was first highlighted by the remarkable effect that it has on respecifying the proximodistal axis of the regenerating limb so that serially repeated limbs are produced. To facilitate the study of RA signaling during development and then during regeneration of the same structure we have turned to the axolotl, the master of vertebrate regeneration, and generated transgenic animals that fluorescently report RA signaling in vivo. Characterization of these animals identified an anterior segment of the developing embryo where RA signaling occurs revealing conserved features of the early vertebrate embryo. During limb development RA signaling was present in the developing forelimb bud mesenchyme, but was not detected during hindlimb development. During limb regeneration, RA signaling was surprisingly almost exclusively observed in the apical epithelium suggesting a different role of RA during limb regeneration. After the addition of supplemental RA to regenerating limbs that leads to pattern duplications, the fibroblast stem cells of the blastema responded showing that they are capable of transcriptionally responding to RA. These findings are significant because it means that RA signaling may play a multifunctional role during forelimb development and regeneration and that the fibroblast stem cells that regulate proximodistal limb patterning during regeneration are targets of RA signaling.
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Abstract
Salamander limb regeneration is a classical model of tissue morphogenesis and patterning. Through recent advances in cell labeling and molecular analysis, a more precise, mechanistic understanding of this process has started to emerge. Long-standing questions include to what extent limb regeneration recapitulates the events observed in mammalian limb development and to what extent are adult- or salamander- specific aspects deployed. Historically, researchers studying limb development and limb regeneration have proposed different models of pattern formation. Here we discuss recent data on limb regeneration and limb development to argue that although patterning mechanisms are likely to be similar, cell plasticity and signaling from nerves play regeneration-specific roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugen Nacu
- DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Germany.
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19
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Stocum DL, Cameron JA. Looking proximally and distally: 100 years of limb regeneration and beyond. Dev Dyn 2011; 240:943-68. [DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.22553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/18/2010] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
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20
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Song F, Li B, Stocum DL. Amphibians as research models for regenerative medicine. Organogenesis 2010; 6:141-50. [PMID: 21197215 PMCID: PMC2946045 DOI: 10.4161/org.6.3.12039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2010] [Accepted: 04/12/2010] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability to regenerate bone across a critical size defect would be a marked clinical advance over current methods for dealing with such structural gaps. Here, we briefly review the development of limb bones and the mandible, the regeneration of urodele limbs after amputation, and present evidence that urodele and anuran amphibians represent a valuable research model for the study of segment defect regeneration in both limb bones and mandible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengyu Song
- Department of Oral Pathology, Indiana University School of Dentistry, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA
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21
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Yakushiji N, Yokoyama H, Tamura K. Repatterning in amphibian limb regeneration: A model for study of genetic and epigenetic control of organ regeneration. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2009; 20:565-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2008.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2008] [Revised: 12/09/2008] [Accepted: 12/13/2008] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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22
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Stocum DL, Zupanc GK. Stretching the limits: Stem cells in regeneration science. Dev Dyn 2008; 237:3648-71. [DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.21774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
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23
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Echeverri K, Tanaka EM. Proximodistal patterning during limb regeneration. Dev Biol 2005; 279:391-401. [PMID: 15733667 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2004.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2004] [Revised: 12/20/2004] [Accepted: 12/21/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Regeneration is an ability that has been observed extensively throughout metazoan phylogeny. Amongst vertebrates, the urodele amphibians stand out for their exceptional capacity to regenerate body parts such as the limb. During this process, only the missing portion of the limb is precisely replaced--amputation in the upper arm results in regeneration of the entire limb, while amputation at the wrist produces a hand. Limb regeneration occurs through the formation of a local proliferative zone called the blastema. Here, we examine how proximodistal identity is established in the blastema. Using cell marking and transplantation experiments, we show that distal identities have already been established in the earliest stages of blastemas examined. Transplantation of cells into new environments is not sufficient to respecify cell identity. However, overexpression of the CD59, a cell surface molecule previously implicated in proximodistal identity during limb regeneration, causes distal blastema cells to translocate to a more proximal location and causes defects in the patterning of the distal elements of the regenerate. We suggest a model for the limb regeneration blastema where by 4 days post-amputation the blastema is already divided into distinct growth zones; the cells of each zone are already specified to give rise to upper arm, lower arm, and hand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Echeverri
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstra, 108 01307 Dresden, Germany.
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24
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Yashiro K, Zhao X, Uehara M, Yamashita K, Nishijima M, Nishino J, Saijoh Y, Sakai Y, Hamada H. Regulation of retinoic acid distribution is required for proximodistal patterning and outgrowth of the developing mouse limb. Dev Cell 2004; 6:411-22. [PMID: 15030763 DOI: 10.1016/s1534-5807(04)00062-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 245] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2003] [Revised: 01/26/2004] [Accepted: 01/26/2004] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Exogenous retinoic acid (RA) induces marked effects on limb patterning, but the precise role of endogenous RA in this process has remained unknown. We have studied the role of RA in mouse limb development by focusing on CYP26B1, a cytochrome P450 enzyme that inactivates RA. Cyp26b1 was shown to be expressed in the distal region of the developing limb bud, and mice that lack CYP26B1 exhibited severe limb malformation (meromelia). The lack of CYP26B1 resulted in spreading of the RA signal toward the distal end of the developing limb and induced proximodistal patterning defects characterized by expansion of proximal identity and restriction of distal identity. CYP26B1 deficiency also induced pronounced apoptosis in the developing limb and delayed chondrocyte maturation. Wild-type embryos exposed to excess RA phenocopied the limb defects of Cyp26b1(-/-) mice. These observations suggest that RA acts as a morphogen to determine proximodistal identity, and that CYP26B1 prevents apoptosis and promotes chondrocyte maturation, in the developing limb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenta Yashiro
- Developmental Genetics Group, Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
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25
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Abstract
Larval and adult urodeles and anuran tadpoles readily regenerate their limbs via a process of histolysis and dedifferentiation of mature cells local to the amputation surface that accumulate under the wound epithelium as a blastema of stem cells. These stem cells require growth and trophic factors from the apical epidermal cap (AEC) and the nerves that re-innervate the blastema for their survival and proliferation. Members of the fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family synthesized by both AEC and nerves, and glial growth factor, substance P, and transferrin of nerves are suspected survival and proliferation factors. Stem cells derived from fibroblasts and muscle cells can transdifferentiate into other cell types during regeneration. The regeneration blastema is a self-organizing system based on positional information inherited from parent limb cells. Retinoids, which act through nuclear receptors, have been used in conjunction with assays for cell adhesivity to show that positional identity of blastema cells is encoded in the cell surface. These molecules are involved in the cell-cell signaling network that re-establishes the original structural pattern of the limb. Other systems of interest that regenerate by histolysis and dedifferentiation of pigmented epithelial cells are the neural retina and lens. Members of the FGF family are also important to the regeneration of these structures. The mechanism of amphibian regeneration by dedifferentiation is of importance to the development of a regenerative medicine, since understanding this mechanism may offer insights into how we might chemically induce the regeneration of mammalian tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- D L Stocum
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Center for Regenerative Biology and Medicine, School of Science, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, 402 N. Blackford St., Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
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26
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Abstract
Urodele amphibians have been widely used for studies of limb regeneration. In this article, we review studies on blastema cell proliferation and propose a model of blastemal self-organization and patterning. The model is based on local cell interactions that intercalate positional identities within circumferential and proximodistal boundaries that outline the regenerate. The positional identities created by the intercalation process appear to be reflected in the molecular composition of the cell surface. Transcription factors and signaling molecules involved in patterning are discussed within the context of the boundary/intercalation model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly L D Nye
- University of Illinois Department of Cell and Structural Biology and College of Medicine, B107 Chemical and Life Sciences Laboratory, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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27
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Yajima H, Yoneitamura S, Watanabe N, Tamura K, Ide H. Role of N-cadherin in the sorting-out of mesenchymal cells and in the positional identity along the proximodistal axis of the chick limb bud. Dev Dyn 1999; 216:274-84. [PMID: 10590479 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0177(199911)216:3<274::aid-dvdy6>3.0.co;2-s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Mesenchymal cells from different stages of chick limb buds sort out in monolayer culture, suggesting the presence of different cell affinities dependent on their positions along the proximodistal axis. However, it is still not clear which molecules are responsible for the sorting-out. Here, we propose that N-cadherin, a cell-adhesion molecule, is involved in the sorting-out and is likely to be a component of the mechanism of proximodistal patterning in the developing limb. N-cadherin proteins accumulate in the distal region of the chick limb bud as limb development proceeds. In monolayer culture of distal mesenchymal cells, the stage-dependent levels of N-cadherin proteins are maintained during cell sorting. The results of this study have also demonstrated that an anti-N-cadherin monoclonal antibody, NCD-2, clearly inhibits the cell sorting. Moreover, removal of the apical ectodermal ridge or retinoic-acid treatment of distal cells, which results in a change in the pattern of sorting-out, inhibits the accumulation of N-cadherin proteins, suggesting that the distribution of these proteins is related to the positional identity that gives rise to the different shape and number of cartilage elements along the proximodistal axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Yajima
- Biological Institute, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
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28
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Scadding SR. Effects of concanavalin A on limb regeneration in the axolotl Ambystoma mexicanum. CAN J ZOOL 1997. [DOI: 10.1139/z97-801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects, if any, of concanavalin A (Con A) on the process of pattern formation during limb regeneration in the axolotl Ambystoma mexicanum. Con A was administered to regenerating axolotl forelimbs in a Hydron disk that released the Con A slowly over a period of time. The results indicate that Con A is teratogenic to the regenerating axolotl limb, causing reductions in the number, size, and quality of skeletal elements present, with increasing reductions and malformations as the dose is increased. Low doses resulted in a reduction in the number of carpals or phalanges. Higher doses resulted in more drastic malformations, including the absence of digits. The implications of this teratogenic effect of Con A on limb regeneration are discussed in the context of the possible mechanisms of pattern formation.
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29
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Pecorino LT, Entwistle A, Brockes JP. Activation of a single retinoic acid receptor isoform mediates proximodistal respecification. Curr Biol 1996; 6:563-9. [PMID: 8805274 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-9822(02)00542-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The regenerating limb of urodele amphibians is an important system for evaluating the effects of retinoic acid (RA) on pattern formation. Regeneration proceeds by local formation of the blastema, a mesenchymal growth zone which normally only gives rise to structures distal to its level of origin. RA can respecify proximodistal identity in amphibian limb regeneration, and this activity of RA on the blastema is observed in two contexts. First, exposure to RA proximalizes a distal blastema resulting in duplication of structures proximal to the level of amputation. Second, after transplantation of a distal blastema to a proximal stump, the transplanted cells normally make only a minor contribution to the intercalary regenerate, but if transplanted cells are exposed to RA they occupy positions proximal to their level of origin and contribute to the regeneration of the intermediate tissue. Multiple isoforms of RA receptors (RARs) are expressed in the newt limb and are thought to mediate the respecification of positional identity. RESULTS To identify which receptor(s) mediates proximodistal respecification, we have used the biolistics (particle bombardment) technique to transfect the blastemal mesenchyme with plasmids encoding chimeric proteins containing partial amino-acid sequences of the various newt RAR isoforms fused to a partial sequence of the thyroid hormone (3,5, 3'-triiodothyronine; T3) receptor. We then used T3 treatment to selectively activate individual RAR isoforms in vivo. By analyzing the distributions of transfected cells in regenerates derived from distal-to-proximal transplantation we find that activation of a single RAR isoform, delta 2, specifically mediates proximalization. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate that the ability of RA to respecify proximodistal identity is mediated by a specific RAR isoform, delta 2. Activation of the RA pathway in individual cells indicates that positional respecification can be cell-autonomous. RA can respecify axial identity in several contexts in vertebrate development, but this is the first case where the RAR mediating respecification has been identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- L T Pecorino
- The Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University College London, 91 Riding House Street, London W1P 8BT, UK
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30
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Géraudie J, Brulfert A, Monnot MJ, Ferretti P. Teratogenic and morphogenetic effects of retinoic acid on the regenerating pectoral fin in zebrafish. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1994. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.1402690103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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31
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Wiens DJ, Mann TK, Fedderson DE, Rathmell WK, Franck BH. Early heart development in the chick embryo: effects of isotretinoin on cell proliferation, alpha-actin synthesis, and development of contractions. Differentiation 1992; 51:105-12. [PMID: 1473624 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-0436.1992.tb00686.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Isotretinoin is a potent retinoic acid used in the treatment of skin disorders. Though very effective, it is teratogenic if administered during pregnancy, and its teratogenic effect may be related to the normal activity of retinoids as signalling molecules in the embryo. Although its exact mechanism of action is unknown, it has been suggested that it causes its characteristic pattern of defects that includes heart defects, by inhibiting the migration of neural crest cells. However, other effects on cells are known. We studied early cardiac cell proliferation using incorporation of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) and detection with a monoclonal anti-BrdU. Proliferation in heart tissue of whole embryo cultures was inhibited in medium with 10(-6) M isotretinoin to 62% of the control level in myocardium. We studied its effects in culture on precardiac explant development in the absence of the neural crests. Culture of precardiac mesodermal-endodermal explants revealed that development of heart vesicles from the mesoderm was little affected, but the development of heartbeat was inhibited depending on dose in the 10(-5) to 10(-7) M range. The effect on development of contractions was augmented in the presence of serum; it could be duplicated by all-trans-retinoic acid, and it was reversible. Synthesis of the alpha-actin isotype, analyzed by isoelectric focusing, was found to be inhibited or delayed. The results suggest multiple effects of retinoids on growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation of early cardiac tissue, and are discussed in relation to the potential role of retinoids in early embryogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Wiens
- Department of Biology, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls 50614
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McLachlan JC, Usman T. Prospects for human digit regeneration. Clin Anat 1992. [DOI: 10.1002/ca.980050205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Kwasigroch TE, Bullen M. Effects of isotretinoin (13-cis-retinoic acid) on the development of mouse limbs in vivo and in vitro. TERATOLOGY 1991; 44:605-16. [PMID: 1805431 DOI: 10.1002/tera.1420440603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Isotretinoin (13-cis-RA) is known to be teratogenic in humans and laboratory animals. The relatively low potency of 13-cis-RA in NRMI mice in comparison to the all-trans isomer has been proposed to be due to minimal transfer across the placenta (Creech-Kraft et al., '87). To further delineate the teratogenic potential of 13-cis-RA, a dose-response, temporal study was conducted in vivo and in vitro using submerged limb culture and image analysis evaluation of development. Dose-dependent embryotoxicity was produced by treatment on GD 7, while later treatments produced inconsistent effects on resorption rate and fetal weight. Treatment on either GD 7 or GD 8 produced a number of malformations in dose-dependent manner. Most common were tail and cleft palate defects, which were produced by 13-cis-RA on each of the days tested (GD 7-GD 11), with peak malformations occurring on GD 9 and GD 10 for tail and cleft palate, respectively. Most limb defects were produced after GD 10 and GD 11 exposure. The observed frequency of defects confirmed that in ICR mice 13-cis-RA is about 10-fold less potent than all-trans-RA as a limb teratogen (Kwasigroch and Kochhar, '80; Kochhar and Penner, '87). Effects observed via image analysis following maintenance of limbs in serum-free culture medium were dose dependent. Low dose treatment produced occasional polydactyly. The intermediate dose caused somewhat variable region-dependent increases in cartilaginous bone anlagen area. The high dose of 13-cis-RA produced irregular limb outlines, a reduction in bone anlagen area, and an inhibition of alcian blue staining of cartilage without affecting morphogenesis of bone anlagen. These results confirm that, when the effects of the administered doses are evaluated, 13-cis-RA is a much less potent teratogen in comparison to the all-trans isomer. More importantly, the results show that retinoids can enhance (at low and intermediate doses), depress (at high doses), or eliminate (high dose) chondrogenenic expression during limb morphogenesis in vitro. This indicates that retinoids such as 13-cis-RA can manipulate events in development in a variety of ways (i.e., produce malformations, interfere with chondrogenic expression without affecting morphogenesis, and stimulate growth) in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Although the ability of RA to act as a true morphogen has recently been questioned (Wanek et al., '91; Noji et al., '91), the results presented here support the position that RA can modulate the development of the limb (and probably other organ systems) in several vertebrate species.
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Affiliation(s)
- T E Kwasigroch
- James H. Quillen College of Medicine, Department of Anatomy, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City 37615
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Yokouchi Y, Sasaki H, Kuroiwa A. Homeobox gene expression correlated with the bifurcation process of limb cartilage development. Nature 1991; 353:443-5. [PMID: 1680221 DOI: 10.1038/353443a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The complex architecture of the limb cartilage pattern probably develops by the sequential segmentation and branching process of precartilaginous cell condensation under the control of positional signalling provided by the zone of polarizing activity (anteroposterior) and the apical ectodermal ridge (proximodistal). This signalling is monitored and interpreted in the mesenchymal cells and induces the position-specific response of subsets of genes. Homeobox genes may be responsible for the interpretation of signalling. A correlation between limb pattern and expression domains of the homeobox genes in the upstream region of Hox/Chox-4 has been proposed. We have analysed the spatial expression pattern of the Chox-1 genes during development of chick limb buds. In contrast to genes in Hox/Chox-4 expressed coordinately along the anteroposterior axis, homeobox genes in Chox-1 have unique and mutually exclusive expression domains along the proximodistal axis. We report here that the expression domains of the Chox-1 genes are closely related to the segmental structure of cartilage along the proximodistal axis, whereas the expression domains of the Chox-4 genes are related to the cartilage branching pattern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Yokouchi
- Biological Institute, Faculty of Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
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